Erkki K. Laitinen’s research while affiliated with University of Vaasa and other places

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Publications (117)


Detecting zombie firms in a sample of Finnish small firms
  • Article

September 2024

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23 Reads

Global Policy

Erkki K. Laitinen

The objective of the study was to develop a method to detect zombie firms in a sample of mainly very small companies. The original sample consisted of 70,809 active and 134 bankrupt Finnish companies (or firms in insolvency proceedings) for 2018–2020. In the sample firms, the median number of employees was only 2. First, a logistic regression model to measure bankruptcy risk was estimated using three financial ratios as independent variables reflecting profitability, liquidity and solvency. Zombie firms were defined as active companies which are technically bankrupt but are still operating in the market. Second, following this definition, the model was used to assess the bankruptcy risk of active firms, and a zombie company was operationally defined as an active company whose bankruptcy risk exceeds the median for bankrupt companies in three consecutive years. In this way, over 2000 zombie companies were detected making in total 3.5% of the active companies.




Common distress and reorganization patterns by sector and country for SMEs in six European countries using PDFR: Patrones comunes de fracaso y reorganización por sector y país para las PYMEs de seis países europeos utilizando PDFR
  • Article
  • Full-text available

July 2023

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29 Reads

Revista de Contabilidad

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Erkki K Laitinen

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[...]

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This study contributes to identifying common distress patterns in financial indicators by sector and country in Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain as well as ex-post signals of reorganization success. We use PDFR that provides a distance-to-failure measure and allows us to track the behavior of different features of the firm proxied by accounting ratios. Our results show that indicators of financial structure, followed by working capital, profitability on assets, margin over sales and cash flow to assets, are the most discriminant variables of failed SMEs across all sectors and countries analyzed. By contrast, during reorganization, return on assets and its components are the main initial drivers of recovery, whereas the financial structure factors show a progressive but slow recovery. Boosting and Z-scores are used for robustness. Este estudio contribuye a la identificación de patrones comunes de fracaso en indicadores financieros por sector y país en Alemania, España, Finlandia, Francia, Italia y Portugal, así como a la identificación de patrones comunes de éxito en la reorganización. Utilizamos PDFR, que proporciona una medida de distancia al fracaso y permite hacer un seguimiento de la evolución de la empresa a través de sus ratios contables. Nuestros resultados muestran que los indicadores de estructura financiera, seguidos de fondo de maniobra, rentabilidad sobre activos, margen sobre ventas y cashflow sobre activos, son las variables más discriminantes de las pymes clasificadas como fracasadas, en todos los sectores y países analizados. En contraste, durante la reorganización, la rentabilidad sobre activos y sus componentes son los principales inductores iniciales de la recuperación, mientras que los indicadores de estructura financiera muestran una progresiva pero lenta recuperación. Se utilizan Boosting y Z-score como medidas de robustez.

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A review of the limitations of financial failure prediction research: Revisión de las limitaciones de la investigación sobre predicción de quiebras financieras

July 2023

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466 Reads

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3 Citations

Revista de Contabilidad

The objective of this paper is to critically evaluate the main weaknesses associated with the limitations of financial failure prediction research studies. For more than 80 years, researchers have unsuccessfully studied ways to create a general theory of financial failure, which is useful for prediction. In this paper, we review the main boundaries of failure prediction research through a critical evaluation of previous papers and our own approach from the research experience. Our findings corroborate that these studies suffer from a lack of theoretical and dynamic research, an unclear definition of failure, deficiencies with the quality of financial statement data and a shortfall in the diagnostic analyses of failure. The most relevant implications for future research in this area are also outlined. This is the first study to analyse in deep the caveats of financial failure prediction studies, a crucial topic nowadays due to the hints of an economic crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemic. El objetivo de este artículo es evaluar críticamente los principales puntos débiles asociados a las limitaciones de los estudios de investigación sobre predicción de quiebras financieras. Durante más de 80 años, los investigadores han estudiado sin éxito la forma de crear una teoría general del fracaso financiero que sea útil para la predicción. En este artículo, revisamos los principales límites de la investigación sobre predicción de quiebras mediante una evaluación crítica de trabajos anteriores y nuestro propio enfoque a partir de la experiencia investigadora. Nuestras conclusiones corroboran que estos estudios adolecen de una falta de investigación teórica y dinámica, una definición poco clara del fracaso, deficiencias con la calidad de los datos de los estados financieros y un déficit en los análisis de diagnóstico del fracaso. También se esbozan las implicaciones más relevantes para futuras investigaciones en este ámbito. Se trata del primer estudio que analiza en profundidad las salvedades de los estudios de predicción de la quiebra financiera, un tema crucial en la actualidad debido a los atisbos de crisis económica provocados por la pandemia del Covid-19.


Statistics of financial ratios and control variables in the companies owned by women and men.
Regression results for labor expenses/operating revenue (Labor intensity).
Regression results for P/L before tax/operating revenue (Profit margin (%)).
Regression results for P/L before tax/total assets (Return on total assets (%)).
Regression results for shareholders funds/non-current liabilities (Shareholders liquidity ratio).

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Financial Ratios in Women-Owned and Men-Owned Small Firms: Evidence from Finland

January 2023

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54 Reads

Theoretical Economics Letters





Common Distress and Reorganization Patterns by Sector and Country for SMEs in Six European Countries using PDFR

December 2021

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42 Reads

SSRN Electronic Journal

This study contributes to identifying common distress patterns in financial indicators by sector and country in Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain as well as ex-post signals of reorganization success. We use PDFR that provides a distance-to-failure measure and allows us to track the behavior of different features of the firm proxied by accounting ratios. Our results show that indicators of financial structure, followed by working capital, profitability on assets, margin over sales and cash flow to assets, are the most discriminant variables of failed SMEs across all sectors and countries analyzed. By contrast, during reorganization, return on assets and its components are the main initial drivers of recovery, whereas the financial structure factors show a progressive but slow recovery. Boosting and Z-scores are used for robustness. Resumen. Este estudio contribuye a la identificación de patrones comunes de fracaso en indicadores financieros por sector y país en Alemania, España, Finlandia, Francia, Italia y Portugal, así como a la identificación de patrones comunes de éxito en la reorganización. Utilizamos PDFR, que proporciona una medida de distancia al fracaso y permite hacer un seguimiento de la evolución de la empresa a través de sus ratios contables. Nuestros resultados muestran que los indicadores de estructura financiera, seguidos de fondo de maniobra, rentabilidad sobre activos, margen sobre ventas y cashflow sobre activos, son las variables más discriminantes de las pymes clasificadas como fracasadas, en todos los sectores y países analizados. En contraste, durante la reorganización, la rentabilidad sobre activos y sus componentes son los principales inductores iniciales de la recuperación, mientras que los indicadores de estructura financiera muestran una progresiva pero lenta recuperación. Se utilizan Boosting y Z-score como medidas de robustez.


Citations (86)


... To date, thousands of failure prediction papers have been published (Soukal et al., 2023), and since the earliest studies, financial ratios have mainly been used as predictors (Jones, 2023). Despite the popularity of financial ratios, a recent literature review by Laitinen et al. (2023) noted several drawbacks of the extant research, including the lack of a theory behind the selection of predictors and the absence of dynamic research. ...

Reference:

Exporters’ failure predictors and processes: a multi-country analysis based on the theoretical concept of firms’ financial crisis types
A review of the limitations of financial failure prediction research: Revisión de las limitaciones de la investigación sobre predicción de quiebras financieras

Revista de Contabilidad

... Other studies have also discussed this issue (15). Performance and efficiency analysis helps startups identify inefficient and improveable factors in the business process, evaluates their performance and competitiveness, and is also very effective for monitoring financial stability (72), (73). The "performance analysis" dimension was identified with 4 factors, "reducing unnecessary business costs" and "paying attention to the amount of production efficiency compared to the scale of activity", in this research. ...

Estimation of Long-Term Profitability of Startups: An Experimental Analysis

Theoretical Economics Letters

... There are various ways to distinguish these business growth stages, but typically, the government classifies the growth stages of SMEs: a) inception stage (up to 7 years, b) maturing stage (between 8-15 years), c) maturity stage (more than 10 years) (Financial Services Commission, 2015;2017). As Jang's study (2021) found that SMEs showed non-significant growth stages between 4-7 years, this study further discerns the SME growth stages into 4 different stages to investigate the nuanced effects of AI innovation voucher: early-stage (1-3 years), mid-stage (4-5 years), late-stage (6-7 years), and maturing stage (more than 8 years). ...

Profitability Ratios in the Early Stages of a Startup
  • Citing Article
  • November 2017

The Journal of Entrepreneurial Finance

... He also concluded that the sensitivity of the estimates made estimation very difficult. Later, Laitinen & Laitinen (2022) presented several methods to estimate the revenue (generation) lag and, simultaneously, IRR for mature Finnish firms. The authors did not test the validity of the estimation methods, because it was not possible to know the correct value of IRR. ...

Timing of Revenues and Expenses: Evidence from Finland

Theoretical Economics Letters

... Hussaini and Muhammed (2018) described business performance as the capacity of firms to gain opportunities and encounter challenges by operating firms efficiently and profitably. To increase business performance, developing the right business strategies is essential and interconnected (Kadak & Laitinen, 2021) therefore the performance measurement must be aligned with the business strategies (Hansen, 2021). Business performance can be measured by assessing a firm's financial performance, innovation performance and market performance (Santos & Brito, 2012). ...

How different types of performance management systems affect organizational performance?
  • Citing Article
  • January 2021

Measuring Business Excellence

... According to Fraser & Simkins (2016) KPIs also implicitly represent a set of measures for those aspects of performance which are most critical for the current and future success of the enterprise. Basic process measurement criteria include measuring costs -what costs each activity has, quantities -how many outputs the process produces, reliability -how often the process fails, timeliness -how outputs are delivered on time, accuracy -how often defective products are produced (Laitinen, 2021). By measuring the basic process criteria, the enterprise identifies problems and potential risks associated with them. ...

Analyzing business-failure-process risk: evidence from Finland
  • Citing Article
  • February 2021

Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting

... It's the key inflation indicator. Higher CPIs indicate higher inflation, which lowers purchasing power (Altman et al., 2020). Economic policy uncertainty affects investor and expansion decisions, economic growth, and business performance. ...

A Race for Long Horizon Bankruptcy Prediction
  • Citing Article
  • February 2020

... Most studies used well-known assessment models (Altman et al. 2017) to evaluate the risk of FIDT using financial report data (by computing accounting ratios). Nevertheless, numerous studies (Bellovary et al. 2007;Laitinen and Laitinen 2020) have doubted accounting-dependent assessment models' predictive ability; they suggest advancing those models to include non-financial and market-based factors. According to Munoz-Izquierdo et al. (2020), information gathered from external auditing data showing the nature of the audit opinion and disclosure content can be considered a non-financial factor. ...

Why Does an Auditor Not Issue a Going Concern Opinion for a Failing Company? Impact of Financial Risk, Time to Bankruptcy, and Cognitive Style

Theoretical Economics Letters

... In current matching studies, the contemporaneous correlation between revenues and expenses plays an important role. This correlation or some of its variants has been widely used to reflect the quality of matching, and thus, the quality of earnings (Sivakumar & Waymire, 2003;Dichev & Tang, 2008;Donelson, Jennings, & McInnis, 2011;Srivastava, 2011;He and Shan, 2016;Bushman, Lerman, & Zhang, 2016;Laitinen, 2020). This field of study is essential to accounting since earnings are the most important output of the accounting system having a strong influence on the behavior of stakeholders (Graham, Harvey and Rajgopal, 2005). ...

Matching of expenses in financial reporting: a matching function approach
  • Citing Article
  • December 2019

Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting