Florencia Montagnini’s research while affiliated with Yale-New Haven Hospital and other places

Globally and particularly in Argentina, biodiversity is declining due to the loss of species and habitats, while indigenous cultures are being eroded simultaneously. This results in a reduced capacity to transmit indigenous cultural diversity, the EIK (ecological indigenous knowledge), and biological and cultural resources for future generations. The traditional use of the land by indigenous peoples for thousands of years has contributed to maintain biodiversity and cultural values. The use of EIK can generate new strategies for R + D (research and development) for biodiversity conservation and for the implementation of natural resource management (NRM) systems promoting the integration of indigenous communities in decision-making processes. This chapter reports results of an analysis on integration of EIK and ESK (ecological scientific knowledge) in NRM in Misiones Province (Argentina). We describe the results and recommendations generated by analyzing national and international experiences in NRM, including agroforestry, and present a case study in the indigenous communities that inhabit the Guarani Reserve for Multiple Use (GRMU) of the School of Forestry–National University of Misiones, regarding NRM activities and related cultural values. From the results of surveys conducted with indigenous communities, it appears that the place where the EIK can regenerate lies in the natural context where the EIK has originated. There is a need to take preventive measures to remediate the erosive processes that undermine the integrity of the cultural setting where the EIK could be applied. Preventive measures include the legal possession of large areas of forest in order to stop or slow the advance of the agricultural frontier on natural spaces where the EIK is recreated.

Agroforestry systems (AFS) are an important strategy for conservation within human managed landscapes, given their ability to harmonize productivity with environmental functions. AFS are heterogeneous in their design, management, and species composition, and this heterogeneity has implications on their restoration, conservation, and productivity functions. AFS can function as biodiversity islands (protected and/or managed areas of high biological diversity within human-dominated landscapes) or can be incorporated into existing biodiversity islands as buffer zones. In this way, they can be integrated into already productive landscapes. This chapter provides an overview of the various ecological, social, and economic benefits of the main types of AFS and their applications as and within biodiversity islands, expanding on their role in providing critical ecosystem services. It discusses the use of incentives to support and promote AFS, safeguarding the contributions they provide to landscape biodiversity and rural communities. Payments for environmental services (PES) can be specifically designed bundling several services including biodiversity as part of programs to promote desired land use changes such as AFS. Biodiversity credit markets are becoming increasingly important as a potential mechanism that can drive financing toward the protection, regeneration, and stewardship of biodiversity, including favoring biodiversity-friendly land use options such as AFS. Finally, the role of government initiatives in supporting agroecological transitions away from conventional agriculture is described, with insight into recent advances in the US. These programs work to support AFS and climate-smart agroecology over conventional agriculture, reinforcing the contributions of AFS to biodiversity islands in the agricultural landscape.

This concluding chapter presents the lessons learned from the chapters in the three parts of the book: (I) Agroforestry Challenges and Alternatives, (II) From Subsistence to Market Oriented Systems, and (III) Environmental Services in Multifunctional Landscapes. The main findings and recommendations from each part are presented, followed by suggestions for addressing some of the pending challenges concerning agroforestry adoption, profitability of agroforestry products and services, and implementation of integrated landscape management approaches. Emphasis is placed on the value of Indigenous knowledge and how scientific expertise can contribute to identifying marketable products, adding value, and finding niche markets that will best reward producers. Agroforestry systems (AFS) can be profitable at the small, medium, and large scale if products and services are fairly and adequately valued and sufficient capacity development is enacted. Government subsidies are needed as in conventional agriculture, and AFS’ contribution of important environmental services should be part of the financial equation. Farmers’ associations and rural movements can be instrumental in grouping needs and obtaining recognition for the fair value of products through certification or other mechanisms. Theories of change need to define the specific metrics for short- and long-term impacts to be useful in evaluating the effectiveness of landscape management approaches. Efficient and equitable governance can empower and enable farmers practicing agroforestry interventions, promoting inclusivity and development in the field. Society is more aware of environmental issues that plague our world today, which will hopefully lead to measures and policies that encourage the proper recognition of AFS as a productive, sustainable, and environmentally friendly landscape management strategy.

Ilex paraguariensis A. St. -Hil. (Aquifoliaceae), known commonly as “yerba mate,” is a native plant from South America. Its leaves are commonly used to prepare a popular infusion or tea that is energizing and a source of antioxidants. Yerba mate trees are usually grown in monocultures (known as yerbales) where the leaves are harvested several times a year, but this conventional management often results in decreased plant productivity and soil erosion. Since yerba mate grows naturally in subtropical forest and is shade tolerant, it can grow under the canopy of other tree species as a component of agroforestry systems (AFS). Moreover, incorporating trees in degraded yerbales has been shown to provide environmental and economic benefits. This chapter provides a list of native species that are suitable for growing in association with yerba mate, highlighting the use of species with monopodic growth, natural pruning, and a timber stem. These traits offer benefits when planted in mixed conditions as well as additional functions related to food, landscape, and restoration. A group of valuable wood species, known locally as “precious wood,” are a priority due to vulnerability from exploitation. Other species of interest exhibit good growth, valuable soil restoration functions, and the ability to naturally integrate over time to form a vertically heterogeneous and biodiverse forest. As producers attempt to bring products from yerba mate AFS to the market, there is a need for a traceability system to certify tree species throughout production. Yerba mate AFS offer numerous ecosystem services, namely, biodiversity enhancement, carbon sequestration, and the maintenance/restoration of landscape soil and water quality, all of which are discussed in more detail in the chapter. Methodologies used to manage these areas focus on maximizing productivity and profitability, optimizing livelihood benefits, biodiversity recovery, and carbon sequestration.

Worldwide there are over 1000 million hectares of agroforestry systems (AFS). The most frequent are shaded annual and perennial crops, silvopastoral systems, live fences, and windbreaks. Many Indigenous and local communities still utilize AFS to promote agroecosystem sustainability, using techniques such as residue management and ash deposition, enhancement of nutrient recycling and conservation, and high species diversity maintenance. However, these communities often remain marginalized, and poverty and resource degradation prevail. Many international entities, nonprofit organizations, and others are conducting research for enhanced development with AFS. Their work is geared toward decreasing rural poverty and hunger while maintaining landscape integrity and ecosystem services. Several of these programs and projects work to attain the goals and targets set as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and in particular SDG 2, which focuses on decreasing hunger and malnutrition. Most of these efforts seek to integrate the traditional knowledge of smallholders with scientific knowledge on environmental and agricultural strategies. With this combined understanding, groups can promote the most suitable systems for varied contexts. This chapter focuses on AFS projects geared to contribute to SDGs, illustrating practical solutions and remaining challenges. Significant advances have been made with regard to selecting the most appropriate types of AFS products and markets. This has increased smallholders’ access to markets for trees and other AFS products, allowing those who are socially or economically marginalized to capitalize on the value inherent in these systems. Important challenges and possibilities remain as stakeholders attempt to ascertain how AFS can scale outward and reach larger scales.

Agroforestry systems (AFS) are broadly defined as a set of land uses and practices that integrate trees and other woody vegetation into agricultural systems. They are becoming increasingly relevant worldwide as society recognizes their multiple roles and functions: food and energy production, biodiversity conservation, ecosystem restoration, climate change adaptation and mitigation, and tools for rural development. This chapter summarizes advances in agroforestry research and practice and poses questions on the effectiveness of AFS to solve the development and environmental challenges the world presents us with today. Beginning in the 1970s, academic research into AFS emphasized their function as a viable productive alternative to industrial agriculture. Studies focused on AFS design, multipurpose tree/shrub species, and advancing financial evaluations. Later, research turned to alleviating poverty and improving food security. In the last decade, focus has shifted to AFS’s role in restoring degraded landscapes, conserving biodiversity, and adapting to and mitigating climate change. Current challenges to successful AFS include difficulties integrating traditional knowledge with current scientific expertise, the lack of a market for AFS products and services, a need to properly monitor the achievement of set goals, and barriers to scaling up successful AFS. These challenges require innovative solutions from varying perspectives and knowledge bases in order for AFS to successfully bring about multifaceted, beneficial change at multiple scales. The science and practice of agroforestry is evolving rapidly, and the second edition of this book reflects these changes. The appreciation of AFS is increasing among practitioners and decision-makers who can effectively promote their implementation, gaining momentum toward their biodiversity conservation and food sovereignty-harmonizing goals.