M. Marfell-Jones’s research while affiliated with Open Polytechnic and other places

The aims of this study were to describe and compare kinanthropometric characteristics of elite young kayakers and canoeists and to compare their proportionality with Olympic paddlers. One hundred and twenty young elite sprint paddlers (66 kayakers and 58 canoeists), aged 13- and 14-years-old, were assessed using a battery of 32 anthropometric dimensions. Somatotypes, Phantom Z-scores and corrected girths were calculated. Comparison between kayakers and canoeists showed that kayakers had greater height, body weight, sitting height, arm span and upper body lengths, breadths and girths than canoeists. Higher proportional humerus breadth and arm girths were also found in kayakers. However, canoeists had higher Z-scores in femur breadth. Olympic paddlers had higher proportional dimensions in upper body girths, and biacromial breadth in both disciplines. Mean somatotypes of kayakers were best described as balanced mesomorphs, while canoeists were ecto-mesomorphs. Differences between kayak and canoe paddlers may be explained by the continual need for physical development in kayakers, in order to remain competitive, compared to the young canoeists' need to place much greater emphasis on the development of their technical ability. The data provided in this study could be used as a guideline for talent identification in sprint canoeing and kayaking.

Morphological characteristics of young elite paddlers The aims of this study were to describe kinanthropometric characteristics of elite male and female young paddlers and to compare their proportionality with Olympic paddlers. One hundred and eighty seven young elite sprint paddlers (124 males and 63 females), aged 13 and 14 years, were assessed using a battery of 31 anthropometric dimensions. Somatotypes, Phantom Z-scores and corrected girths were calculated. Comparison between the 13 and 14 year old paddlers showed that 14 year old males had greater height, body weight, sitting height, arm span and upper body lengths, breadths and girths than their 13 year old counterparts, whereas 14 year old female paddlers only differed significantly from the 13 year olds in biacromial breadth and corrected arm girth. Mean somatotypes of male paddlers were best described as balanced mesomorphs, while female paddlers were centrals. Olympic paddlers had higher proportional dimensions in upper body girths, and biacromial breadth in both genders. The data provided in this study could be used as a guideline for talent identification in sprint canoeing and kayaking.

IntroductionFor an assessment to have value, it must measure the parameter of interest and be reliable enough to detect small differences. To minimise TEM differences between repeat skinfold measures, measurement sites and measurement techniques have been defined by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK). The aim of this study, therefore, was to examine the significance of accurate skinfold measurement site location in order to confirm or relax the specific protocols that ISAK has defined.Methods Nine measurements, in a 1-cm grid pattern, centred on each of the eight ISAK-specified skinfold sites, were taken three times at each grid point by each of the two ISAK criteria (level 4) measurers using Harpenden skinfold callipers, on 12 healthy participants (11 males and 1 female; 27.1 ± 6.5 years; 177.3 ± 7.4 cm; 77.8 ± 12.7 kg).ResultsSkinfolds taken at the eight peripheral grid points were generally different (45 out of 64 = 70%) from the skinfolds taken at the central ISAK grid point. The effect was multidirectional. The subscapular was the most robust site in terms of least effect with deviation away from the central point. All other skinfold sites showed some variation with most care needed in marking the biceps and triceps sites.Discussion/conclusionMeasuring 1 cm away from a defined ISAK site produced significant differences in the majority of skinfold measurement values obtained. No site was totally free from this variation. Therefore, adherence to identifying, marking and measuring at the defined site is essential.

Aims Percent whole body fat is widely used in Public health sectors and in sports medicine. In addition, skinfolds are the most common laboratory and field anthropometric technique to determine percent body fat resulting into more than 600 prediction equations during more than half a century. The purpose of this study is to investigate the suitability of anthropometric-based equations for estimating percent adipose tissue of 54 female subjects (age: 30.9 ± 8.5 years) with a variety of different lifestyles compared with Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA). Methods Whole-body DXA scan and 15 skinfolds, 14 girths, four breadths were measured in a randomized order. Hundred equations were eligible for application to the study sample, from which only 34 provided percent adipose tissue values with good correlation (r ≥ 0.70, p < 0.05) and without significant differences (p > 0.05) compared to DXA. However, Bland and Altman plots show acceptable to very good mean differences with DXA with a range from −1.9 to +1.8 %, and a 95 % limits of agreement from −10.5 to +10.8 %. Conclusion These differences suggest that the majority of formulae are not valid for practical use on age-matched and activity individuals.

Anthropometric Profile of Male Amateur vs Professional Formula Windsurfs Competing at the 2007 European Championship This study aimed to describe the current anthropometric profile of Formula Windsurf competitors during the 2007 European Championships and establish a set of reference values useful for future investigations on player selection, talent identification, and training programme development. Fourty-five male participants (mean age 30±9.77 years; body height 182.04±6.3 cm; body mass 81.67±7.35 kg) were selected for the anthropometric profile, including 15 which the International Windsurf Association had defined as professionals. The anthropometric profiles included measurements of skinfolds, segment lengths, breadths, and girths. Somatotype measurements were also calculated into the equation. The male professional windsurfers had larger length, breadth, and girth measurements than their amateur counterparts. The three somatotype components showed that both groups were predominantly mesomorphic, but the professionals were more ectomorphic than endomorphic, whereas the amateurs were slightly more endomorphic than ectomorphic. The descriptive analysis of the anthropometric data provide relevant information concerning the morphological indicators of competitive success in this sporting discipline.

This study examined differences in physique and skeletal dimensions between 1146 elite Caucasian athletes classified into endurance, strength, speed, upper body or combined sports categories and controls, to test the hypothesis that athletes of certain types of sport would exhibit a distinct morphology commensurate with their task. Participants were measured by experienced anthropometrists using an internationally-recognised protocol to describe physique. This involved calculating the anthropometric somatotype in terms of fatness, musculoskeletal robustness and linearity. Further skeletal measures were acquired sufficient to describe an array of morphological indices: crural index (tibial height/femur length), skelic index (leg length/sitting height), androgyny index (biacromial breadth/bicristal breadth) and brachial index (forearm length/upper arm length). Significant inter-group differences in indices prevailed after adjustment for age. Endurance athletes had a high crural index and low brachial index, relative to controls. A low skelic index appears characteristic of female strength athletes while a low brachial index is typical of female endurance and strength athletes. Bayesian cluster analysis has shown the crural index in particular is a discriminant in phenotypic categorisation, in addition to the primary somatotype components of endomorphy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy. These findings are congruent with biomechanical imperatives to maximise force and/or minimise energy expenditure offering sports-specific advantage. Because the skeletal relationships do not respond to the conditioning stimulus in the same way adipose and muscle tissue do, the observed inter-group differences suggest a self-selection of athletes into sports in which they are likely to excel.

The use of generic equations for estimating percent body fat from skinfold thicknesses can be criticised when applied to specific sports. The present aims were to compare existing methods of using skinfold data and to derive an equation for predicting body fat values in professional soccer players. Forty-five professional soccer players (24.2 +/- 5.0 years; 82.0 +/- 8.5 kg; 1.82 +/- 0.07 m) participated. Skinfold thicknesses were assessed at eight sites for the application of existing prediction equations. Skinfold data were also utilised to determine a novel soccer-specific equation. All players had a reference estimate of percent fat by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The existing skinfold equations differed from the DXA-referenced values by varying degrees, the equation of Withers et al. (1987) demonstrating the lowest bias and highest relationship and agreement with DXA. Regression analysis resulted in an equation incorporating anterior thigh, abdominal, triceps and medial calf sites, accounting for 78.4% variance in DXA criterion values.

The endo- and mesomorphy components of somatotype and the BMI are assumed to relate to body composition constituents e.g. adiposity and lean body mass. Although physical activity may change body shape and composition, it is not clear what the influence of physical activity may be on the relationship of somatotype and BMI to these constituents. Purpose: To compare the effects of self-reported physical activity levels on the relationships of somatotype components and of BMI to body composition constituents. Methods: A total of 54 women and 77 men were enrolled in this study. Both women and men were divided in two activity level groups: sedentary and sportive. Anthropometric measures allowing for the calculation of somatotype according to the Heath-Carter method were taken. Body composition was also assessed by using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression analysis were used to calculate the variance explained by the components of somatotype and BMI in body composition constituents. The significance of the difference between correlation coefficients of the sedentary and the sportive groups was calculated using Fisher r to z transformations. Results: In the sedentary group BMI explained 67% and 56% of the variance in relative adiposity (p