Jani Erola’s research while affiliated with University of Turku and other places

Objective: This study assesses whether and how changes in family policies are associated with first and second births in Finland, Germany and the United Kingdom, and whether these associations differ by women’s education. Background: Family policies are expected to impact the direct and indirect costs of childbearing by providing resources that influence the monetary and non-monetary costs of having children. The countries analysed here have undergone substantial changes in family policy throughout the two decades analysed, but each country has changed different aspects of their policies, and they have done so in different policy environments. Method: We analysed women aged 18–44 and their transitions to first and second births using register data from Finland (N = 57,518 / 21,685) and panel data from Germany (G-SOEP, N=37,716 / 16,756) and the UK (BHPS and Understanding Society, N = 13,213 / 9,992) complemented with annual family policy information. The data were analysed using logistic regression models and interactions, and the results are presented as average marginal effects. Results: The results suggest that the association between changes in family policies and transitions to first and second child birth varied by birth parity, women’s education level, and between countries. For example in Finland, increases in paternity leave length were associated with greater propensities to transition to first birth for highly educated women, whereas increases in child allowances had a similar association for lower educated women. In Germany, reductions in maternity leave length were associated with increased transitions to first birth for higher educated women. In the UK, increases in maternity leave length were associated with greater transitions to first births among all women. Conclusion: The results highlight that to the extent that family policies influence fertility, they do so depending on both the country context and often differentially within countries based on women’s education level and birth parity.

Theories of change in social class mobility present contrasting expectations of either change or persistence in mobility as societies develop. This article examines intergenerational social class mobility for cohorts born from 1951 to 1980 in Finland. We analyse change across cohorts in the main association between social origins and destinations and the intervening associations between origins and education and education and destinations. We investigate how the association between education and destinations differs by origins and by education levels to gain a more complete picture of how meritocratic fairness has changed. We employ full population census and register data, using multiplicative log-linear models. The results suggest variations in the association between social origins and destinations over cohorts, which disappear when considering this association net of education. Educational inequalities have decreased for both men and women, whereas returns to education decreased for men but remained stable for women. Behind these relatively straightforward results is more complexity when considering how origins – also across cohorts – moderate class returns to education. These results suggest that the labour market is becoming more similar for individuals at different levels of education or coming from different social classes.

The role of genes is largely ignored in studies on equality of opportunity (EoO). We theorise how genetic influences should factor into these discussions regarding social stratification outcomes. Fair EoO accepts genetics as a source of individual differences in high education and high income. Luck-egalitarians do not perceive genes as a legitimate source of inequality and expect genetic influences to be weak. Neither perspective allows for systematic variation by socioeconomic standing (SES). We test these assumptions with twin methods using register data from Finland. In this highly egalitarian welfare state, gene-related inequalities should be either particularly contrasted or minimised, depending on the theoretical account being followed. Both fair and luck-egalitarian EoO expectations are only met for low-income: genetic influences were minimal and equally important across the social strata. By contrast, for high education and high income, genetic influences were strongest in high SES families. Regarding low education, they were highest in low SES families. Additionally, genetic correlations between GPA and educational outcomes varied by SES. Together, our findings suggest that compensatory and multiplicative advantages operate for the benefit of high SES families, conflicting with any understanding of the EoO, even in the most egalitarian country.

In this country-comparative study, we ask to what extent differentiation in secondary education accounts for the association between social origins and social destinations in adult age. We go beyond the widely applied formal definitions of educational tracking and particularly pay attention to country-specific approaches to educational differentiation. Our main expectation is that once we factor in these particularities, the degree to which educational differentiation accounts for social reproduction is quite similar across countries. Our analyses are based on national individual-level life-course data from six European countries that span from secondary education to occupational maturity. Our findings show that educational differentiation mediates the association between social origins and social destinations to a substantial degree in all countries. However, we still find some differences between countries in the extent to which educational differentiation accounts for social reproduction.

In this country-comparative study, we ask to what extent differentiation in secondary education accounts for the association between social origins and social destinations in adult age. We go beyond the widely applied formal definitions of educational tracking and particularly pay attention to country-specific approaches to educational differentiation. Our main expectation is that once we factor in these particularities, the degree to which educational differentiation accounts for social reproduction is quite similar across countries. Our analyses are based on national individual-level life-course data from six European countries that span from secondary education to occupational maturity. Our findings show that educational differentiation mediates the association between social origins and social destinations to a substantial degree in all countries. However, we still find some differences between countries in the extent to which educational differentiation accounts for social reproduction.

This article explores intergenerational social class mobility and the role played by education for cohorts born from 1950 to 1980 in Finland. The period covered was one of profound economic advances and strong educational expansion. We employ full population census and register data from Statistics Finland, from which mobility tables for five-year cohorts that have reached the age of 35 have been constructed at the following six time points: 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2015. We analyse the origin-education-destination (OED) triangle by using multiplicative and topological log-linear models. The results suggest that the fluctuation of OD over cohorts is not considerable, that educational inequalities decrease for both men and women, whereas trends in class returns to education vary across gender. These decrease for men and remain stable for women. Finally, we detect a very important role played by education that differs across gender but diminishes over time, overall, when using a double layer log-linear model. We discuss these results in relation to both stability in intergenerational mobility and social fluidity over birth cohorts.