Josep Bosch’s scientific contributions

Studies on chaîne opératoire are becoming more widespread in ceramic studies from different contexts. In this work, we have studied the female figure found in the Prehistoric Mines of Gavà (Barcelona, Spain) which constitute the oldest evidence of mining centred on variscite during the 4th millennium BC. The main objective is to determine the technological procedures applied in the manufacture of the figure, identifying the chaîne opératoire and relating this information to its symbolic meaning. The results obtained show great knowledge of the manufacturing techniques used, observable in the different decorations documented on the piece. Its complexity and patterned manufacture can be related to its symbolic meaning, which is associated to a belief of a mother goddess, similar to other figures found in other areas of Europe. This work does not only expose a new way of studying this female figure but also the application of archeometric techniques such as, direct observation of macroscopic traces (naked eye); and indirect observation through X-ray techniques (CT). Finally, chemical analyses such as XRD and SEM-EDS were used to recognize the main mineral components of the clay.

El complejo arqueológico de las Minas Prehistóricas de Gavà (Barcelona), atesora un entramado de minas construidas y explotadas entre el 5000-6000 AP (Borrell et al., 2015). Este complejo neolítico muestra una explotación minera subterrá- nea a gran escala, con galerías hasta 15 metros de profundidad. El principal objeto de explotación fue la variscita, para uso ornamental, aunque las mineralizaciones están formadas también de otros fosfatos supergénicos (e.g perhamita, crandallita, fosfosiderita), sulfatos (e.g. jarosita, alunita) y minerales de las arcillas (Díaz-Acha et al., 2020). Distribuidos en vetas verti- cales, estas mineralizaciones se formaron a partir de un proceso de alteración supergénica y están encajadas en pizarras blan- queadas por fluidos meteóricos ácidos. Fruto del muestreo y cartografía de las mineralizaciones se han caracterizado las fases minerales que forman estos filones, llegando a la conclusión de que existe una zonación en profundidad, asociada al perfil de alteración. A partir del estudio de piezas arqueológicas del Neolítico, se ha observado que no solamente se explotaba variscita sino también los demás minerales asociados (e.g. fosfosiderita, jarosita), por lo que la correcta caracterización de estas fases y su relación con el perfil de alteración en profundidad pueden ayudar a la interpretación arqueológica del complejo minero.

Husbandry practices have played an important role in the socioeconomic organization of mining societies. This paper presents the results of a zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the faunal remains recovered from Mine16 at Gavà (Barcelona). Analyses of the faunal remains were used to determine the importance of livestock in subsistence practices, the origin of the faunal assemblage and the depositional dynamics of the faunal assemblage in the fill inside Mine16. The mining activities at Gavà did not replace specialized subsistence production, but rather complemented it. The results suggest that the faunal remains found in the mines comprised production and consumption waste, providing new and complementary evidence of settlement activities associated with mining. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Las prácticas ganaderas han jugado un papel importante en la organización socioeconómica de las sociedades mineras. Este trabajo presenta los resultados del análisis arqueozoológico y tafonómico de los restos de fauna recuperados en la Mina16 en Gavà (Barcelona). Los análisis de los restos de fauna se utilizaron para determinar la importancia ganadera en las prácticas de subsistencia, el origen y la dinámica de depósito del conjunto faunístico en el relleno de la Mina16. Las actividades mineras en Gavà no reemplazaron la producción especializada de subsistencia, sino que la complementaron. Los resultados sugieren que los restos de fauna encontrados en las minas fueron residuos de producción y consumo, lo que proporciona evidencia nueva y complementaria del asentamiento asociado con las estructuras mineras.

Different types and morphologies of body ornaments (basically pendants or beads for necklaces and arm and ankle bracelets) were made on a beautiful pale green mineral obtained in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula between 5000 and 2300 cal BC. Archaeological evidence at a mining area known as the Gavà Mines, in the northeastern coast of Iberia, where a variscite outcrop was worked, allows an approach to a complex social network that was functioning from the late Early Neolithic onwards. Fieldwork research and results will be used to discuss social strategies, production and consumption from a wide perspective, encompassing the north of the Mediterranean in general and, more specifically, the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula.

The essential role of Critical Elements (CE) in 21st century economy has led to an increasing demand of these metals and promotes the exploration of non-conventional deposits such as weathering profiles. The present work is focused on the study of a weathering profile located at the Archaeological Park of the Gavà Neolithic Mines, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. In the Gavà deposit, acid and oxidising meteoric fluids generated intense weathering during the early Pleistocene, affecting series of Llandoverian black shales and associated syn-sedimentary phosphates. The circulation of these acid fluids at deeper levels of the profile generated supergene vein-like mineralisations comprised of secondary phosphates (e.g., variscite, perhamite, crandallite, phosphosiderite) and sulphates (e.g., jarosite, alunite). This supergene mineralisation is significantly enriched in certain CE (e.g., Ga, Sc, REE, In, Co and Sb) that were mobilised from host rock components and later hosted in the crystal lattice of supergene minerals. Weathering processes and corresponding supergene enrichment of CE at the Gavà deposit could be used as an example to determine exploration guidelines of CE in weathering profiles and associated supergene phosphates worldwide.

Barremian-Bedoulian flint from the Vaucluse region (western Provence, SE France), is traditionally considered one of the most significant chrono-cultural markers of the Chasséen culture during the Middle Neolithic (end of the 5th and beginning of the 4th millennium BC). Diffusion of Provençal flints became massive during the first half of the 4th millennium BC, penetrating in several neighbouring cultural spheres such as the Sepulcros de Fosa culture in north-eastern Iberia. The integrated study of the lithic assemblages from the variscite mines of Gavà (Barcelona) and its contextualization within the Sepulcros de Fosa culture in north-eastern Iberia have revealed unexpected complexity in the modes of consumption, use and status of imported Barremian-Bedoulian industries in north-eastern Iberia during the 5th to 4th millennia cal. BC transition. Local communities within this region, already controlling extraction and regional diffusion of variscite ornaments, exerted control over the fluxes of Vauclusian flint south of the Pyrenees, where it had a triple status (functional, symbolic and both). In addition, the results provide complementary data to better understand relevant aspects of the nature and organisation of Barremian-Bedoulian flint exploitation and early supply systems at the Provençal producing sites during the later phase of the Chasséen culture.

RESUMEN La minería de los recursos de hierro del área de Gavà (Cataluña) fue activa de forma intermitente durante las épocas Ibérica y Romana, la Edad Media, y hasta la era industrial, lo cual se ha probado mediante datos arqueológicos y documentos históricos. Es posible que, inclusive, la minería de hierro en el área haya existi-do durante el periodo Neolítico. Las mineralizaciones de hierro se formaron en dos estadios: (1) alteración hidrotermal regional asociada a cabalgamientos Her-cínicos que produjo ankeritizaciones de calizas en las series del Paleozoico, y (2) el reemplazamiento kárstico de los carbonatos ricos en hierro durante el Plioceno y el Cuaternario por medio de fluidos supergénicos que pro-dujeron ocres con goethita y hematites. El estilo de mine-ralización depende en gran medida de las características del protolito reemplazado, lo cual lleva a la definición de tres estilos de mineralización: (1) El reemplazamiento supergénico de calizas masivas ankeritizadas del Pri-doliense produjo únicamente reemplazamientos locales restringidos a discontinuidades estructurales o estrati-gráficas por lo tanto, las mineralizaciones son de dimen-siones reducidas en forma de vetillas o masas verticales irregulares; (2) El reemplazamiento de alternancias de calizas ankeritizadas con pizarras que contienen pirita diseminada (Lockoviense) produjo bolsadas de minera-lizaciones masivas ricas en sílice derivadas de las piza-rras alteradas; (3) El reemplazamiento de carbonatos cabalgados por pizarras ricas en sulfuros y fosfatos fa-voreció la formación de mineralizaciones estratoligadas masivas, que son las de mayor tamaño y grado en el área de estudio, pudiendo estar localmente enriquecidas en minerales del supergrupo de la alunita y en fosfatos de Ca y Fe. Afloramientos de todos estos estilos de mi-neralización fueron explotadas tanto en la antigüedad como en la Edad Media, aprovechando la alta calidad metalúrgica de las menas, pese a que los dos primeros estilos de mineralización presentan cuerpos de reducido tamaño. Por ello, en dichas épocas la explotación fue artesanal mediante trincheras o pocillos. En cambio, en la época industrial sólo se beneficiaron los recursos ma-sivos del tercer estilo de mineralización a cielo abierto y a través de galerías. ABSTRACT Mining for iron resources in the Gavà area of Catalonia occurred intermittently during the Iberian and Roman epochs, the Middle Ages, and continuing until the industrial era, as evidenced by historical and archaeological documents. Iron mining in this area could have occurred even earlier, during the Neolithic period. Iron ores were formed in two stages: (1) a regional hydrothermal alteration associated with Hercynian thrusts that produced the an-keritization of limestones within the Paleozoic series, and (2) the karstic replacement of these iron-rich carbonates during the Pliocene and Quaternary by means of supergenic fluids that produced ochres with goethite and hematite. The style of mineralization largely depends on the characteristics of the replaced proto-lith, and three styles of mineralization can be defined: (1)The supergenic replacement of ankeritized massive Pridolian limestones only produced local replacements that were restricted to structural or stratigraphic discontinuities, therefore, the mineralization has reduced dimensions and occurs as irregular veinlets or pipes; (2) The replacement of interbedded an-keritized limestones and pyrite-bearing shales (Lockovian) produced massive ores in pod-shaped bodies rich in silica impurities derived from the altered shales; and (3) The replacement of carbonates overthrust by pyrite-and phosphate-rich shales favored the formation of massive stratabound deposits, which are the largest and highest grade deposits in the study area, and may be locally enriched in minerals of the alunite supergroup and Ca-and Fe-rich phosphates. Outcrops of all of these styles of mineralization were mined by the Iberian cultures, during the roman period and in the Middle Ages, taking advantage of the relatively high metallurgical quality of the ores.There-fore, the exploitation during these epochs was artisanal by means of trenches or small pits. In contrast, during the industrial era only the massive stratabound deposits were exploited in open pits and underground galleries.

RESUMEN El Complejo Minero Neolítico de Gavà (CMNG) ubicado en Cataluña tuvo como objeto la explotación de la variscita verde utilizada para la elaboración de adornos y joyería. Los trabajos arqueológicos en más de 100 minas indican que la minera en este complejo se llevó a cabo ~5800 años antes del presente. CMNG constituye (A) uno de los primeros ejemplos conocidos de minería subterránea en Europa, (B) posiblemente el ejemplo más antiguo de minería a gran escala para uso ornamental y (C) el ejemplo más antiguo de aplicación de conceptos geológicos y mineros com-plejos. En el CMNG, la variscita se encuentra en dos estilos dis-tintos: (1) reemplazamientos de láminas delgadas de fluorapatito intercaladas con pizarras negras ricas en minerales orgánicos de edad silúrica y (2) vetillas que cortan transversalmente estos ma-teriales. El conjunto está cubierto discordantemente y localmente por caliches del Cuaternario. La variscita se formó como resul-tado de procesos supergénicos cuaternarios que oxidaron la pirita produciendo soluciones ácidas y oxidadas. Los fluidos resultantes movilizaron fosfato de apatito y lixiviaron Al y materia orgánica de las pizarras, lo cual condujo a la precipitación de los fosfatos ricos en Al como rellenos de venas y de reemplazamientos estra-toligados de apatito. La formación de variscita se restringió a la extensión del frente de oxidación, y la variscita de ambos estilos de mineralización varia de color verde amarillento, en superficie, hasta verde profundo, en profundidad. El área de estudio contiene dos campos mineros: Can Tintorer y Can Badosa-Les Ferreres. La presencia de abundantes vetas subverticales de variscita en Can Tintorer permitió un complejo desarrollo de galerías en di-ferentes niveles de explotación comunicadas por pozos y rampas, logrando 15 metros de profundidad. La explotación empleada por los mineros neolíticos fue mediante realce ascendente y des-cendente; también usaron pilares y rellenos de explotaciones más antiguas para evitar el colapso de la mina. Estas minas fueron abiertas en muchos casos por pozos que fueron cavados directa-mente en duros caliches cuaternarios, favoreciendo la estabilidad de las galerías y revelando que los mineros comprendían la conti-nuidad de la mineralización por debajo de la cubierta de caliches. El mapeo geológico revela que las explotaciones en el área de Can Badosa-Les Ferreres son simples, mostrando una entrada única a galerías simples o rampas que alcanzan menos de 5 m de pro-fundidad y excavadas directamente en afloramientos de fosfatos. En contraste, las minas en el área de Can Tintorer tienen varias entradas y consisten en pozos verticales a través de una cubierta cuaternaria, presentando una intrincada geometría con muchas galerías grandes y comunicadas a diferentes profundidades con un sistema de cámaras y pilares. Aunque el desarrollo de ambas áreas mineras fue esencialmente contemporáneo, Can Bado-saLes Ferreres puede considerarse como un área de exploración. Además, la minería se llevó a cabo en minerales adyacentes a la variscita, no directamente en las venas de variscita, lo cual indica que los mineros usaron de forma efectiva un caudal de co-nocimiento geológico que se adquirió previamente a las complejas operaciones en las minas de Can Tintorer. ABSTRACT The Gavà Neolithic Mining Complex (GNMC) located in Catalonia was devoted to the exploitation of green variscite used in the crafting of ornaments. Archaeological works in more than 100 mines indicated that this mining activity was carried out ~5800 years before present. GNMC constitutes (1) one of the earliest known examples of underground mining in Europe, (2) the earliest example of large-scale mining for ornamental use, and (C) the earliest of the application of complex geological and mining concepts. In the GNMC variscite is found as two distinct styles: (1) replacement of thin fluorapatite beds, which are interbedded with pyritic organic-rich black shales of Silurian age; and (2) vein-lets crosscutting these materials. This set of geological materials is unconformably covered locally by Quater-nary calcretes. Variscite formed as a result of Quater-nary supergene processes, which oxidized the pyrite and produced acidic, oxidized solutions. The resulting fluids mobilized phosphate from apatite and leached Al and organic matter out of Silurian shales, thus leading to the precipitation of the Al-rich phosphates as vein infillings and strata-bound replacements after apatite. The formation of variscite is restricted to the extent of the oxidizing front, and variscite of both mineralization styles changes in color from yellowish green near the surface to deep green in depth. The study area contains two mining fields: Can Tintorer and Can Badosa-Les Ferreres range. The presence of abundant subvertical variscite veins in Can Tintorer allowed a complex development of galleries at different exploitation levels communicated by shafts and ramps, achieving 15 meters depth. The exploitation by Neolithic miners was by overhand and underhand stoping; they also used pillars and refilling of older exploitations to avoid the mine collapsing. These mines were opened in many cases by shafts that were dug directly through hard Quaternary calcretes, favoring the galleries' stability and revealing that miners understood that mineralization continues underneath the calcrete cover. Geological mapping reveals that exploita-tions in the Can Badosa-Les Ferreres area are simple, showing a single entrance to simple galleries or ramps attaining less than 5 m in depth and directly excavated on phosphate outcrops. Contrastingly, the mines in the Can Tintorer area have several entrances that consist of vertical shafts through a Quaternary cover, presenting an intricate geometry with many large and communicated galleries at different depths with a system of cameras and pillars. Although the development of both mining areas was essentially contemporaneous, the Can Badosa-Les Ferreres area can only be considered an exploration area. In addition, mining was carried out on minerals adjacent to variscite, not directly on variscite veins themselves, thus indicating that the miners were effectively using a wealth of geological knowledge that was previously acquired in the complex operations in the Can Tintorer mines.