Hall Sawyer's research while affiliated with Western EcoSystems Technology Inc. and other places
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Publications (76)
Fences have recently been recognized as one of the most prominent linear infrastructures on earth. As animals traverse fenced landscapes, they adjust movement behaviors to optimize resource access while minimizing energetic costs of coping with fences. Examining individual responses is key for connecting localized fence effects with population dyna...
Ungulates (hooved mammals) have a broad distribution across the western United States and play an important role in maintaining predator-prey dynamics, affecting vegetation communities, and providing economic benefits to regional communities through tourism and hunting. Throughout the diverse landscapes they occupy, many ungulate populations undert...
Capture and handling techniques for individual‐based, long‐term research that tracks the life history of animals by recapturing the same individuals for several years has vastly improved study inferences and our understanding of animal ecology. Yet there are corresponding risks to study animals associated with physical trauma or capture myopathy th...
The ability to freely move across the landscape to track the emergence of nutritious spring green-up (termed 'green-wave surfing') is key to the foraging strategy of migratory ungulates. Across the vast landscapes traversed by many migratory herds, habitats are being altered by development with unknown consequences for surfing. Using a unique long-...
The temporal windows during which animals complete essential life processes (i.e. temporal niche) allow animals to match their actions to a given environmental context. When completing seasonal migrations, some migrants switch their activity patterns (e.g. from diurnal to nocturnal in multiple species of migratory birds) to take advantage of better...
Management of animal populations requires spatially explicit knowledge of movement corridors, such as those used during seasonal migrations. Global Positioning System (GPS) tracking data allow for mapping of corridors from directly observed movements, but such tracking data are absent for many populations. We developed a novel statistical corridor...
Modern tracking technology has facilitated a novel understanding of terrestrial mammal movement while revealing that movements are being truncated and lost. The first step towards conserving mobile animals is identifying movement corridors and key seasonal ranges. Yet, the identification and subsequent mapping of these important areas has remained...
Aim:
Macroecological studies that require habitat suitability data for many species often derive this information from expert opinion. However, expert-based information is inherently subjective and thus prone to errors. The increasing availability of GPS tracking data offers opportunities to evaluate and supplement expert-based information with de...
While migrating, animals make directionally persistent movements and may only respond to human‐induced rapid environmental change (HIREC), such as climate and land‐use change, once a threshold of HIREC is surpassed. In contrast, animals on other seasonal ranges (e.g., winter range) make more localized and tortuous movements while foraging and may h...
Migration is widespread across taxonomic groups and increasingly recognized as fundamental to maintaining abundant wildlife populations and communities. Many ungulate herds migrate across the western United States to access food and avoid harsh environmental conditions. With the advent of global positioning system (GPS) collars, researchers can des...
Utility‐scale solar energy (USSE) has become an efficient and cost‐effective form of renewable energy, with an expanding footprint into rangelands that provide important habitat for many wild ungulate populations. Using global positioning system data collected before and after construction, we documented the potential impacts of USSE on pronghorn (...
Animal movement can mediate the ecological consequences of fragmentation; however, barriers such as fences, roads, and railways are becoming a pervasive threat to wildlife. Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) habitat in western North America has been fragmented by roads, railways, and fences. Although pronghorn are sensitive to barriers, neither the...
Site fidelity, or the behavior of returning to previously visited locations, has been observed across taxa and ecosystems. By developing familiarity with a particular location, site fidelity provides a range of benefits and is advantageous in stable or predictable environments. However, the Anthropocene is characterized by rates of environmental ch...
Our understanding of ungulate migration is advancing rapidly due to innovations in modern animal tracking. Herein, we review and synthesize nearly seven decades of work on migration and other long-distance movements of wild ungulates. Although it has long been appreciated that ungulates migrate to enhance access to forage, recent contributions demo...
The forage maturation hypothesis (FMH) states that energy intake for ungulates is maximised when forage biomass is at intermediate levels. Nevertheless, metabolic allometry and different digestive systems suggest that resource selection should vary across ungulate species. By combining GPS relocations with remotely sensed data on forage characteris...
Maintaining functional connectivity is critical for the long‐term conservation of wildlife populations. Landscape genomics provides an opportunity to assess long‐term functional connectivity by relating environmental variables to spatial patterns of genomic variation resulting from generations of movement, dispersal and mating behaviors. Identifyin...
Migration of ungulates (hooved mammals) is a fundamental ecological process that promotes abundant herds, whose effects cascade up and down terrestrial food webs. Migratory ungulates provide the prey base that maintains large carnivore and scavenger populations and underpins terrestrial biodiversity (fig. S1). When ungulates move in large aggregati...
According to risk‐sensitive foraging theory, animals should make foraging decisions that balance nutritional costs and gains to promote fitness. Human disturbance is a form of perceived risk that can prompt avoidance of risky habitat over acquisition of food. Consequently, behavioral responses to perceived risk could induce nutritional costs. Popul...
Sexual segregation has been intensely studied across diverse ecosystems and taxa, but studies are often limited to periods when animals occupy distinct seasonal ranges. Some avian and marine studies have revealed that habitat segregation, when sexes differ spatially or temporally in use of the physical landscape, is common during the migratory peri...
Migratory ungulates are thought to be declining globally because their dependence on large landscapes renders them highly vulnerable to environmental change. Yet recent studies reveal that many ungulate species can adjust their migration propensity in response to changing environmental conditions to potentially improve population persistence. In ad...
While the tendency to return to previously visited locations – termed ‘site fidelity’ – is common in animals, the cause of this behaviour is not well understood. One hypothesis is that site fidelity is shaped by an animal’s environment, such that animals living in landscapes with predictable resources have stronger site fidelity. Site fidelity may...
Animal populations face increased threats to mobility and access to critical habitat from a variety of human disturbances including roads, residential development, agriculture, and energy development. Disturbance from human hunting is known to alter habitat use in ungulates, but recent work suggests that hunting may also trigger the onset of migrat...
As human activities expand globally, there is a growing need to identify and mitigate barriers to animal movements. Fencing is a pervasive human modification of the landscape that can impede the movements of wide‐ranging animals. Previous research has largely focused on whether fences block movements altogether, but a more nuanced understanding of...
Across the western United States, many ungulate herds must migrate seasonally to access resources and avoid harsh winter conditions. Because these migration paths cover vast landscapes (in other words migration distances up to 150 miles [241 kilometers]), they are increasingly threatened by roads, fencing, subdivisions, and other development. Over...
Animals exhibit a diversity of movement tactics [1]. Tracking resources that change across space and time is predicted to be a fundamental driver of animal movement [2]. For example, some migratory ungulates (i.e., hooved mammals) closely track the progression of highly nutritious plant green-up, a phenomenon called “green-wave surfing” [3, 4, 5]....
Fine‐scale movement data has transformed our knowledge of ungulate migration ecology and now provides accurate, spatially explicit maps of migratory routes that can inform planning and management at local, state, and federal levels. Among the most challenging land use planning issues has been developing energy resources on public lands that overlap...
Animal migrations are ecologically, culturally, and economically important. Ungulate populations in many parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas migrate long distances to access seasonally available resources, traversing vast landscapes in large numbers. Yet some migrations are declining, raising concerns among scientists and natural resour...
From fine‐scale foraging to broad‐scale migration, animal movement is shaped by the distribution of resources. There is mounting evidence, however, that learning and memory also guide movement. Although migratory mammals commonly track resource waves, how resource tracking and memory guide long‐distance migration has not been reconciled. We examine...
Human disturbance associated with energy development on winter ranges of migratory mule deer can prompt behaviors of perceived risk in areas near development. We evaluated how perceived risk affected the use of available food near development. Mule deer avoided disturbance at multiple scales, resulting in a loss of otherwise available food near dev...
Abstract An increasing global demand for energy assures continued disturbance to previously undeveloped landscapes, but understanding broader impacts to wildlife remains elusive. Among groups of species most vulnerable to habitat disruption are those requiring large tracts of land. Pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) are an obligate to the open plain...
The availability and quality of forage on the landscape constitute the foodscape within which animals make behavioral decisions to acquire food. Novel changes to the foodscape, such as human disturbance, can alter behavioral decisions that favor avoidance of perceived risk over food acquisition. Although behavioral changes and population declines o...
Few studies have examined differential responses of partially migratory ungulates to human development or activity, where some individuals in a population migrate and others do not. Yet understanding how animals with different movement tactics respond to anthropogenic disturbance is key to sustaining global ungulate migrations. We examined seasonal...
1.Our knowledge of migration ecology has progressed quickly in concert with technological advances that collect fine‐scale movement data through time. We now know that migration plays a critical role in the annual nutritional cycle of large herbivores and that sustaining functional migratory routes is key to long‐term conservation. Yet, we lack bas...
1.The migratory movements of wild animals can promote abundance and support ecosystem functioning. For large herbivores, mounting evidence suggests that migratory behavior is an individually variable trait, where individuals can easily switch between migrant and resident tactics. The degree of migratory plasticity, including whether and where to mi...
Long‐distance migration by terrestrial mammals is a phenomenon critical to the persistence of populations, but such migrations are declining globally because of over‐harvest, habitat loss, and movement barriers. Increasingly, there is a need to improve existing routes, mitigate route segments affected by anthropogenic disturbance, and in some insta...
Rapid climate and human land-use change may limit the ability of long-distance migratory herbivores to optimally track or ‘surf’ high-quality forage during spring green-up. Understanding how anthropogenic and environmental stressors influence migratory movements is of critical importance because of their potential to cause a mismatch between the ti...
Migratory ungulates are often exposed to anthropogenic infrastructure along their migration routes. Understanding the influence of such development on migratory behavior is critical to successful planning and conservation. Impermeable barriers have obvious and detrimental effects to migratory ungulate populations, but the influence of semi-permeabl...
Restrictions on roaming
Until the past century or so, the movement of wild animals was relatively unrestricted, and their travels contributed substantially to ecological processes. As humans have increasingly altered natural habitats, natural animal movements have been restricted. Tucker et al. examined GPS locations for more than 50 species. In ge...
As the extent and intensity of energy development in North America increases, so do disturbances to wildlife and the habitats they rely upon. Impacts to mule deer are of particular concern because some of the largest gas fields in the USA overlap critical winter ranges. Short-term studies of two to three years have shown that mule deer and other un...
Partial migration occurs across a variety of taxa and has important ecological and evolutionary consequences. Among ungulates, studies of partially migratory populations have allowed researchers to compare and contrast performance metrics of migrants versus residents and examine how environmental factors influence the relative abundance of each. Su...
The green wave hypothesis (GWH) states that migrating animals should track
or ‘surf’ high-quality forage at the leading edge of spring green-up. To index
such high-quality forage, recent work proposed the instantaneous rate of
green-up (IRG), i.e. rate of change in the normalized difference vegetation
index over time. Despite this important advance...
The seasonal migrations of ungulates are increasingly threatened by various forms of anthropogenic disturbance, including roads, fences, and other infrastructure. Although roadway impacts (e.g., wildlife–vehicle collisions and landscape permeability) to species such as mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) can largely be mitigated with underpasses and co...
In an effort to better convey the science to migration stakeholders, the Wyoming Migration Initiative conducted a “migration assessment” of this newly discovered mule deer migration. The assessment identified specific locales of potential risks (e.g., fences, road crossings, bottlenecks, energy development) and considered the complex land-use patte...
Conservation easements are an increasingly popular tool for protecting wildlife habitat on private land. Easements, however, can be expensive. Since conservation needs generally outpace budgets, policymakers and conservationists need approaches to prioritize conservation spending. Typical prioritization approaches that balance costs against benefit...
Conservation easements are an increasingly popular tool for protecting wildlife habitat on private land. Easements, however, can be expensive. Since conservation needs generally outpace budgets, policymakers and conservationists need approaches to prioritize conservation spending. Typical prioritization approaches that balance costs against benefit...
Migratory behavior in ungulates has declined globally and understanding the causative factors (environmental change vs. human mediated) is needed to formulate effective management strategies. In the Jackson elk herd of northwest Wyoming, demographic differences between summer elk (Cervus elaphus) population segments have led to changes in migratory...
Conserving migratory ungulates in increasingly human-dominated landscapes presents a difficult challenge to land managers and conservation practitioners. Nevertheless, ungulates may receive ancillary benefits from conservation actions designed to protect species of greater conservation priority where their ranges are sympatric. Greater Sage-Grouse...
Resource selection functions (RSFs) are typically estimated by comparing covariates at a discrete set of "used" locations to those from an "available" set of locations. This RSF approach treats the response as binary and does not account for intensity of use among habitat units where locations were recorded. Advances in global positioning system (G...
Ecological theory predicts that the diffuse risk cues generated by wide-ranging, active predators should induce prey behavioural responses but not major, population- or community-level consequences. We evaluated the non-consumptive effects (NCEs) of an active predator, the grey wolf (Canis lupus), by simultaneously tracking wolves and the behaviour...
Elevated baseline adult female elk mortality from wolves in years with high winter precipitation could affect elk abundance as winters across the western US become drier and wolves recolonize portions of the region. In the absence of human harvest, wolves had additive, although limited, effects on mortality. However, human harvest, and its apparent...
1. Impermeable barriers to migration can greatly constrain the set of possible routes and ranges used by migrating animals. For ungulates, however, many forms of development are semi-permeable, and making informed management decisions about their potential impacts to the persistence of migration routes is difficult because our knowledge of how semi...
Wildlife–vehicle collisions pose a major safety concern to motorists and can be a significant source of mortality for wildlife. Additionally, roadways can impede movements and reduce habitat connectivity. For migratory ungulates, these problems can be exacerbated when roadways bisect migration routes, as is the case in Southwest Wyoming, USA, where...
Background/Question/Methods
The risk of predation is known to influence prey foraging behavior, prey reproduction, and primary production in many food webs, but few studies have evaluated whether these effects generalize to the vast landscapes occupied by large-bodied vertebrate predators and their prey. In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE)...
1. Birds that migrate long distances use stopover sites to optimize fuel loads and complete migration as quickly as possible. Stopover use has been predicted to facilitate a time-minimization strategy in land migrants as well, but empirical tests have been lacking, and alternative migration strategies have not been considered. 2. We used fine-scale...
Recent expansions by Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) into nonforested habitats across the Intermountain West have required managers to reconsider the traditional paradigms of forage and cover as they relate to managing elk and their habitats. We examined seasonal habitat selection patterns of a hunted elk population in a nonforested high-desert...
ABSTRACT Conversion of native winter range into producing gas fields can affect the habitat selection and distribution patterns of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Understanding how levels of human activity influence mule deer is necessary to evaluate mitigation measures and reduce indirect habitat loss to mule deer on winter ranges with natural g...
ABSTRACT Researchers have suggested golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) populations may be declining in portions of their range. However, there are few baseline data describing golden eagle populations across their range in the western United States. We used aerial line transect distance methodology with a double-observer modification to estimate gold...
As habitat loss and fragmentation increase across ungulate ranges, identifying and prioritizing migration routes for conservation has taken on new urgency. Here we present a general framework using the Brownian bridge movement model (BBMM) that: (1) provides a probabilistic estimate of the migration routes of a sampled population, (2) distinguishes...
Inferences about habitat selection by animals derived from sequences of relocations obtained with global positioning system (GPS) collars can be influenced by GPS fix success. Environmental factors such as dense canopy cover or rugged terrain can reduce GPS fix success, making subsequent modeling problematic if fix success depends on the selected h...
Increased levels of natural gas exploration, development, and production across the Intermountain West have created a variety of concerns for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations, including direct habitat loss to road and well-pad construction and indirect habitat losses that may occur if deer use declines near roads or well pads. We examine...
Migratory mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) populations rely on seasonal ranges to meet their annual nutritional and energetic requirements. Because seasonal ranges often occur great distances apart and across a mix of vegetation types and land ownership, maintaining migration corridors to and from these ranges c...
We documented distribution and seasonal movement patterns of radio-collared mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) that used winter ranges in and adjacent to the Pinedale Anticline Project Area (PAPA). The PAPA is a 308 square-mile (798 km2) area located in western Wyoming proposed for extensive natural gas developmen...
Citations
... Changes in fidelity can result in the total loss of migration routes used by a population, whereas shifts in stopover sites and small-scale avoidance can translate to functional habitat loss, both of which can have potential population-level consequences (Sawyer et al., 2017). Such displacement can restrict the amount of habitat available and reduce access to important forage resources, thus reducing fitness and population viability, particularly in populations with spatially restricted habitat and where habituation does not occur (Aikens et al., 2022;Sawyer et al., 2017). Despite numerous studies documenting the influence of oil and gas development on mule deer migration, we know little about the impacts of alternative forms of energy development on other ungulate species. ...
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... To define timing of migration, we used Migration Mapper V. 2.0 (Merkle et al., 2022). Migration Mapper plots GPS locations on a map along with a profile of net squared displacement to allow the user to visually inspect these profiles to specify when individuals begin and complete migratory movements. ...
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... While remote sensing information is widely used for habitat suitability analyses (e.g. Broekman et al., 2022), it represents only proxies of structural or other vegetation prerequisites that actually define what makes a habitat suitable or not for arboreal mammals. Here, we exemplify differences between structural information based on classical vegetation descriptions and plant productivity information derived from satellite images in a study of habitat utilization of crowned lemurs (Eulemur coronatus) in a highly degraded forest habitat of northern Madagascar. ...
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... Permeability was modeled as a binary covariate (0 or 1) indicating whether or not an individual tiger step crossed the highway. As such, steps taken by a tiger when not within crossing distance of the highway (i.e., the highway is not available to cross) did not contribute to the permeability effect size calculation (Robb et al., 2022). In addition, we expected that time of day (day or night, as defined above) and COVID lockdown policy period (pre-lockdown, during lockdown, or post-lockdown) would interact with distance to road and highway permeability. ...
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... A defining characteristic of the Anthropocene is the unprecedented speed at which environments are changing (Steffen et al. 2011;Lewis and Maslin 2015). Under rapid change, previously optimal behaviors may be mismatched to present environmental conditions (Sih et al. 2011) and may become maladaptive (Merkle et al. 2022). Populations that have the capacity for behavioral flexibility in response to novel pressures, for example greater genetic variation or an evolved ability to be flexible in resource use, may have a greater chance of survival (Sih et al. 2011). ...
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... Exhibiting life-history strategies to deal with fluctuations in habitat quality through time is fundamental for species living in seasonal environments (Chevin et al., 2010). In many species, migration is a strategy organisms use to optimize the use of seasonally available resources (Albon & Langvatn, 1992;Fryxell et al., 1988;Kauffman et al., 2021;Shaw, 2016). In this context, migration is most effective when individuals adjust their movement to match the phenology of their environment, which may serve as a cue to forecast conditions across seasonal ranges (Kölzsch et al., 2015;Laforge et al., 2021). ...
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... This holds especially true for wild ungulates, as many species track resources across vast areas by following landscape-wide wavelike greening patterns (e.g., Bischof et al., 2012). Through this they increase forage quality by tracking plant maturation stages of high nutritional value (Fryxell, 1991;Esmaeili et al., 2021) or the duration of the experienced green season (Aikens et al., 2020). At the same time, when larger herbivores can reach and leave places at the right times (Holdo et al., 2007) and in critical densities, grazing stimulates the growth of many grassland plant species. ...
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... As mentioned, restoration could help reduce the effect of avoidance areas but still, even if deer travel through less dense development, the increase of movement rate through such development could increase energy expenditure. By way of a multiplying factor for such areas, future studies could help measure the long term effects of persistent increased energy expenditure (Dwinnell et al. 2021). Future studies could also give attention to the increase of EE on a larger spatial scale, encompassing migration routes and the full annual cycle, with potential cascading effects to population-and species-level costs and between habitat patches. ...
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... Recently, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) proposes a post-2020 global biodiversity framework where monitoring and maintaining genetic diversity within all species (domestic and wild) is prioritized under the Goals and Action Targets (Convention on Biological Diversity, 2022). In light of this, we believe that the landscape genetics approach bridges the ecological information and population genetic estimates to spatially represent genetic diversity patterns, as well as the functionality of the biological corridors [7][8][9][10]. Any potential habitat loss and fragmentation often restrict the movement of highly mobile species and limit their gene flow in the landscape [11,12]. ...
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... Such models can then be used to simulate movement trajectories that can then be used in seed transport models [21,33]. Animal tracking also reveals migratory behaviors that are especially conducive to long-distance seed dispersal [35]. ...