John Paul Wright's research while affiliated with University of Cincinnati and other places
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Publications (116)
Using a variety of research designs and measures of lead absorption, numerous studies link childhood lead exposure to a range of cognitive and behavioral deficits, including low IQ, impulsivity, juvenile delinquency, and criminal behavior in adolescence and early adulthood. In this study, we tested the association between multiple measures of blood...
Disparities between males and females in criminal behavior have been widely documented. Despite the extensive amount of research examining sex differences in criminal and analogous behaviors, there is no consensus on whether self-reported misbehavior accounts for the large sex differences found in all phases of the criminal justice system. The curr...
Saudi Arabia has two types of police forces: general police and religious police, also known as the Mutaween. While the general police are tasked with investigating criminal matters and providing national security, the Mutaween specialize in enforcing the strict religious customs of Sharia law. This study explores the factors that predict both Muta...
Few other paradigms in criminology have been subject to as much criticism and moral proselytizing as has the biosocial paradigm. Even today, after major scientific advances relating genes, the neuroendocrine system, and the brain to criminal and imprudent behavior, the field is still found to be largely intolerant of the paradigm. This chapter argu...
Studies have consistently found a significant gap between Black and White students in various forms of school discipline. Few studies, however, have examined disciplinary differences between other racial and ethnic groups. Focusing on out-of-school suspensions, a punishment closely linked to the “school-to-prison pipeline,” we investigate the dispa...
Political ideology represents an imperfect yet important indicator of a host of personality traits and cognitive preferences. These preferences, in turn, seemingly propel liberals and conservatives towards divergent life-course experiences. Criminal behavior represents one particular domain of conduct where differences rooted in political ideology...
The Dark Triad is represented by three interrelated personality characteristics thought to share a “dark core”—that is, to be associated with a range of negative outcomes. We investigate this link alongside another potent predictor of crime, low self-control. Our analyses found the Dark Triad was strongly predictive of delinquency, especially viole...
Conservative Criminology serves as an important counterpoint to virtually every other academic text on crime. Hundreds of books have been written about crime and criminal justice policy from a variety of perspectives, including Marxist, liberal, progressive, feminist, radical, and post-modernist. To date, however, no book has been written outlining...
Low self-control has emerged as a ubiquitous predictor of a range of behaviors and life outcomes, including criminal and analogous behaviors. Evidence linking self-control to criminal conduct, moreover, has also emerged from several cross-cultural studies. While important, cross-cultural studies remain limited in number and in scope. Extending empi...
Purpose Self-regulation has gained wide-spread attention across a number of social science disciplines in recent years. It is clear that a lack of self-regulation is related to a host of behavioral, social, and criminogenic outcomes. Questions remain, however, regarding between and within sex differences in the change and stability of self-regulati...
KEYWORDS: biosocial, assumptions, twinsIn their initial article, Burt and Simons (2014) laid out a range of specific criticismsof twin-based research. They argued that violations of the statistical assumptions thatunderpin this line of work result in upwardly biased estimates of heritability and down-wardlybiasedestimatesofenvironmentaleffects.Accor...
Biosocial criminology has been subjected to criticism from its beginning as ‘biological determinism’ and ‘positivist.’ Having lost that argument and being confronted with the ever-growing biosocial literature, criticism now tends to be more normative, ideological, and philosophical and revolves around such issues as the reality of crime, reductioni...
While the link between low self-control and several behavioral and social problems is widely supported, debate remains regarding the stability of and the genetic and environmental sources of variation in self-control. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class 1998–1999 restricted data set, a sample of 360 twins was...
In a recent article published in Criminology, Burt and Simons (2014) claimed that the statistical violations of the classical twin design render heritability studies useless. Claiming quantitative genetics is “fatally flawed” and describing the results generated from these models as “preposterous,” Burt and Simons took the unprecedented step to cal...
Purpose
A large body of empirical research finds a significant racial gap in the use of exclusionary school discipline with black students punished at rates disproportionate to whites. Furthermore, no variable or set of variables have yet to account for this discrepancy, inviting speculation that this association is caused by racial bias or racial...
Purpose
Several studies have observed a relationship between academic achievement and externalizing behaviors, both of which are predictors of delinquency and criminal behavior in adulthood. There is, however, no consensus on an explanation for their co-occurrence. One perspective is that both emerge as a result of a common underlying factor. This...
One of the most consistent findings in the criminological literature is that African American males are arrested, convicted, and incarcerated at rates that far exceed those of any other racial or ethnic group. This racial disparity is frequently interpreted as evidence that the criminal justice system is racist and biased against African American m...
The current study used a variable- and person-centered approach to examine whether a DRD4 polymorphism explained within-individual differences in frequency of marijuana use from adolescence into emerging adulthood. Data were analyzed from 1897 respondents from the genetic subsample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health...
A line of research has revealed that a polymorphism in the promoter region of the MAOA gene is related to antisocial phenotypes. Most of these studies examine the effects of low MAOA activity alleles (2-repeat and 3-repeat alleles) against the effects of high MAOA activity alleles (3.5-repeat, 4-repeat, and some-times 5-repeat alleles), with resear...
Behavioral genetics research has revealed that approximately 25% of the variance in measures of the family environment, including parenting, is attributable to genetic factors. However, precisely which candidate genes are associated with the family environment is largely unknown. The current study addresses this gap in the literature by analyzing d...
In this article we describe how the ascendency of biosocial criminology challenges the “sacred values” of the discipline, values that have in the past elevated the professional ideology of criminologists over science. We argue that biosocial criminology can lead to a criminology this is rooted more in science and empirical observation than in ideol...
Criminologists have long debated whether the risk factors for criminal behavior differ for males and females. Previous studies have predominantly focused on whether environmental risk factors for criminal behavior vary by gender, with little to no investigation of the impact of genetic sex differences. That is, whether the same genetic risk factors...
Purpose: The current study examines the stability of the risk-seeking component of self-control using a second-order latent class growth model. Methods: Longitudinal data from 962 respondents from the NLSY79-Child and Young Adult sample are used to examine the stability of the risk-seeking component of self-control from ages 14 to 23. Results: Data...
Maternal negativity has been consistently linked to a wide range of behavior problems in youth. Many of these problems are closely linked to low self-control. Even so, it is clear that not all youth exposed to maternal negativity show high levels of low self-control. Using direct measures of dopamine genes, we explore the extent to which dopamine g...
Research Summary Precursors to serious and chronic delinquency often emerge in childhood, stimulating calls for early interventions. Most intervention efforts rely solely on social service programs—often to the exclusion of the juvenile justice system. The juvenile justice system has been reluctant to become involved in the lives of relatively youn...
Studies have shown that there is a significant association between violent victimization and criminal behavior. One potential explanation for this association is that genetically mediated processes contribute to both violent victimization and criminal behavior. The current study uses data from the twin sample of the National Longitudinal Study of A...
A significant amount of research has examined the interaction between a functional polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene (5HTTLPR) and stressful life events in the prediction of depression and depressive symptomatology. The results of these studies have produced conflicting evidence, with some studies substantiating a significant interacti...
Childhood neglect has been cited as a risk factor for later substance abuse and criminal behavior. However, a large body of literature shows that a substantial percentage of neglected and abused individuals do not go on to abuse substances or engage in criminal behavior. The current study investigates whether a genetic variant (serotonin transporte...
Objective. There is growing recognition that antisocial behaviors are produced by a combination of environmental and genetic factors. Research has revealed that environmental and genetic factors work interactively and often moderate the effects of the other. Method. We test for gene–environment interactions in the current study by examining whether...
Although educational attainment has been found to be moderately heritable, research has yet to explore candidate genes for it. Drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, in the current study, we examined the association between polymorphisms in three dopaminergic genes (DAT1, DRD2, and DRD4), a dopamine index, and ed...
Adolescent penetration into the labor market is a relatively new, and much understudied, phenomena. To date, limited empirical evidence suggests that the extensive employment of adolescents increases their offending. We bring together insights garnered from life-course criminology, which emphasizes the timing of transitional role changes; and econo...
Research has shown that males, on average, exhibit lower levels of self-control compared to females. While previous research points to socialization processes as a way to explain the gender gap, the current study investigates whether there are genetic differences in self-control that are operating across the sexes in adolescence and adulthood. Firs...
Criminology is experiencing a paradigm shift in theory and research that articulates a more interdisciplinary, biosocial mode of inquiry. Unfortunately, however, graduate‐level criminal justice education rarely encompasses biosocial training. The current review is the first in a series of works that seeks to fill this biosocial training void by pro...
Low self-control has emerged as a consistent and strong predictor of antisocial and delinquent behaviors. Using the twin subsample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), genetic analyses were conducted to examine the genetic and environmental contributions to low self-control and offending as well as to their relation...
Research has consistently revealed that average IQ scores vary significantly across macro-level units, such as states and nations. The reason for this variation in IQ, however, has remained at the center of much controversy. One of the more provocative explanations is that IQ across macro-level units is the result of genetic differences, but empiri...
Research has shown that offenders, on average, are more likely to be violently victimized than nonoffenders. However, a substantial percentage of offenders are not violently victimized. The current study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) to investigate whether variants of a polymorphism in the dopamine...
An impressive body of research has revealed that individual-level IQ scores are negatively associated with criminal and delinquent involvement. Recently, this line of research has been extended to show that state-level IQ scores are associated with state-level crime rates. The current study uses this literature as a springboard to examine the poten...
The threshold hypothesis asserts that the prevalence of offending is lower among females because females have a higher threshold for risk than males. As a result, females who do offend should exhibit greater concentrations of genetic and environmental risk than male offenders. In light of these statements, the current study examines the role of gen...
Although academic achievement is a heritable construct, to date research has yet to explore its molecular genetic underpinnings. Drawing on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, the current longitudinal study investigated the associations between polymorphisms in three dopaminergic genes (DAT1, DRD2, and DRD4) and academic...
The best predictor of future misbehavior is a history of aberrant and wayward conduct. Even so, few theories attempt to account for time-stable maladaptive pathways. To this end, we advance a theory of stability, what we term Coherence Theory. Coherence Theory conceptualizes stability as an emergent property that occurs when antisocial dispositions...
Behavioral genetic research has consistently revealed that genetic factors explain at least one half of the variance in measures of cognitive skills. However, the specific DNA markers involved in the etiology of cognitive abilities have remained elusive. The current study examined the association between the TaqI polymorphism in the dopamine D2 rec...
Gender’s role in self-control measures has been largely neglected. Although studies show that males have lower self-control than females, rarely have researchers questioned whether items used to measure self-control should be used for both groups. This study uses a Rasch rating scale analysis to assess item functioning of Grasmick et al.’s 24-item...
Whether criminals are specialized or versatile in their offending is a long-standing research area that has been recently
revitalized by a paradigm that recognizes that both specialization and versatility characterize offending careers. Based on
data from an enriched sample of 500 adult habitual criminals, the current study introduces a measure of...
Fire-setting is a serious and costly form of antisocial behavior. Our objective in this study was to examine the prevalence and correlates of intentional fire-setting behavior in the United States. Data were derived from a nationally representative sample of US residents 18 years and older. Structured psychiatric interviews (N = 43,093) were comple...
To examine the extent to which genetic factors and shared and non-shared environmental factors are implicated in the development of gambling behaviors and to examine whether there are gender differences in the genetic and environmental contributors to gambling behaviors.
A genetically informative analysis was performed by using DeFries-Fulker (DF)...
Recognition of the interplay between nature and nurture is decades old in fields such as psychiatry, but other fields in the social sciences continue to be hampered by the idea that social and biological variables compete for explanatory relevance. In a recent study of the adolescent brain and risk taking, Males critiqued biologically oriented appr...
The current study examined whether a dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) TaqIA polymorphism and a serotonin transporter polymorphism (5HTTLPR) moderate the effects of stressful life events on depression, and whether these interaction effects vary by type of stressor. In addition, individuals' responses to stressful life circumstances might vary by genoty...
The study of serious, violent, and chronic offenders is a primary research area in criminology; however, its genetic underpinnings are relatively unknown. Based on genetically sensitive data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), this study empirically explored the genetic antecedents of chronic and dangerous crimin...
A range of Gene × Environment interactions is associated with antisocial phenotypes, and the evidence is clear that the etiology of antisocial behavior is strongly heritable and that environmental liabilities are important. However, the precise ways that genetic and environmental pathogens interact to predict antisocial behavior are underspecified....
Criminology has historically maligned biological perspectives despite the scientific rigor of the biological sciences. In recent years, however, a growing number of criminologists are incorporating biological, neurological, genetic, and neuropsychological constructs along with environmental measures into their research. This review explores the rel...
This study uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine whether a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene (SHTTLPR) moderates the effects of marijuana use on property offending. The results reveal that 5HTTLPR interacts with marijuana use to predict significantly higher levels of property offending for Afric...
Using data from the Cincinnati Lead Study, this study examines the effects of postnatal blood lead concentrations in early childhood (78 months) on adult psychopathy and six subscales of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory. Results reveal that higher blood lead concentrations in early childhood are associated with higher levels of psychopathic s...
The current study examines whether the dopamine transporter (DAT1) VNTR polymorphism and paternal alcoholism are related to serious alcohol problems. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), we found that the DAT1 polymorphism interacted with paternal alcoholism to predict serious alcohol problems among mal...
Recent research has shown that a polymorphism in the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) moderates the association between stressful life events and depression. The present study builds off this literature and examines whether DRD2 moderates the effect of violent victimization on depression. Furthermore, the current analyses investigate whether the ef...
Due to the intriguing nature of the psychopathy construct, it is not surprising that psychopathic characters would appear
in popular culture. At times, media portrayals of psychopathic personality are consistent with scholarly research, others
times they are not. In the case of Hannibal Lecter, the psychopathic killer was framed as an individual wi...
This chapter presents a detailed discussion of the dynamics between genetic and environmental influences on behavior. It discusses how serious, persistent offenders (SPOs) differ from the general population and why their numbers are few. It proposes that genetic variability can account for some of the likelihood that an individual will develop pers...
Behavioral genetic research has revealed that biogenic factors play a role in the development of antisocial behaviors. Much of this research has also explicated the way in which the environment and genes may combine to create different phenotypes. The authors draw heavily from this literature and use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Ado...
Little is known about the institutional behaviour of incarcerated sex offenders.
To study the relationships between juvenile sex offending, thought psychopathology and institutional misconduct.
We applied negative binomial regression and Area Under Curve Receiver Operating Characteristic (AUC-ROC) analyses to self-report and records data from insti...
This study explored early childhood manifestations of self-control in a nationally representative cohort of kindergarten children. Finite mixture modeling was used to identify five latent classes of children based on parent and teacher reports of self control across three waves of data. These were a low impairment, teacher report (n = 5,047, 29.3%)...
We examined the effects of anabolic-androgenic steroid use on serious violent behavior. Multivariate models based on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (N = 6823) were used to examine the association between lifetime and past-year self-reported anabolic-androgenic steroid use and involvement in violent acts. Compared wit...
Converging lines of research suggest that self-control and language may be inextricably linked. No empirical research has ever examined this proposition, however. We address this gap in the literature by analyzing a sample of twin pairs from a nationally representative data set of children. The results revealed three broad findings. First, diminish...
Gottfredson and Hirschi's theory contained two propositions that have been the source of an emerging line of empirical scrutiny. First, according to the general theory of crime, levels of self-control are largely determined by parental management techniques and not by biogenic factors. Second, Gottfredson and Hirschi argued that low self-control sh...
Gottfredson and Hirschi's A General Theory of Crime, Moffitt's developmental taxonomy theory, and Caspi et al.'s Gene x Environment study are three of the most influential pieces of contemporary criminological scholarship. Even so, there has been little attempt to integrate and empirically assess these three perspectives simultaneously. This articl...
This study examines the extent to which criminal justice and criminology Ph.D. students are exposed to contemporary biological and genetic findings associated with aggression and violence. Drawing on multiple sources of information, we find little evidence showing that Ph.D. students are exposed to any biological research on crime and offending. We...
Emerging evidence suggests that variants of specific genes may influence some youths to seek out or associate with antisocial peers. Using genotypic data (N= 1,816) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (J. R. Udry, 1998, 2003), the authors tested this possibility. They found that the 10R allele of the dopamine transporter (DAT1...
Desistance from criminal offending has become the source of a considerable amount of research attention. Much of this literature has examined how environmental factors, such as marriage, employment, and delinquent peers contribute to the desistance process. A relatively unexplored possibility, however, is that desistance from criminal behavior is p...
Using a difference scores approach, this study examines the effects of sibling differences in experiences both within and outside the home on differences in externalizing problem behavior. The results suggest that differences in parental monitoring, sibling interaction, and delinquent peer association are significantly related to sibling difference...
Based on data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), the current study was the first to use measures of genetic polymorphisms (DRD2 and DRD4) to empirically examine the onset of crime. Net of the effects of race, age, gender, and low self-control, genetic polymorphisms explained variation in police contacts and arre...
Childhood lead exposure is a purported risk factor for antisocial behavior, but prior studies either relied on indirect measures of exposure or did not follow participants into adulthood to examine the relationship between lead exposure and criminal activity in young adults. The objective of this study was to determine if prenatal and childhood blo...
Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory has reaped a substantial amount of empirical support. Recently, attention has focused on the factors associated with the development of self-control. With few and isolated exceptions, most research has examined the ways in which parents contribute to the development of self-control in children. Gottfredson a...
Empirical research has revealed a positive relationship between number of sex partners and involvement in antisocial behaviors. Most attempts to explain this association have taken an evolutionary perspective and argued that the same traits (e.g., impulsiveness, shortsightedness, and aggressiveness) that are related to a large number of sex partner...
A large body of research has revealed that aggressive personality traits and violent criminal behaviors are influenced by genetic factors. Surprisingly, however, no research has been devoted to investigating the potential genetic origins to adolescent victimization. In the current study, the authors address this gap in the literature by using data...
Research on self-control and related constructs is central to individual-level explanations of antisocial behavior. However, less research attention has been paid to the psychopathological underpinnings of self-control. The current study explores relationships between self-control and psychiatric symptoms, head injury, trauma history, substance use...
Most dominant theories of crime and criminality underscore the saliency of the family in the etiology of offending behaviors. Recently, a small pool of research has suggested that elements of the family, especially parents, do not have a lasting impact on children. This line of inquiry argues that once the effects that the child has on the family a...
According to Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990), levels of self-control are determined by parental management techniques, not by biological and genetic influences. Recent behavioral genetic and neuroscientific research challenges this view and reveals that biogenic factors are largely responsible for the development of self-control. The current article...
Antisocial behaviors are complex polygenic phenotypes that are due to a multifactorial arrangement of genetic polymorphisms. Little empirical research, however, has been undertaken that examines gene x gene interactions in the etiology of conduct disorder and antisocial behavior. This study examined whether adolescent conduct disorder and adult ant...
Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime has earned widespread empirical attention testing the proposition that low self-control is the causal antecedent of crime and analogous behaviors. Research consistently finds that low self-control is a robust predictor of antisocial behavior. As a result, studies have started to examine other propos...
Recently, the concept of “collective efficacy” has been advanced to understand how communities exert control and provide support to reduce crime. In a similar way, we use the concept of “parental efficacy” to highlight the crime reducing effects associated with parents who support and control their youth. Using data from the National Longitudinal S...
Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime (1990) has generated an abundance of research testing the proposition that low self-control is the main cause of crime and analogous behaviors. Less empirical work, however, has examined the factors that give rise to low self-control. Gottfredson and Hirschi suggest that parents are the sole contrib...
Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory has generated an abundance of research examining the effects of low self-control on crime and analogous behaviors. Less research, however, has focused on the factors that contribute to the development of low self-control. Gottfredson and Hirschi maintain that ineffective parents are the sole cause for the em...
In this article, we examine the influence of pubertal development on misbehavior, as well as examine a series of Gene × Environment Interactions. Specifically, we examine whether the onset of puberty interacts with preexisting temperamental differences and whether puberty influences peer groups selection. The data for this study come from the publi...
Prior research demonstrates that military service disconnects men from past social and personal disadvantages and thus potentially alters normal life-course patterns of development. Much of this research, however, has been conducted only with World War II veterans. Relatively fewstudies have examined the influence of military service in Vietnam and...
Based on extensive field research, Elijah Anderson argues that the behavior of many youths is influenced by a street culture or “code” that prescribes violent reactions to interpersonal attacks and shows of disrespect. Although Anderson’s account has been well received by the criminological community, questions remain about the validity and general...
One of Sampson and Laub's central findings from their analysis of the Gluecks' data was that reductions in adult criminal behavior were associated with stable employment. In support of their theory of informal social control, they maintained that employment builds social capital that, in turn, bonds young adults to social institutions. Using data f...
Starting in the 1970s, the traditional rehabilitative philosophy of the juvenile court has come under attack, and there has been a sustained effort to subject delinquent youths to more punitive penalties. Despite such “get tough” policies, a competing body of research has developed suggesting that citizens continue to support “saving” wayward child...
Although Agnew's (1992) general strain theory (GST) has secured a fair degree of support since its introduction, researchers have had trouble explaining why some individuals are more likely than others to react to strain with delinquency. This study uses data from the National Survey of Children to address this issue. Drawing on Agnew (1997) and th...
Modern criminological theory makes contradictory predictions about the possible effects of money on misbehavior. Strain theory suggests that the possession of monetary resources facilitates goal achievement and therefore reduces the likelihood of offending. In contrast, an anomie perspective would view possession of money as a prelude to greater dr...
Citations
... In turn, measures of self-control significantly correlate with measures of delinquency (Beaver et al. 2009b;Boisvert et al. 2012). Moreover, affiliation with drug-using peers and levels of self-control are strongly affected by genetic and non-shared environmental factors (56% and 52% of variance in selfcontrol; 40% and 37% of variance in the affiliation with drug-using peers) (Beaver et al. 2009a). Therefore, genetic risk, delinquent peer affiliation, and low self-control exhibit positive and statistically significant effects on the development of delinquency (Beaver et al. 2009b). ...
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... In the first study of its kind, Beaver and Wright (2011) found a significant correlation between genetic markers and verbal IQ at the level of US schools. So, that study has no implication for any cross-national differences. ...
... We include a measure of low self-control given the strong connection with criminal offending (Pratt & Cullen, 2000) and health over the life-course (Miller et al., 2011;Moffitt et al., 2011). Consistent with prior research, low self-control is measured using a scale based on five items (Beaver, DeLisi, Vaughn, & Wright, 2010;Perrone, Sullivan, Pratt, & Margaryan, 2004;Vaughn et al., 2008). At Wave I, respondents were asked whether they had trouble: (1) getting along with their teachers, (2) paying attention, (3) keeping their mind focused, (4) finishing their homework. ...
... While some criminologists remain unconvinced of biological and psychological determinants as they coincide with crime, positivist efforts are resurfacing with greater technological detail and attention to social and cultural influences (Rocque, Welsh and Raine 2012;Beauchaine et al. 2008;Walsh and Beaver 2009). The philosophy of biology has been deemed a 'growth industry' (Bradie 1987), a 'biological revolution' (Wright and Cullen 2012) and a 'biological age' (Rose 2013), which includes further movements such as biogovernance (Heitmeyer 2017), biotechnology (Owen 2009;Pellizoni 2016), biosocial (Vaske 2017;Walsh and Wright 2015), sociobiology (Wilson 2000;Hosle 2012), biohumanities (Kang 2016) and epidemiological criminology (Lanier, Zaitzow and Farrell 2015;Akers, Potter and Hill 2012) as some of the ways emerging scientific methods coalesce with criminology today. In forensics particularly, this version of contemporary criminological positivism seeks to produce a more provisional view of biology (Lynch et al. 2008;Cole 2001), in which the boundaries between biology, psychology and criminology are increasingly indistinct (Fuller 2007). ...
Reference: Covert Positivism in Forensic Domains
... This implies that students' success and academic achievement are dependent on their ability to self-regulate, monitor their behaviour and control their actions [4]. For the most part research demonstrates that levels of self-control are similar among female and male university students [51]; however some research has also demonstrated that self-control is particularly male dominated [52]. While there are some discrepancies in the gender differences in self-control, research has demonstrated that university students are faced with several difficulties which test their self-control. ...
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... 9 Variations in individual levels of self-control can be a result of multiple factors, such as certain genetic deficits, dysfunctional brain development, ineffective childrearing practice, low parenting efficacy, and association with delinquent peers. 3,[8][9][10][11] Therefore, the significance of self-control in explaining and predicting adolescents' delinquent behaviors is substantial. 12 ...
... A study by Virtanen and Nevgi (2010), found that female participants had higher levels of self-regulation than male participants. The findings of this study were supported by Hosseini-Kamkar and Morton (2014) and Coyne, Vaske, Boisvert and Wright (2015), who found similar results. The second limitation was that, the sample was populated only by students who were enrolled in one of the two classes, Bio 116 or Bio120, in the Fall 2017 semester. ...
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... Responses to the four items were summed together to create the Perceived Stress Scale, with higher values representing more perceived stress (a ¼ .73). Previous research has established the validity and reliability of this measure in predicting health status [61,62]. ...
... Epidemiological studies, both in Europe [9][10][11] and in the USA [12] have demonstrated that the misuse of anabolic steroids constitutes an increased risk for violence and that there is an association between their use and criminality. There is an increased risk of developing an antisocial lifestyle [13] and the frequency of crimes of violence and weapons offences is increased once anabolic steroids are consumed for a long period [14]. ...
... For all SNPs, the wild, hetero, and mutant genotypes were coded as 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Nine genes selected based on their relations with depression include: SLC6A4 [50], FKBP5 [51], ADCYAP1R1 [52], BDNF [53], COMT [54], HTR3A [55], DRD2 [56], NR3C1 [57], and OXTR [58]. Table 2 exhibits the names and frequencies of all the genes considered in the study. ...
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