James A. Kulik’s research while affiliated with University of Michigan and other places

This review describes a meta-analysis of findings from 50 controlled evaluations of intelligent computer tutoring systems. The median effect of intelligent tutoring in the 50 evaluations was to raise test scores 0.66 standard deviations over conventional levels, or from the 50th to the 75th percentile. However, the amount of improvement found in an evaluation depended to a great extent on whether improvement was measured on locally developed or standardized tests, suggesting that alignment of test and instructional objectives is a critical determinant of evaluation results. The review also describes findings from two groups of evaluations that did not meet all of the selection requirements for the meta-analysis: six evaluations with nonconventional control groups and four with flawed implementations of intelligent tutoring systems. Intelligent tutoring effects in these evaluations were small, suggesting that evaluation results are also affected by the nature of control treatments and the adequacy of program implementations.

The educational effects of frequent classroom testing have been studied and discussed since the early part of this century. Testing advocates have suggested that more frequent classroom testing stimulates practice and review, gives students more opportunities for feedback on their work, and has a positive influence on student study time. Reviewers of relevant research and evaluation literature, however, have expressed uncertainty about whether such benefits are actually realized in classrooms. The present review distinguishes research on frequent classroom testing from research in two related areas, research on adjunct questions and research on mastery testing, and provides results from a meta-analysis of findings on frequency of classroom testing. The meta-analysis showed that students who took at least one test during a 15-week term scored about one half of a standard deviation higher on criterion examinations than did students who took no tests. Better criterion performance was associated with more frequent testing, but the amount of improvement in achievement diminished as the number of tests increased.

There is limited empirical evidence regarding differences in sun protection practices in different regions of the USA. This study examined whether there are regional differences in the efficacy of exposure to UV photographs and photoaging information (e.g. wrinkles and age spots) for increasing sun protection behaviours. Students attending a public university in either the Midwestern (Iowa) or Southwestern (Southern California) US reported baseline sun exposure and protection practices and were then randomly assigned to either receive information about photoaging, have a UV photo taken, both receive photoaging information and have a UV photo taken, or to receive neither intervention. Sun protection intentions were assessed immediately after the interventions, and both self-reported sun protection behaviours and an objective assessment (via spectrophotometry) of skin colour change were measured at the end of summer and one year following the interventions. The results showed a pervasive pattern of more risky UV exposure and less sun protection use at the Iowa site than at the Southern California site both prior to and following the interventions. Both interventions increased future sun protection intentions regardless of region. However, the intervention effects on skin colour and UV exposure differed across region, with generally more reliable effects at the Iowa site.

Times for college women in an exercise facility to begin working out on a target apparatus were unobtrusively recorded under three nearby peer conditions: fit peer, unfit peer, or no peer. In 116 trials, approach times were significantly faster in the unfit compared to the no-peer and fit-peer conditions, which did not differ significantly. Of those who approached (N = 75), neither exercise time nor post-exercise body satisfaction differed by condition. The results provide the first evidence that women in a naturalistic environment, when possible, manage their comparison opportunities and do so in a manner that may maintain body satisfaction.

In the target article (Wanic and Kulik 2011), we proposed in the subordination-reactivity hypothesis that women’s (typically) subordinate role in marital relationships renders them physiologically more vulnerable to martial conflict, which may explain partly the finding that marriage generally benefits the health of men more than women. In that article, we noted that our hypothesis should be considered in conjunction with other ‘non-mutually exclusive’ relationship processes that also may contribute to the greater health benefit of marriage for men. The accompanying commentaries take issue with our article on the grounds that a) interpersonal relationships and health are multidimensional and complex; b) our subordination-reactivity hypothesis diverges from existing interpersonal theory and research; and c) it is “almost always” unwise to “pit” one explanation or theory against another. In this response we argue a) the indisputable point regarding the complexity of interpersonal relationships and health does not challenge the validity of our hypothesis; b) our hypothesis, as stated, is not logically inconsistent with the prior interpersonal theory and research cited, and c) there is considerable value to pitting explanations against each other when possible, and arguments to avoid doing so are at odds with fundamental scientific practices. KeywordsGender differences–Marital conflict–Subordination-reactivity hypothesis–Health

The present paper addresses the consistent finding that men derive more benefit from marriage in terms of both morbidity and mortality compared to women in U. S. society. Based on the evidence that spousal conflict adversely influences physiology and health, with greater negative impact on wives compared to husbands, we propose that the stronger impact of relationship negativity contributes to the decreased marriage benefit for women. Evidence bearing on two explanations for this differential impact of conflict is reviewed. The relational-interdependence view, proposed by Kiecolt-Glaser and Newton (2001), holds that women are more affected by marital conflict because of their more relationally interdependent self-representations. An alternative view, which we call the subordination-reactivity hypothesis, suggests that women experience greater physiological and psychological reactivity to marital discord because they typically occupy subordinate (lower status and less powerful) positions relative to their husbands. A review of the evidence on the physiological effects of social status is combined with that of the relationship between gender and status, both within society at large and interpersonal relationships specifically, to support the subordination-reactivity hypothesis. Specifically, there is evidence that low social status negatively impacts health and that women generally occupy subordinate status. The relational-interdependence view is re-evaluated and its intersection with the subordination-reactivity hypothesis is explored. Finally, implications and future directions are discussed. KeywordsGender differences–Marital conflict–Subordination-reactivity hypothesis–Health

This experiment examined the impact of adding upward and/or downward social comparison information on the efficacy of an appearance-based sun protection intervention (UV photos and photoaging information). Southern California college students (N = 126) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: control, intervention, intervention plus upward social comparison, intervention plus downward social comparison. The results demonstrated that all those who received the basic UV photo/photoaging intervention reported greater perceived susceptibility to photoaging (d = .74), less favorable tanning cognitions (d = .44), and greater intentions to sun protect (d = 1.32) relative to controls. Of more interest, while the basic intervention increased sun protective behavior during the subsequent 5 weeks relative to controls (d = .44), the addition of downward comparison information completely negated this benefit. Upward comparison information produced sun protection levels that were only slightly (and nonsignificantly) greater than in the basic intervention condition and, as such, does not appear to be a cost-effective addition. Possible mechanisms that may have reduced the benefits of upward comparison information and contributed to the undermining effects of downward comparison information are discussed.

We examined the independent, predictive utilities of optimism and pessimism for long-term physical and psychological recovery from coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. A sample of postoperative CABG patients (N = 212) was followed for 12 months. Results demonstrated support for the notion that optimism and pessimism are separable constructs that are not functionally equivalent. Overall, pessimism was more reliably predictive than optimism of positive affect, pain and functional status. There was also some support for the notion that pessimism and optimism may be important at different times in the recovery process. Exploring the independent associations of optimism and pessimism with both short- and longer-term outcomes is important for gaining a clearer understanding of the importance for wellbeing of a positive outlook.

Background The risk for skin cancer is increased among older males and outdoor workers who have high levels of ultraviolet (UV) exposure. Purpose This study was designed to examine the long-term efficacy of UV photography interventions on male outdoor workers, the potential mediators of its impact, and the efficacy of UV photography and skin cancer vs. aging information with this population. Methods One hundred forty-eight male outdoor workers were randomly assigned to one of four intervention conditions or a control condition in a two by two plus one factorial design. The men in the intervention conditions received or did not receive a UV photo of their face and watched either a photoaging or skin cancer educational video. Participants completed pre-intervention, immediate post-intervention, and 2-month and 1-year follow-up assessments. Results Analysis of covariance and structural equation modeling revealed that participants in the UV photography and cancer information interventions reported higher levels of sun protection cognitions, which were significant partial mediators of increases in sun protection behaviors and decreases in skin color. Conclusions This study provides evidence for effective sun protection interventions on male outdoor workers that may help reduce skin cancer risk.

The risk for skin cancer is increased among older males and outdoor workers who have high levels of ultraviolet (UV) exposure. This study was designed to examine the long-term efficacy of UV photography interventions on male outdoor workers, the potential mediators of its impact, and the efficacy of UV photography and skin cancer vs. aging information with this population. One hundred forty-eight male outdoor workers were randomly assigned to one of four intervention conditions or a control condition in a two by two plus one factorial design. The men in the intervention conditions received or did not receive a UV photo of their face and watched either a photoaging or skin cancer educational video. Participants completed pre-intervention, immediate post-intervention, and 2-month and 1-year follow-up assessments. Analysis of covariance and structural equation modeling revealed that participants in the UV photography and cancer information interventions reported higher levels of sun protection cognitions, which were significant partial mediators of increases in sun protection behaviors and decreases in skin color. This study provides evidence for effective sun protection interventions on male outdoor workers that may help reduce skin cancer risk.