John M. Gardiner’s research while affiliated with City, University of London and other places

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Publications (114)


Involuntary level-of-processing effects in perceptual and conceptual priming
  • Chapter

January 2001

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18 Reads

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9 Citations

John M. Gardiner

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Barbara M. Brooks

Memory illusions: False recall and recognition in adults with Asperger's syndrome

December 2000

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848 Reads

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96 Citations

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

As persons on the autistic spectrum are known not to use semantic features of word lists to aid recall, they might show diminished susceptibility to illusory memories that typically occur with lists of associated items. Alternatively, since such individuals also have poor source monitoring, they might show greater susceptibility. The authors found that adults with Asperger's syndrome (n = 10) recalled similar proportions of a nonpresented strong associate of the study list items, compared with controls (n = 15). In Experiment 2, rates of true and false recognition of study list associates did not differ significantly between Asperger (n = 10) and control (n = 10) participants. Moreover, the Asperger participants made fewer remember and more know judgments than controls for veridical but not for false recognitions. Thus, deficits found in some aspects of memory in people with Asperger's syndrome do not affect their susceptibility to memory illusions.


Memory Illusions: False Recall and Recognition in Adults With Asperger's Syndrome
  • Article
  • Publisher preview available

November 2000

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7 Reads

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52 Citations

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

As persons on the autistic spectrum are known not to use semantic features of word lists to aid recall, they might show diminished susceptibility to illusory memories that typically occur with lists of associated items. Alternatively, since such individuals also have poor source monitoring, they might show greater susceptibility. The authors found that adults with Asperger's syndrome (n = 10) recalled similar proportions of a nonpresented strong associate of the study list items, compared with controls (n = 15). In Experiment 2, rates of true and false recognition of study list associates did not differ significantly between Asperger (n = 10) and control (n = 10) participants. Moreover, the Asperger participants made fewer remember and more know judgments than controls for veridical but not for false recognitions. Thus, deficits found in some aspects of memory in people with Asperger's syndrome do not affect their susceptibility to memory illusions.

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Episodic Memory and Remembering in Adults with Asperger Syndrome

September 2000

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291 Reads

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245 Citations

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

A group of adults with Asperger syndrome and an IQ-matched control group were compared in remember versus know recognition memory. Word frequency was also manipulated. Both groups showed superior recognition for low-frequency compared with high-frequency words, and in both groups this word frequency effect occurred in remembering, not in knowing. Nor did overall recognition differ between the two groups. However, recognition in the Asperger group was associated with less remembering, and more knowing, than in the control group. Since remembering reflects autonoetic consciousness, which is the hallmark of an episodic memory system, these results show that episodic memory is moderately impaired in individuals with Asperger syndrome even when overall recognition performance is not.


Response Deadline and Subjective Awareness in Recognition Memory

June 2000

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28 Reads

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61 Citations

Consciousness and Cognition

Level of processing and generation effects were replicated in separate experiments in which recognition memory was tested using either short (500 ms) or long (1500 ms) response deadlines. These effects were similar at each deadline. Moreover, at each deadline these effects were associated with subsequent reports of remembering, not of knowing. And reports of both knowing and remembering increased following the longer deadline. These results imply that knowing does not index an automatic familiarity process, as conceived in some dual-process models of recognition, and that both remembering and knowing increase with the slower, more controlled processing permitted by the longer response time.


Remembering and Knowing

May 2000

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300 Reads

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331 Citations

Due to the advent of neuropsychology, it has become clear that there is a multiplicity of memory systems or, at the very least, of dissociably different modes of processing memory in the brain. As the Oxford Handbook of Memory demonstrates, the frontier of memory research has been enriched by breakthroughs of the last decades, with lines of continuity and important departures, and it will continue to be enriched by changes in technology that will propel future research. In turn, such changes are beginning to impact the legal and professional therapeutic professions and will have considerable future significance in realms outside of psychology and memory research. Endel Tulving and Fergus Craik, two world-class experts on memory, provide this handbook as a roadmap to the huge and unwieldy field of memory research. By enlisting an eminent group of researchers, they are able to offer insight into breakthroughs for the work that lies ahead. The outline is comprehensive and covers such topics as the development of memory, the contents of memory, memory in the laboratory and in everyday use, memory in decline, the organization of memory, and theories of memory.



Conjoint Dissociations Reveal Involuntary “Perceptual” Priming from Generating at Study

October 1999

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25 Reads

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32 Citations

Consciousness and Cognition

Incidental perceptual memory tests reveal priming when words are generated orally from a semantic cue at study, and this priming could reflect contamination by voluntary retrieval. We tested this hypothesis using a generate condition and two read conditions that differed in depth of processing (read-phonemic vs read-semantic). An intentional word-stem completion test showed an advantage for the read-semantic over the generate condition and an advantage for the generate over the read-phonemic condition, and completion times were longer than in a control test, prior to which there was no study phase. An incidental word-stem completion test showed equivalent priming for the read-semantic and read-phonemic study conditions, despite considerable power, and completion times were no longer than control, indicating that retrieval was involuntary, and insensitive to prior conceptual processing. The generate condition produced less priming than the read conditions, but significant priming nonetheless. The results show that priming from generating can be involuntary and suggest that lexical processes are responsible. They are also the first results conjointly showing a crossed double dissociation, a single dissociation, and a parallel effect across memory tests with identical physical retrieval cues.


8. Levels of awareness and varieties of experience

January 1999

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14 Reads

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57 Citations

Discusses recent developments in one popular though controversial approach to studying consciousness in relation to memory. The approach is an experiential one (introduced by E. Tulving, 1985) with distinction between remember and know responses (subjective reports of the kinds of experiences that occur during memory retrieval). According to Tulving's theory, these 2 kinds of experiences reflect 2 kinds of consciousness which reflect distinct episodic and semantic memory systems. Topics discussed include remember and know responses, guessing, and just knowing. The authors concentrate on knowing and discuss the implications of partitioning know responses to allow reports of guesses and of just knowing. The author's primary goal is to briefly review some of this new evidence and to discuss its theoretical implications. The authors first review and discuss evidence with respect to the guess response category and then evidence with respect to the just know response category. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)



Citations (92)


... These might not be the most appropriate stimuli to address the impact of local processing bias because they provide no data either on intrusions or on false recognitions. By contrast, studies published using verbal learning tasks generate both these measures (Minshew and Goldstein, 1993;Bennetto et al., 1996;Bowler et al., 2000). Other studies have used verbal false memory tasks derived from Roediger and McDermott's paradigm and found contradictory results (Beversdorf et al., 2000;Bowler et al., 2000;Kamio and Toichi, 2007). ...

Reference:

Local Processing Bias Impacts Implicit and Explicit Memory in Autism
Memory Illusions: False Recall and Recognition in Adults With Asperger's Syndrome

Journal of Abnormal Psychology

... Hintzman and Hartry (1990) argued that the low level of dependence merely reflects many sources of variance affecting fragment completion in addition to priming; in contrast Tulving (e.g., Tulving & Schacter, 1990) argued that the low level of dependence reflects the operation of distinct memory systems underlying implicit and explicit memory tasks. The dispute is as yet unresolved (see Flexser, 1991;Gardiner, 1991;Hintzman, 1991;Poldrack, 1996). One solution to the problem of many sources of variance is to ...

Contingency relations in successive tests: Accidents do not happen.
  • Citing Article
  • March 1991

Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition

... Briefly, when testing memory for individual items with humans, sometimes the participants are asked to evaluate if they can recollect qualitative details of an experience (i.e., remember) or 185 RETHINKING EPISODIC MEMORY merely have a sense of familiarity without these richer details (i.e., knowing). In these tasks, participants are given the option of responding "remember," "know," or "new" for each recognition item (Dudukovic & Knowlton, 2006;Gardiner, 2001;Java, Gregg, & Gardiner, 1997;Migo, Mayes, & Montaldi, 2012;Tulving, 1985). To date, this approach to studying memory has been used in hundreds of studies. ...

What do people actually remember (and know) in ''remember/know'' experiments?
  • Citing Article
  • June 1997

European Journal of Cognitive Psychology

... Research into long-term, declarative memory (LTM) in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) is converging on a picture that emphasises difficulties in the processing of complex information (Minshew & Goldstein, 1998;Minshew, Johnson & Luna, 2000;Williams, Goldstein & Minshew, 2006a, b) and more precisely, the flexible binding and re-binding of elements of experience that define particular episodes in memory (Bowler, Gaigg & Lind, 2011). The empirical basis of these conclusions ranges from demonstrations of difficulties with free-recall compared to cued recall or recognition (see Ben Shalom, 2003;Boucher, Mayes & Bigham, 2012;Desaunay et al., 2020), both in target and in source memory (Bowler, Gardiner & Berthollier, 2004), difficulties in episodically recollecting the personally-experienced past (Bowler, Gardiner & Grice, 2000;Maister, Simons & Plaisted-Grant, 2013;Souchay, Wojcik, Williams, Crathern, & Clarke, 2013) and imagining possible future, self-related events (Lind & Bowler, 2010;Lind, Bowler & Raber, 2014). To explain these findings, Bowler et al. (2011) suggested that ASD is characterised by difficulties in relational binding, which gives rise not only to the patterning of memory difficulties described above, but also to other difficulties experienced by autistic people, such as difficulty in mentalising and problems in utilising meaning in support of recall (Bowler, Matthews, & Gardiner, 1997;Cooper & Simons, 2019). ...

Episodic memory in high-functioning autism.
  • Citing Article
  • March 1998

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

... Whereas the DMP effect consisted of an increased negativity at study, perceptual priming at test is associated with reduced negativity in a similar (300 -500 msec) time range (e.g., Curran, 1999;Joyce, Paller, Schwartz, & Kutas, 1999;Paller & Kutas, 1992;Paller & Gross, 1998;Paller, Kutas, & McIsaac, 1998;Rugg & Nagy, 1987;Rugg, 1990;Rugg, Doyle, & Wells, 1995;Rugg et al., 1998;Rugg & Nieto-Vegas, 1999; for reviews, see Friedman & Johnson, 2000;Mecklinger, 2000;Paller, 2000;. We have also observed such reduced negativity for primed trials in the ERPs recorded during the test phase of the current experiment (Richardson-Klavehn et al., 2000). We propose that modulations of this negative-going waveform may be related to the efficiency with which words are perceptually and lexically processed. ...

Electromagnetic brain activity during incidental and intentional retrieval shows dissociation of retrieval mode from retrieval success
  • Citing Article
  • January 2000

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience

... Specifically, the complex information-processing model (Minshew & Goldstein, 1998) suggests that autistic individuals present coexisting deficits in complex tasks dependent on higher-order abilities across multiple domains (e.g., complex memory, complex language, abstract reasoning), but intact or even enhanced function on simpler abilities within the same domains (e.g., simple memory, simple attention, abstract reasoning) (e.g., Just, Keller, Malave, Kana, & Varma, 2012;Libero & Kana, 2013). The pattern of memory impairments in intellectually and verbally able persons on the autism spectrum is thought to be associated with a failure to spontaneously organize incoming information, suggesting that the organizational strategies are not effectively applied at the time of encoding and, consequently, are not available or used later to aid memory retrieval (Smith & Gardiner, 2008;Williams, Minshew, & Goldstein, 2008). The higher the complexity or difficulty of the material to be recalled, the more memory performance will be impaired. ...

Rehearsal and directed forgetting in adults with Asperger syndrome
  • Citing Article
  • June 2008

... In this task, participants study a list of items (e.g., words) and are then presented with a list comprising both studied (targets) and unstudied (lures) items, which they are asked to classify as either " old " (previously studied ) or " new. " Following each " old " classification, participants are asked to make a judgment regarding their subjective experience as to whether they " remember " (R) studying the item (indicating that recognition accompanied by an experience of episodic recollection with contextual details from encoding; Rosenstreich & GoshenGottstein, 2015) or whether they " know " (K) the item had been presented (indicating a mere feeling of familiarity ; sometimes, participants are also given a third choice, that of guess (G), when the judgment of the item as " old " could be attributed to neither recollection nor familiarity , so as to reduce possible response bias; Gardiner, Ramponi, & Richardson-Klavehn, 1998). The common interpretation of RKG judgments is that estimates of recollection can be based on R responses, whereas those of familiarity on K responses (e.g., Yonelinas & Jacoby, 1995; but see Moran & Goshen-Gottstein, 2015; Wais, Mickes, & Wixted, 2008 ). ...

Experiences of Remembering, Knowing, and Guessing
  • Citing Chapter
  • April 2003

... It is also important to note here that, according to this proposal, implicit memory is not contaminated by explicit memory in the sense that voluntary, conscious retrieval of information influences performance on implicit tests (see MacLeod, 2008; see also Gardiner, Richardson-Klavehn, Ramponi, & Brooks, 2001, for a treatment of this issue), but rather that automatic processes associated with recollection benefit performance on such tests. Indeed, the influence of these rapid processes should be evident on the very implicit tests that have been shown to be immune to the deliberate, contaminating effects of explicit memory. ...

Involuntary level-of-processing effects in perceptual and conceptual priming
  • Citing Chapter
  • January 2001

... Examining the components of conscious memory may help answer this question. Although conscious memory is typically a controlled and effortful process compared with Unconscious Memory (UM), which is automatic and effortless, it is argued that conscious memory also involves automatic processes (Mace, 2007;Richardson-Klavehn, Gardiner, & Java, 1996). Involuntary Conscious Memory (ICM) involves unintentional and spontaneous recollections that are self-reported without effortful recall. ...

Memory: Task dissociations, process dissociations and dissociations of consciousness
  • Citing Chapter
  • January 1996

... When participants indicate that they Remember a word, they are presumed to have a recollective experience that the word was previously encountered on the list, suggesting the presence of autonoetic awareness alongside episodic memory recall. A Know response indicates noetic awareness, associated with recall from semantic memory, and captures a sense of familiarity that the word was seen on the list, without recollection of the actual word (see Gardiner & Richardson-Klavehn, 2000). Noetic awareness is more associated with semantic memory than episodic recollection. ...

Remembering and Knowing
  • Citing Chapter
  • May 2000