Gérard Després’s research while affiliated with French National Centre for Scientific Research and other places

On the basis of the theoretical distinction between self-centeredness and selflessness (Dambrun and Ricard, 2011), the main goal of this research was to develop two new scales assessing distinct dimensions of happiness. By trying to maximize pleasures and to avoid displeasures, we propose that a self-centered functioning induces a fluctuating happiness in which phases of pleasure and displeasure alternate repeatedly (i.e., Fluctuating Happiness). In contrast, a selfless psychological functioning postulates the existence of a state of durable plenitude that is less dependent upon circumstances but rather is related to a person’s inner resources and abilities to deal with whatever comes his way in life (i.e., Authentic–Durable Happiness). Using various samples (n = 735), we developed a 10-item Scale measuring Subjective Fluctuating Happiness (SFHS) and a 13-item scale assessing Subjective Authentic–Durable Happiness (SA–DHS). Results indicated high internal consistencies, satisfactory test–retest validities, and adequate convergent and discriminant validities with various constructs including a biological marker of stress (salivary cortisol). Consistent with our theoretical framework, while self-enhancement values were related only to fluctuating happiness, self-transcendence values were related only to authentic–durable happiness. Support for the distinction between contentment and inner-peace, two related markers of authentic happiness, also was found.

After a milk meal, bucket-fed calves show non-nutritive oral activities, including cross-suck- ing, and this can discourage producers from rearing them in groups. Sucking is known to induce a quiet state in humans and rats. We examined if nutritive sucking affects non-nutritive oral activities in calves, if it reduces arousal (assessed through behavior and cardiac activity), and if sucking a dry teat can compen- sate for the lack of nutritive sucking. In Exp. 1, the behavior and the cardiac activity of individually housed calves fed milk from a bucket were compared to those of calves fed milk through a teat. During the meal, the heart rate of bucket-fed calves was higher than that of teat-fed calves (P < 0.0001). After the meal, only bucket- fed calves displayed bar sucking. Compared to the teat- fed calves, they spent more time licking their pen or their neighbor (P < 0.001 and P < 0.05), their heart rate was less variable (P < 0.01), and they lay down with the head unsupported by the neck less quickly (latency to lie down: 51 min vs 42 min, P < 0.05). In Exp. 2,

In intensive rearing, birds are exposed to frequent changes in both their social and physical environments, and this can have an impact on animal welfare under commercial conditions. The aim of the present study was to compare the emotional responses induced by social and non-social changes and to study the influence of the familiarity on these responses. Twenty-two female quail were first reared with a ball in 15–20-individual groups for 3 weeks from hatching. Then, each experimental subject was allocated either a familiar congener (CONG) or a familiar object (BALL). At 6 weeks of age the birds were fitted with a telemetric device to collect motor and cardiac activities. After that, each subject was exposed first to a separation from its cage-mate/familiar object, and secondly to the (re-)introduction of either the cage-mate/familiar object or of an unknown conspecific/ another ball. Emotional responses were assessed through behavioural reactions and heart rate variability. Before being separated, both BALL and CONG quail showed stereotyped pacing that was more pronounced in BALL quail. BALL quail were not affected by the ball withdrawal, unlike CONG quail which reacted to the separation from their cage-mate by reducing activity and exploratory behaviour (P < 0.05). After the re-introduction, BALL quail remained closer to their ball and CONG quail spent more time with ‘‘stretched necks’’ than before the separation (P < 0.05). Surprisingly, CONG quail showed less stereotyped pacing when their partner was removed and recovered the initial level of stereotyped behaviour when their cage-mate was re-introduced (P < 0.01). Likewise, CONG quail also recovered the initial values of heart rate after the re-introduction of their cage-mate, indicating an increase in sympathetic activity compared to the isolation period. When the unfamiliar congener or ball was introduced in their cage, BALL quail pecked the unknown ball more than the familiar ball and had more contact with it (P < 0.05) and CONG quail had more contact with the unknown congener than with the cage-mate (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the quail appeared to experience a negative affective state before being separated, and there was no clear evidence of negative emotion in quail in response to the separation from either a social partner or an inanimate object. Nevertheless, the emotional responses of the quail in reaction to the (re- )introduction was influenced by the familiarity of the congener or the ball. Finally, changes in the quail’s social environment induced more behavioural and cardiac modifications than changes in its non-social environment.

Tonic immobility (TI) is an unlearned fear response induced by a brief physical restraint and characterized by a marked autonomic nervous system involvement. This experiment aimed at studying the relative involvement of both autonomic sub-systems, the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, during TI, by analyzing Heart Rate Variability. Quail selected genetically for long (LTI) or short (STI) TI duration and quail from a control line (CTI) were used. The animals were surgically fitted with a telemetric device to record electrocardiograms before and during a TI test. Heart rate did not differ between lines at rest. The induction of TI, whether effective or not, induced an increase in HR characterized by a shift of the sympathovagal balance towards a higher sympathetic dominance. Parasympathetic activity was lower during effective than during non-effective inductions in CTI quail. During TI, the increase in sympathetic dominance was initially maintained and then declined, while relative parasympathetic activity remained low, especially in CTI and STI lines. The end of tonic immobility was characterized by a rise in overall autonomic activity in all lines and an increase in parasympathetic influence in CTI and STI quail. To conclude, the susceptibility to TI cannot be explained only by autonomic reflex changes. It is probably strongly related to the perception of the test by the quail. During TI, the differences between lines in autonomic responses probably reflect behavioural differences in the fear response.

Measurement of heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive technique that can be used to investigate the functioning of the autonomic nervous system, especially the balance between sympathetic and vagal activity. It has been proven to be very useful in humans for both research and clinical studies concerned with cardiovascular diseases, diabetic autonomic dysfunction, hypertension and psychiatric and psychological disorders. Over the past decade, HRV has been used increasingly in animal research to analyse changes in sympathovagal balance related to diseases, psychological and environmental stressors or individual characteristics such as temperament and coping strategies. This paper discusses current and past HRV research in farm animals. First, it describes how cardiac activity is regulated and the relationships between HRV, sympathovagal balance and stress and animal welfare. Then it proceeds to outline the types of equipment and methodological approaches that have been adapted and developed to measure inter-beats intervals (IBI) and estimate HRV in farm animals. Finally, it discusses experiments and conclusions derived from the measurement of HRV in pigs, cattle, horses, sheep, goats and poultry. Emphasis has been placed on deriving recommendations for future research investigating HRV, including approaches for measuring and analysing IBI data. Data from earlier research demonstrate that HRV is a promising approach for evaluating stress and emotional states in animals. It has the potential to contribute much to our understanding and assessment of the underlying neurophysiological processes of stress responses and different welfare states in farm animals.

This study investigated whether genetic selection on a divergent behavioural trait of fearfulness (tonic immobility duration) was related to changes in the nervous control of the heart. Quail selected for either long or short tonic immobility (LTI or STI, respectively) duration was compared with an unselected control line (CTI). The autonomic control of the heart was assessed by heart rate variability analysis and pharmacological blockades. Quail were surgically fitted with a telemetric device. Heart rate before injection did not differ between the three lines. The vagal-sympathetic effect (VSE) at rest differed significantly from 1 in CTI and STI quail, suggesting that parasympathetic activity was dominant. In LTI quail, VSE did not differ from 1, suggesting a balance between parasympathetic and sympathetic activities. The intrinsic heart rate reached after the successive injections of propranolol and atropine did not differ between lines and was higher than the heart rate at rest in STI, which was in line with results of VSE at rest. After atropine injection, the sympathetic activity indicated by the low-frequency power was lower in CTI than in the two selected quail. After propranolol injection, the parasympathetic activity indicated by the root of the mean squares of successive differences and the high-frequency power was higher in STI than in CTI and LTI quail. Selection on tonic immobility duration thus appears to be associated with changes in the sympathovagal control of the heart, which may influence behavioural responses to stressful situations.

Emotional reactivity modulates autonomic responses to an acoustic challenge in quail. Physio Behav 00(0) 000-000, 2006. This study investigated the relationship between emotional reactivity and behavioral and autonomic responses to an acoustic stimulus in quail. It was hypothesized that birds with high emotional reactivity would have higher motor inhibition combined with higher sympathetic activation than birds with low emotional reactivity. Two experiments were performed. The first looked for correlations between emotional reactivity, evaluated by a tonic immobility test, and motor and Heart Rate Variability in relation to an acoustic stimulus. The second experiment compared the motor and autonomic responses to the acoustic stimulus of quail selected on either long (LTI) or short (STI) duration of tonic immobility. The first experiment showed that the acoustic stimulation induced motor inhibition and cardiac activation. Correlations were found between tonic immobility duration and both autonomic activity before stimulation and sympathovagal balance after stimulation. In the second experiment, LTI quail showed strong sympathetic activation, whereas STI quail showed parasympathetic and sympathetic activation. The activation of the parasympathetic system induced by the noise in STI quail can be explained by the predominance of this system at rest in this line. In conclusion, both the basal autonomic activity and the autonomic responses differed according to the emotional reactivity, and changes in autonomic activity appear to be related to the genetic selection process.

Appraisal theories state that an emotion results from an individual's evaluation of a stimulating event, which is based on a set of criteria. Each criterion triggers specific expressions that can be modulated by the outcome of other criteria. The authors analyzed the effects of the criteria of suddenness, unfamiliarity, and their combination on behavioral and cardiac responses in lambs (Ovis aries). Lambs were exposed to a visual stimulus that appeared either rapidly or slowly and was either unfamiliar or familiar. Suddenness induced a startle response and an increase in heart rate. Unfamiliarity induced an orientation response. The combination of suddenness and unfamiliarity enhanced both the heart rate increase and the behavioral orientation response. These results support the hypotheses of specificity and modulation of emotional expressions.