Deborah E. Linder’s research while affiliated with Tufts University and other places

Animals, particularly dogs, are gaining momentum in specialized Human-Animal Interactions. Dogs’ roles range from pets, family members, volunteer visitors, and canine colleagues, to assistance dogs. This has also resulted in a need for uniform terminology to delineate between the different jobs dogs do within HAI as many of these roles are now the subject of scientific inquiry and laws. While the international literature has demonstrated growth in these areas, the terminology can leave readers confused when it comes to dogs working in the contexts of Animal Assisted Interventions (AAIs) and Assistance Dogs (AD). This article looks towards organizations with significant national and international representation to clarify the movement toward a uniform terminology that may impact the development of standards of practice and research for a variety of disciplines using AAIs and clarify laws for AD.

In this final chapter we consider the impact of more enlightened ideas about dogs kept as companion animals, new roles for therapy and service dogs, and advances in research methods used to study canine-human interaction. We begin by discussing limitations in common terminology and the need to respect each dog’s requirements for health and fulfillment. Next, we identify ten trends on the horizon that will affect human beings’ attitudes, values, practices, and policies during interactions with dogs. The chapter concludes with observations about the research/practice gap. We argue that, when it comes to human-canine interaction, it is less the case that people know the research and fail to implement it and more the case that the research has not yet “caught up to” practice.

Reading skills are an important component of academic success for school-age youth, and are associated with increased academic performance and positive attitudes about school. The presence of an animal appears to reduce stress during reading. Therefore, the goal of this study was to assess the feasibility and effects of a 6-week after-school canine-assisted reading program in a public elementary school setting. Second-grade students were randomized to either an intervention group (n = 14) in which they read to a registered therapy dog for 30 min once weekly for 6 weeks or a control group (n = 14) with a standard classroom curriculum. Children’s reading skills were assessed biweekly and attitudes about reading were assessed pre- and post-intervention. The 6-week after-school canine-assisted reading program was feasible. Reading skill scores did not change significantly for either group. Although scores on recreational reading attitudes also did not change significantly for either group, the academic reading attitudes scores increased significantly in the intervention group (p = .002), but not in the control group (p = .06). These results support the benefits of an animal-assisted intervention for child literacy on children’s attitudes about reading and can inform future programs evaluating reading programs that include dogs.

Objective: This multicenter, parallel-group, randomized trial examined the effects of an animal-assisted intervention on the stress, anxiety, and health-related quality of life for children diagnosed with cancer and their parents. Method: Newly diagnosed patients, aged 3 to 17 years (n = 106), were randomized to receive either standard care plus regular visits from a therapy dog (intervention group), or standard care only (control group). Data were collected at set points over 4 months of the child's treatment. Measures included the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory™, Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory, Pediatric Inventory for Parents, and child blood pressure and heart rate. All instruments were completed by the child and/or his/her parent(s). Results: Children in both groups experienced a significant reduction in state anxiety ( P < .001). Parents in the intervention group showed significantly decreased parenting stress ( P = .008), with no changes in stress among parents in the control group. However, no significant differences between groups over time on any measures were observed. Conclusions: Animal-assisted interventions may provide certain benefits for parents and families during the initial stages of pediatric cancer treatment.

Over the past two decades, animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), defined as the purposeful incorporation of specially trained animals in services to improve human health, have become increasingly popular in clinical settings. However, to date, there have been few rigorously-designed studies aimed at examining the impact of AAIs on therapy animals, despite a notable potential for stress. The current study measured physiological and behavioral stress indicators in therapy dogs who participated in AAI sessions in pediatric oncology settings, while also examining the psychosocial effects for patients and their parents. This manuscript describes the study’s canine stress findings. A total of 26 therapy dog-handler teams were paired with newly diagnosed children with cancer at five children’s hospitals in the United States. These teams provided regular AAI visits to the child and his/her parent(s) for a period of four months. The teams completed a demographic form, the Canine Behavioral Assessment & Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), and a self-report survey to document the types of activities that occurred during each session. Canine saliva was also collected at five baseline time points and 20 min after the start of study sessions for cortisol analysis, and all study sessions were video recorded to document the dog’s behavior via an ethogram measure. Data showed no significant differences in salivary cortisol levels between baseline (0.51 μg/dL) and AAI sessions (0.44 μg/dL; p = 0.757). Higher salivary cortisol was significantly associated with a higher number of stress behaviors per session (p = 0.039). There was a significant relationship between stress and affiliative session behaviors (p < 0.0001), indicating that dogs who exhibited more stress behaviors also exhibited more affiliative behaviors. The dog’s most commonly coded session behaviors were oral behaviors, such as lip licking, and tail wagging. The only C-BARQ factor that was found to have a significant association was stranger-directed fear; higher scores on this factor were significantly associated with the dog exhibiting fewer affiliative behaviors in sessions (b = 2.12, p = 0.042). Results show that therapy dogs did not have significantly increased physiological stress responses, nor did they exhibit significantly more stress-related behaviors than affiliative-related behaviors, while participating in AAIs in pediatric oncology settings. There was a significant relationship between canine cortisol and behavior, thus strengthening the argument for the use of cortisol in canine well-being research. This study discusses the importance of further investigation to confirm these findings, and to enhance therapy dog involvement in hospital settings.

Background Animal-assisted intervention (AAI) programs are increasing in popularity, but it is unknown to what extent therapy animal organizations that provide AAI and the hospitals and eldercare facilities they work with implement effective animal health and safety policies to ensure safety of both animals and humans. Our study objective was to survey hospitals, eldercare facilities, and therapy animal organizations on their AAI policies and procedures. Methods A survey of United States hospitals, eldercare facilities, and therapy animal organizations was administered to assess existing health and safety policies related to AAI programs. Results Forty-five eldercare facilities, 45 hospitals, and 27 therapy animal organizations were surveyed. Health and safety policies varied widely and potentially compromised human and animal safety. For example, 70% of therapy animal organizations potentially put patients at risk by allowing therapy animals eating raw meat diets to visit facilities. In general, hospitals had stricter requirements than eldercare facilities. Discussion This information suggests that there are gaps between the policies of facilities and therapy animal organizations compared with recent guidelines for animal visitation in hospitals. Conclusions Facilities with AAI programs need to review their policies to address recent AAI guidelines to ensure the safety of animals and humans involved.

The development of effective and sustainable interventions to treat childhood obesity remains both a priority and a challenge. Previous studies support that dogs provide social support in overweight adults in obesity interventions, but the child-dog relationship is not as well understood. The goal of the study was to examine the child-dog relationship among children to inform novel childhood obesity interventions including dogs. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the Living Laboratory® at the Museum of Science, Boston in 2015. Children aged 8–13, with a dog in the household, answered surveys on pet attachment (Pet Relationship Scale), perceived social support from parents and close friends (Child and Adolescent Social Support Scale), and had a height and weight measurement taken for calculation of body mass index percentile. Overweight and obese children (≥ 85th body mass index percentile) had greater mean attachment score to their dog and less mean perceived social support from their parents and friends combined compared to healthy weight children (73.1 ± 5.6 vs. 68.5 ± 7.2, p = 0.037; 110.5 ± 13.5 vs. 122.9 ± 14.8, p = 0.015, respectively; n = 43). In conclusions, children who are overweight/obese report greater mean dog attachment and lower mean perceived social support, supporting the concept that pet dogs are considered part of overweight/obese children's social support networks. Future studies are warranted to evaluate the impact of including pet dogs as additional health support in child obesity interventions.

The One Health approach to weight loss considers the aspects of the human–animal bond that can be harnessed to achieve physical benefits for both the pet and their owner.

Animal-assisted activities (AAA) and animal-assisted therapy (AAT) programs are increasing in popularity, but current programs vary in their safety and health policies. Veterinarians can have an important role in ensuring the safety of both the animals and humans involved, but it is unclear how best to educate veterinary students to serve effectively in this role. Therefore, the goal of this study was to assess the knowledge gaps and perceptions of first-year veterinary students on health and safety aspects of AAA/AAT programs by administering a survey. This information could then guide future educational training in veterinary schools to address the knowledge gaps in this area. Formal education during the veterinary curriculum had not yet been provided to these students on AAA/AAT before the survey. Of 98 first-year veterinary students, 91 completed the survey. When asked about policies on visiting animals, 58% of students responded that nursing homes are required to have a policy and 67% that hospitals are required to have one. Three-quarters of students reported that veterinarians, animal handlers, and facilities should share the responsibility for ensuring safe human-animal interaction in AAA/AAT programs. Most (82%) of the students responded that all or most national and local therapy animal groups prohibit animals that consume raw meat diets from participating in AAA/AAT programs. The results of this survey will help veterinary schools better identify knowledge gaps that can be addressed in veterinary curricula so future veterinarians will be equipped to provide appropriate public health information regarding AAA/AAT programs.