Jagatpati Tah’s research while affiliated with University of Burdwan and other places

Human has been always enthusiastic of gardening with flowers and ornamentals since ancient periods of time. The economic importance of ornamentals (floricultural plants) has been increasing and its world-wide international demand has rapidly expanded with the passage of time. Worldwide trends and production centres of floricultural crops are changing continually. A predictable trend in the international flower market is the increased emphasis on quality. Quality factors related to post-harvest keeping quality include environmental influences on flower longevity, as well as the influence of pathogenic microorganisms, including virus diseases. As competition in the world market is increasing, quality has become a more important factor. Increasing vase-life or flower-life on a pot plant is an important goal. A large number of floriculture units based on greenhouse technologies for the export of their produce have been set up. These developments had an effect on the flower cultivation in the open field condition and thus significant growth took place in the floriculture sector which is now experiencing a change in terms of technology of production, packaging and storage, varieties and qualities of product, quantum of production and the marketing mechanism. In this recent platform, Caryophyllacean dicot plant member Dianthus caryophyllus (Carnation) is an important, commercial season based floricultural crop. It grows well in temperate climate all over the world and popular as cut-flowers for its variegated petal"s colour. So, it has terrific market demands in international trading. In this modern era, an agronomic demand of high yielding cultivar of this crop was noticed. Development of cultivars with more desirable floral characteristics and higher productivity are also very important in this crop. Various biometrical/agrometrical characters viz. growth parameters (mature plant height, number and length of shoots and internode, number of tillers, nodes, leaves, stem diameter, length-breadth of leaf etc.), flowering parameters (days to flowering, bud opening, flower development, flower longevity etc.), flower quality parameters (length, girth and diameter, weight of flower, petal number, calyx splitting etc.) and yield parameters (number of flower/plant and seeds/inflorescence, seed weight etc.) were varied greatly from cultivar to cultivar. These parameters serve as key traits for crop improvement programme in which mutation breeding plays a vital stage. INTRODUCTION Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) belongs to the family Caryophyllaceae having diploid chromosome number 2n=30. It is grown in several parts of the world and is believed to be the native of Mediterranean region. The generic name Dianthus comes from the writings of Theophratus who lived about 300 B.C. He proposed that the word "Dianthus" came from the greek words: "dios" means devine (God); "anthos" means flower, that is "the flower of the Gods". Linnaeus chose the species name "caryophyllus" after the genus of Clove, as the fragrance from Carnation is reminiscent of clove. The common name, Carnation, is likely derived from "coronation', as the Greeks wove Dianthus flowers into crowns for their athletes. It is genetically a quantitative long-day plant (Blake 1955). The variety William Sim produced in 1938-39 by William Sim of North Berwick, Marine was the greatest contribution to the present Carnation industry. From that one red flowered plant, there have been mutations to several variegated forms like white, pink, orange, etc. Today the Sim Carnation strains are grown throughout the world. Years ago, Carnations were grown in local greenhouses near population centers. Increased production per unit of greenhouse area, along with high flower quality, could be achieved during winter months in the high light-intensity area, namely Colorado and California. The advent of plastic film also made it possible for southern California growers to produce Carnations in simple structures without winter heating. Carnation is an important flower crop having great commercial value as a cut flower due to its excellent keeping quality, wide array of colour and forms. Carnation, apart from producing cut flowers can also become useful in gardening for bedding, edging, borders, pots and rock gardens. From medicinal point of view, Carnation flowers are considered to be cardiotonic, diaphoretic and alexiteric (Shiragur et al. 2004b). In the world, area of "natural climates" for Carnations, are generally occurs near 30 o N or S latitude and on the Western edges of the continents. The area under Carnation has more than doubled within one year from the preceding one. India has been identified as one of the major forces in the world floriculture scenario. With liberalization of Indian economy, floriculture has become a new rising industry in agribusiness. West Bengal has a prominent position on floriculture map of India. Carnations are grown commercially in India in places having mild climate in Solan, Shimla, Kalimpong, Kodaikanal, Mandi, Kullu, Srinagar, Ooty and Yercaud. In West Bengal, it is grown under controlled condition as the transitional belt parts/area seems to be very ideal for cultivation of flowers on account of favourable climate, soil and other factors (Shiragur 2004b). Carnation plants are half hardy herbaceous perennial. The flowers are solitary, terminally formed; the petals are broad with frilled margins and the calyx cylindrical with bracts at the base. The hybrids involving many Dianthus species are of perpetual flowering types. The florist"s Carnations are grouped into two major classes such as "Standard" and "Spray". The standard type produces larger blooms on longer flower stalks. On the other hand the spray type produces many flowers of

The Deuteromycetes fungal genus Alternaria comprises of different saprophytic as well as endophytic species and is well known for its notoriously destructive plant pathogen members. It has been found to have a drastic effect on the members belonging to the plant families such as Cucurbitaceae, Brassicaceae, Solanaceae which are having nutritional as well as economical food value. Majority of the members of Alternaria lack sexuality altogether, although few species have been found to have sexual stage in their life cycles. Several types of genes ranging from protein encoding genes to those involved in signal transduction cascades are found to be responsible for the pathogenesis. Production of host-specific toxins (HSTs) is found to be an affirming factor of pathogenesis. Most fungal host-specific toxins are metabolites although toxic substances including despipeptides and fucicoccin-like compounds. Genes encoding the biosynthesis of these HSTs are often contained on mostly conditionally dispensable chromosomes. The necrotrophic nature of Alternaria species typically leads to extensive damage of the plant and harvest product, with seedlings seldom surviving an attack. Apart from the role of toxins in Alternaria pathogenesis, few genes and /or gene products have been found to have a propounding effect as a pre-requisite for pathogenicity. For controlling the diseases, numbers of new chemicals are evaluated along with various biological control agents including bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Some plants and plant products are also found to be useful in controlling Alternaria infection.

In recent years, the development and use of molecular markers for the detection and exploitation of DNA polymorphism has become one of the most significant developments in the field of molecular genetics and biotechnology for a variety of applications including examination of genetic relationships between individuals, mapping of useful genes, construction of linkage maps, marker assisted selections, backcrosses, population genetics and phylogenetic studies. Th e presence of various types of molecular markers, differences in their principles, methodologies, and applications require careful consideration in choosing one or more of such methods. No molecular markers are available yet that fulfill all requirements needed by researchers. According to the kind of study to be undertaken, one can choose among the variety of molecular techniques, each of which combines at least some desirable properties. Th us, recognizing the enormous potential of DNA markers, it has been adopted the capacity for marker development and marker-assisted selection (MAS) mainly for crop breeding and improvement. However, due to rapid developments in marker technology, statistical methodology for identifying quantitative trait loci (QTLs) has been utilized. Th is chapter provides an introduction to molecular (DNA) markers and the concept of polymorphism, their technical advantages, major types, the principles of QTL analysis and how such markers may be applied in breeding programmes using MAS for crop improvement.

The leaf cuticle is covered by epicuticular wax consisting mainly of straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons with a variety of substituted groups. Studies have been concentrated on n-alkanes in epicuticular wax of Winged bean [Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (Stickm.) DC.]. Hydrocarbon constituents especially n-alkane analyses of seven cultivars of Winged bean [Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (Stickm.) DC.] have been undertaken. All the n-alkanes in between C14–C18 and C20–C38 are present in each of the species. Among the species, amount of n-alkanes is maximum in IC112417 and relatively low in EC38825. Scanning electron microscopic views were also taken for epicuticular layers and their hydrocarbons of the leaves of all the genotype species of the plant. Qualitative and quantitative characterization of n-alkanes present in the epicuticular wax extracted from the mature leaves can be used as an effective tool in chemo taxonomical work and also for the study of genotypic variation of the different cultivars.

In recent years, the development and use of molecular markers for the detection and exploitation of DNA polymorphism is one of the most signifi cant developments in the fi eld of molecular genetics and biotechnology for a variety of applications including examination of genetic relationships between individuals, mapping of useful genes, construction of linkage maps, marker assisted selections, backcrosses, population genetics and phylogenetic studies. Th e presence of various types of molecular markers, diff erences in their principles, methodologies, and applications require careful consideration in choosing one or more of such methods. No molecular markers are available yet that fulfi ll all requirements needed by researchers. According to the kind of study to be undertaken, one can choose among the variety of molecular techniques, each of which combines at least some desirable properties. Th us, recognizing the enormous potential of DNA markers, it has been adopted the capacity for marker development and marker-assisted selection (MAS) mainly for crop breeding and improvement. However, due to rapid developments in marker technology, statistical methodology for identifying quantitative trait loci (QTLs) has been utilized. Th is chapter provides an introduction to molecular (DNA) markers and the concept of polymorphism, their technical advantages, major types, the principles of QTL analysis and how such markers may be applied in breeding programs using MAS for crop improvement.

Sustainable development has caught the imagination and action of the world for more than a decade. Sustainable agriculture is necessary to attain the goal of sustainable development. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources to satisfy the changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment and conserving natural resources. All definitions of sustainable agriculture lay great emphasis on maintaining an agricultural growth rate, which can meet the demand for food of all living beings without draining the basic resources towards crop improvement. Organic farming is one of the several approaches found to meet the objectives of sustainable agriculture. Most of the techniques used in organic farming like intercropping, mulching and integration of crops and livestock are not alien to agriculture systems including the traditional agricultural practices. However, organic farming is based on various laws and certification programmes, which prohibit the use of almost all synthetic inputs and the central theme of this method is the health of soil. The adverse effects of modern agricultural practices on the farm and also on the health of living beings and thus on the environment has been well documented all over the world. Application of technology, particularly the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides all around us has persuaded people to think aloud. As a result of global climatic changes, their negative effects on the environment are manifested through soil erosion, water shortages, salination, soil contamination, genetic erosion, Organic farming is one of the widely used methods, which is thought as the best alternative to avoid the ill effects of chemical farming. It also has far more advantages over the conventional and other modern agricultural practices that are available today.

India produces a large variety of food crops including cereals, pulses and oilseeds. In the name of increased productivity, indiscriminate application of enormous quantity of chemical fertilizers is being followed keeping the health factor at bay. Hence an alternative method of farming is of urgent need which could satisfy the needs of increased food production as well as providing a security against any potential health problem. Organic farming has been proved as a solution to both of these problems. Also since the need for the pre-requisites for organic farming is less as compared to chemical farming, therefore, in a country like India where the agriculture is highly influenced by the vagaries of various biotic and abiotic factors, organic farming is capable enough to provide economic security to the mediocre farmers as well. However, with the policies implemented by the government of India to encourage organic farming regarding the commencement, implementation and the marketing of organic food products as well as the increasing demand of the organic products in the domestic as well as international market, there is ample scope for organic food industries to expand and generate revenue for strengthening the Indian economy.

Global environmental dissociative changes are now in steady state. Its negative impacts were gradually imposed on a wide range of crops and thus crop improvement was hindered as well. Given this challenge, existing and new, appropriate technologies need to be integrated for global crop improvement. Among the different present approaches, mutagenesis and mutation breeding and the isolation of improved or novel phenotypes in conjunction with conventional breeding programmes can result in mutant varieties endowed with new and desirable variation of agrometrical traits. Induced mutations and its related technologies play very well in this ground and this overall strategy helps to trace the crop genetic diversity along with its biodiversity maintenance. Such induced mutagenesis, a crucial step in crop improvement programme, is now successful in application due to the advancement and incorporation of large-scale selection techniques, micropropagation and other in vitro culture methods, molecular biology tools and techniques in modern crop breeding performance. Time to time, different mutation techniques and their application processes are changing significantly; in this perspective, insertional mutagenesis and retrotransposons are taking more supports for mutational tagging and new mutation generation. For details investigation on plant structure and function, mutagenic agents and their precise role are much essential as it can produce mutants with some phenotypic changes. Functional genomics studies make the ultimatum platform on this field of study where few crop plants were used for mutational experimentation on some prime agronomic traits till now. This is a prerequisite step and is applying on diverse crop for further improvement. High throughput DNA technologies for mutation screening such as TILLING (Targeting Induced Limited Lesions IN Genomes), high-resolution melt analysis (HRM) , ECOTILLING etc. are the key techniques and resources in molecular mutation breeding. Molecular mutation breeding will significantly increase both the efficiency and efficacy of mutation techniques in crop breeding. Such modern and classical technologies are using for the development of mutation induction with the objective of using a set of globally important crops to validate identified relevant novel techniques and build these into modular pipelines to serve as technology packages for induced crop mutations. Thus, mutation assisted plant breeding will play a crucial role in the generation of ‘designer crop varieties’ to address the uncertainties of global climate variability and change, and the challenges of global plant-product insecurity.

The Deuteromycetes fungal genus Alternariacomprises of different saprophytic as well as endophytic species and is well known for its notoriously destructive plant pathogen members. It has been found to have a drastic effect on the members belonging to the plant families such as Cucurbitaceae, Brassicaceae, Solanaceae which are having nutritional as well as economical food value. Majority of the members of Alternaria lack sexuality altogether, although few species have been found to have sexual stage in their life cycles. Several types of genes ranging from protein encoding genes to those involved in signal transduction cascades are found to be responsible for the pathogenesis. Production of host-specific toxins (HSTs) is found to be an affirming factor of pathogenesis. Most fungal host-specific toxins are metabolites although toxic substances including despipeptides and fucicoccin-like compounds. Genes encoding the biosynthesis of these HSTs are often contained on mostly conditionally dispensable chromosomes.The necrotrophic nature of Alternaria species typically leads to extensive damage of the plant and harvest product, with seedlings seldom surviving an attack. Apart from the role of toxins in Alternaria pathogenesis, few genes and /or gene products have been found to have a propounding effect as a pre-requisite for pathogenicity. For controlling the diseases, numbers of new chemicals are evaluated along with various biological control agents including bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Some plants and plant products are also found to be useful in controlling Alternaria infection.

Sustainable development has caught the imagination and action of the world for more than a decade. Sustainable agriculture is necessary to attain the goal of sustainable development. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), sustainable agriculture is the successful management of resources to satisfy the changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment and conserving natural resources. All definitions of sustainable agriculture lay great emphasis on maintaining an agricultural growth rate, which can meet the demand for food of all living beings without draining the basic resources towards crop improvement. Organic farming is one of the several approaches found to meet the objectives of sustainable agriculture. Most of the techniques used in organic farming like inter-cropping, mulching and integration of crops and livestock are not alien to agriculture systems including the traditional agricultural practices. However, organic farming is based on various laws and certification programmes, which prohibit the use of almost all synthetic inputs and the central theme of this method is the health of soil. The adverse effects of modern agricultural practices on the farm and also on the health of living beings and thus on the environment has been well documented all over the world. Application of technology, particularly the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides all around us has persuaded people to think aloud. As a result of global climatic changes, their negative effects on the environment are manifested through soil erosion, water shortages, salination, soil contamination, genetic erosion, Organic farming is one of the widely used methods, which is thought as the best alternative to avoid the ill effects of chemical farming. It also has far more advantages over the conventional and other modern agricultural practices that are available today.