David Faulkner’s research while affiliated with Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and other places

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Publications (68)


Measured temperature reductions and energy savings from a cool tile roof on a central California home
  • Article

September 2014

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50 Reads

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50 Citations

Energy and Buildings

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David Faulkner

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Douglas P. Sullivan

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Ronnen Levinson

To assess cool-roof benefits, the temperatures, heat flows, and energy uses in two similar single-family, single-story homes built side by side in Fresno, California were measured for a year. The "cool" house had a reflective cool concrete tile roof (initial albedo 0.51) with above-sheathing ventilation, and nearly twice the thermal capacitance of the standard dark asphalt shingle roof (initial albedo 0.07) on the "standard" house. Cool-roof energy savings in the cooling and heating seasons were computed two ways. Method A divides by HVAC efficiency the difference (standard cool) in ceiling + duct heat gain. Method B measures the difference in HVAC energy use, corrected for differences in plug and window heat gains. Based on the more conservative Method B, annual cooling (compressor + fan), heating fuel, and heating fan site energy savings per unit ceiling area were 2.82 kWh/m(2) (26%), 1.13 kWh/m(2) (4%), and 0.0294 kWh/m(2) (3%), respectively. Annual space conditioning (heating + cooling) source energy savings were 10.7 kWh/m(2) (15%); annual energy cost savings were $0.886/m(2) (20%). Annual conditioning CO2, NOx, and SO2 emission reductions were 1.63 kg/m(2) (15%), 0.621 g/m(2) (10%), and 0.0462 g/m(2) (22%). Peak-hour cooling power demand reduction was 0.88 W/m(2) (37%).


Ventilation, temperature, and HVAC characteristics in small and medium commercial buildings in California

January 2012

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111 Reads

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45 Citations

D H Bennett

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W Fisk

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[...]

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D Sullivan

Abstract This field study of 37 small and medium commercial buildings throughout California obtained information on ventilation rate, temperature, and heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system characteristics. The study included seven retail establishments; five restaurants; eight offices; two each of gas stations, hair salons, healthcare facilities, grocery stores, dental offices, and fitness centers; and five other buildings. Fourteen (38%) of the buildings either could not or did not provide outdoor air through the HVAC system. The air exchange rate averaged 1.6 (s.d. = 1.7) exchanges per hour and was similar between buildings with and without outdoor air supplied through the HVAC system, indicating that some buildings have significant leakage or ventilation through open windows and doors. Not all buildings had sufficient air exchange to meet ASHRAE 62.1 Standards, including buildings used for fitness centers, hair salons, offices, and retail establishments. The majority of the time, buildings were within the ASHRAE temperature comfort range. Offices were frequently overcooled in the summer. All of the buildings had filters, but over half the buildings had a filter with a minimum efficiency reporting value rating of 4 or lower, which are not very effective for removing fine particles. Most U.S. commercial buildings (96%) are small- to medium-sized, using nearly 18% of the country’s energy, and sheltering a large population daily. Little is known about the ventilation systems in these buildings. This study found a wide variety of ventilation conditions, with many buildings failing to meet relevant ventilation standards. Regulators may want to consider implementing more complete building inspections at commissioning and point of sale.



ACCURACY OF CO2 SENSORS

October 2008

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133 Reads

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4 Citations

Are the carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors in your demand controlled ventilation systems sufficiently accurate? The data from these sensors are used to automatically modulate minimum rates of outdoor air ventilation. The goal is to keep ventilation rates at or above design requirements while adjusting the ventilation rate with changes in occupancy in order to save energy. Studies of energy savings from demand controlled ventilation and of the relationship of indoor CO2 concentrations with health and work performance provide a strong rationale for use of indoor CO2 data to control minimum ventilation rates1-7. However, this strategy will only be effective if, in practice, the CO2 sensors have a reasonable accuracy. The objective of this study was; therefore, to determine if CO2 sensor performance, in practice, is generally acceptable or problematic. This article provides a summary of study methods and findings ? additional details are available in a paper in the proceedings of the ASHRAE IAQ?2007 Conference8.


A pilot study of the accuracy of CO2 sensors in commercial buildings

January 2008

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567 Reads

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52 Citations

Carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors are often deployed in commercial buildings to obtain CO2 data that are used to automatically modulate rates of outdoor air supply. The goal is to keep ventilation rates at or above design requirements and to save energy by avoiding ventilation rates exceeding design requirements. However, there have been many anecdotal reports of poor CO2 sensor performance in actual commercial building applications. This study evaluated the accuracy of 44 CO2 sensors located in nine commercial buildings to determine if CO2 sensor performance, in practice, is generally acceptable or problematic. CO2 measurement errors varied widely and were sometimes hundreds of parts per million. Despite its small size, this study provides a strong indication that the accuracy of CO2 sensors, as they are applied and maintained in commercial buildings, is frequently less than needed to measure typical values of maximum one-hour-average indoor-outdoor CO2 concentration differences with less than a 20percent error. Thus, we conclude that there is a need for more accurate CO2 sensors and/or better sensor maintenance or calibration procedures.


Table 2 . CO 2 Concentrations in Northern California Classrooms. 1
Figure 3. Approximate PM 2.5 concentrations in the study classrooms and outside averaged across seasonal measurements. Classrooms are arranged by HVAC type. Error bars depict minimum and maximum average concentrations across seasons for each measurement location.
Table 3 . CO 2 Concentrations in Southern California Classrooms 1 .
Figure 4. Morning and afternoon thermal comfort (TC) related measurements and ASHRAE Standard 55 calculated acceptable TC levels for study classrooms during the spring of 2005 field measurement visits. Percent time during school day of acceptable TC both with and without air velocity in the ASHRAE 55 calculation are shown
Table 4 . Outside Air Supply and Air Exchange Rates for Northern and Southern California 10 SEER HVAC systems 1 .

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Improving Ventilation and Saving Energy: Final Report on Indoor Environmental Quality and Energy Monitoring in Sixteen Relocatable Classrooms
  • Article
  • Full-text available

January 2008

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402 Reads

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2 Citations

An improved HVAC system for portable classrooms was specified to address key problems in existing units. These included low energy efficiency, poor control of and provision for adequate ventilation, and excessive acoustic noise. Working with industry, a prototype improved heat pump air conditioner was developed to meet the specification. A one-year measurement-intensive field-test of ten of these IHPAC systems was conducted in occupied classrooms in two distinct California climates. These measurements are compared to those made in parallel in side by side portable classrooms equipped with standard 10 SEER heat pump air conditioner equipment. The IHPAC units were found to work as designed, providing predicted annual energy efficiency improvements of about 36 percent to 42 percent across California's climate zones, relative to 10 SEER units. Classroom ventilation was vastly improved as evidenced by far lower indoor minus outdoor CO2 concentrations. TheIHPAC units were found to provide ventilation that meets both California State energy and occupational codes and the ASHRAE minimum ventilation requirements; the classrooms equipped with the 10 SEER equipment universally did not meet these targets. The IHPAC system provided a major improvement in indoor acoustic conditions. HVAC system generated background noise was reduced in fan-only and fan and compressor modes, reducing the nose levels to better than the design objective of 45 dB(A), and acceptable for additional design points by the Collaborative on High Performance Schools. The IHPAC provided superior ventilation, with indoor minus outdoor CO2 concentrations that showed that the Title 24 minimum ventilation requirement of 15 CFM per occupant was nearly always being met. The opposite was found in the classrooms utilizing the 10 SEER system, where the indoor minus outdoor CO2 concentrations frequently exceeded levels that reflect inadequate ventilation. Improved ventilation conditions in the IHPAC lead to effective removal of volatile organic compounds and aldehydes, on average lowering the concentrations by 57 percent relative to the levels in the 10 SEER classrooms. The average IHPAC to 10 SEER formaldehyde ratio was about 67 percent, indicating only a 33 percent reduction of this compound in indoor air. The IHPAC thermal control system provided less variability in occupied classroom temperature than the 10 SEER thermostats. The average room temperatures in all seasons tended to be slightly lower in the IHPAC classrooms, often below the lower limit of the ASHRAE 55 thermal comfort band. State-wide and national energy modeling provided conservative estimates of potential energy savings by use of the IHPAC system that would provide payback a the range of time far lower than the lifetime of the equipment. Assuming electricity costs of 0.15/kWh,theperclassroomrangeofsavingsisfromabout0.15/kWh, the perclassroom range of savings is from about 85 to 195peryearinCalifornia,andabout195 per year in California, and about 89 to $250 per year in the U.S., depending upon the city. These modelsdid not include the non-energy benefits to the classrooms including better air quality and acoustic conditions that could lead to improved health and learning in school. Market connection efforts that were part of the study give all indication that this has been a very successful project. The successes include the specification of the IHPAC equipment in the CHPS portable classroom standards, the release of a commercial product based on the standards that is now being installed in schools around the U.S., and the fact that a public utility company is currently considering the addition of the technology to its customer incentive program. These successes indicate that the IHPAC may reach its potential to improve ventilation and save energy in classrooms.

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Performance of Underfloor Air Distribution in a Field Setting

December 2006

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37 Reads

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14 Citations

International Journal of Ventilation

Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) is a new method of supplying heated or cooled air throughout a building. Reported advantages of UFAD include energy savings and improved indoor air quality (IAQ). We measured several aspects of the performance of a UFAD system installed in a medium-size office building. The measured air change effectiveness was very close to unity, which is comparable to that measured in buildings with typical overhead air distribution. The pollutant removal efficiency for carbon dioxide was 13% higher than expected in a space with well-mixed air, suggesting a 13% reduction in exposures to occupant generated pollutants. The increase in indoor air temperatures with height above the floor was only 1 to 2 °C. This amount of thermal stratification could reduce the sensible energy requirements for cooling of outdoor air by approximately 10%. The occupants' level of satisfaction with thermal conditions was well above average and this high satisfaction rating could possibly be due, in all or part, to the use of a UFAD system. The results of this study provide some evidence of moderate energy and IAQ-related benefits of UFAD. Before general conclusions are drawn, the benefits need to be confirmed in other studies.


Measuring OA intake rates

August 2006

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19 Reads

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8 Citations

Ashrae Journal

Approximately 1 quad (1 EJ) of energy, costing $7.2 billion, is used annually for conditioning the OA ventilation air supplied to U.S. commercial, institutional, and government, buildings. The rate of OA ventilation also affects occupant health. In cross-sectional studies of buildings with various rates of OA ventilation, lower ventilation rates have been associated with increased respiratory illnesses (e.g., common colds), increased sick building syndrome symptoms, and diminished satisfaction with IAQ. Recent data indicate that lower OA ventilation rates also are associated with small decrements in work performance. Clearly, a need exists to strike a balance between the benefits of increased OA ventilation and the beneficial energy savings from reduced OA ventilation. Design of the OA intake systems to avoid low pressure signals and the use of accurate pressure transducers are keys to accurate measurements of OA flow rate. With real-time data on OA flows, substantial improvements in our control of OA supply to buildings should be possible.


Measuring Outdoor Airflow into HVAC Systems

August 2005

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18 Reads

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1 Citation

Ashrae Journal

The rate of outdoor air (OA) supply affects building energy consumption, occupant health, and work performance; however, minimum ventilation rates are often poorly controlled. Real-time measurements of OA flow rates into HVAC systems would enable improved flow control. This article demonstrates that at least some of the available technologies for real-time measurement of OA air intake rate are reasonably accurate and provides guidance on how these technologies should be used.


Economic benefits of an economizer system: Energy savings and reduced sick leave

January 2005

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324 Reads

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43 Citations

ASHRAE Transactions

This study estimated the health, energy, and economic benefits of an economizer ventilation control system that increases outside air supply during mild weather to save energy. A model of the influence of ventilation rate on airborne transmission of respiratory illnesses was used to extend the limited data relating ventilation rate with illness and sick leave. An energy simulation model calculated ventilation rates and energy use versus time for an office building in Washington, D.C. with fixed minimum outdoor air supply rates, with and without an economizer. Sick leave rates were estimated with the disease transmission model. In the modeled 72-person office building, our analyses indicate that the economizer reduces energy costs by approximately 2000and,inaddition,reducessickleave.Theannualfinancialbenefitofthedecreaseinsickleaveisestimatedtobebetween2000 and, in addition, reduces sick leave. The annual financial benefit of the decrease in sick leave is estimated to be between 6,000 and $16,000. This modeling suggests that economizers are much more cost effective than currently recognized.


Citations (57)


... Fisk et al. [51] estimates that improving thermal environments in offices in the United States would result in a productivity increase of up to 5%, which represents gains of up to 125 billion dollars annually. Ref. [52] conducted an analysis of the relationship between work performance and ambient temperature, and the results indicated a drop in human productivity of 2% for every 1 • C increase in temperature, only within the range of 25 • C to 32 • C. No significant change in performance was observed for the range between 21 • C and 25 • C. However, the operative temperature alone is not sufficient to assess productivity, since human performance is more associated with the perception of temperature, in terms of thermal comfort [53]. ...

Reference:

Investigation of a Building with Male and Female Residents to Achieve Equality of Thermal Sensation Associated with Rational Use of Exergy and Energy
Cost benefit analysis of ventilation control strategies in an office building
  • Citing Article
  • January 2003

... However, the old filter had seen little use so the difference between filters was small. Fisk et al. (1987 Fisk et al. ( , 2000 Fisk et al. ( , 2002 Fisk et al. ( , 2003) have concentrated on performance and cost of air filtration technologies. Clausen (2004) and Jamriska et al., (2000 and Jamriska et al., ( , 2003) to determine the impact of air filtration in buildings. ...

Particle air filtration in HVAC supply-air streams
  • Citing Article
  • July 2003

... It was observed that the prevalence of selected symptoms might decrease by up to 70-85% with large increases in ventilation rate and/or improvements in ventilation effectiveness [131]. An airborne transmission model and published field data have been combined to statistically estimate a quantitative relationship between ventilation rate and sick leaves [132]. Apart from being responsible for odours and deteriorating performance, as mentioned above, VOCs can cause sensory irritation and even pulmonary effects [120]. ...

Economizer system cost effectiveness: Accounting for the influence of ventilation rate on sick leave
  • Citing Article
  • January 2003

... Such spaces can not avoid high CO 2 concentration and occupancy fluctuation leading to excessive fresh air volume (Fisk & De Almeida, 1998). Having less CO 2 problem, lower densely occupied space should at least equipped with simpler system such as outdoor air monitoring system for ensuring the adequate fresh air rate (Fisk, 2006). After adopting DCV for decades, practitioners still improve the performances of DCV toward proper implementation and available technologies such as better sensors. ...

Measuring OA intake rates
  • Citing Article
  • August 2006

Ashrae Journal

... Most cleanrooms have large areas and adopt automated equipment, thus, the numbers of personnel are small, resulting in non-uniform particle production and significant redundancy of air supply volume [5]. Previous studies have adopted the strategy to uniformly reduce the air supply volume of all FFUs by particle concentration monitoring [6] or personnel number counting in the cleanroom [7], according to the actual concentration at the monitoring point or the number of personnel, respectively. However, the particle distribution in the large-area cleanroom is significantly non-uniform, and the air volume can be furtherly reduced when guaranteeing safe cleanliness. ...

Energy Savings in Cleanrooms from Demand-Controlled Filtration
  • Citing Article
  • November 1996

Journal of the IEST

... Relatively few studies have focused on the airflow and contaminant diffusion path caused by such internal partitions [13,14]. Bauman et al. conducted a full-scale measurement to study the effects of partitions on air movement and thermal comfort in office spaces, and concluded that the height of the partitions had a significant effect on thermal comfort under mixed-ventilation mode [15]. Lee et al. also predicted indoor air quality and ventilation performance with internal partitioning based on a small model test chamber and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) technology under mixed ventilation [16,17]. ...

Air movement, ventilation, and comfort in a partitioned office space

ASHRAE Transactions

... During the past two decades these systems have offered an alternative to traditional overhead (OH) systems, and are now commonly used all over the world. There are several potential advantages of using UFAD systems compared to OH systems: improved thermal comfort123; improved indoor air quality [1,3]; reduced life cycle costs [1]; reduce floor-to-floor height in new construction. ...

Performance of Underfloor Air Distribution in a Field Setting
  • Citing Article
  • December 2006

International Journal of Ventilation

... This lag can help to increase the cooling benefit of a reflective roof by reducing the space-cooling load when electric power demand peaks in the late afternoon on a summer day. It can also diminish the penalty of a reflective roof by keeping the roof and attic warmer overnight, decreasing the space-heating load on a winter morning [20]. Table 3 reports the reductions in daily thermal stress during a heat wave without air conditioning (AC), annual HVAC energy use, and annual HVAC carbon emission after the application of cool envelope materials to a single-family home in Los Angeles, California circa 2050. ...

Measured temperature reductions and energy savings from a cool tile roof on a central California home
  • Citing Article
  • September 2014

Energy and Buildings

... There is some information on indoor air quality, as well as important new research results that will have a significant impact on the design of future airconditioned or ventilated spaces for human occupants. New W.J.Fisk, M.J.Mendell, J.M.Daisey, D.Faulkner, A.T.Hodgson, and J.M.Macher research results document for the first time that the quality of indoor air has a significant and positive influence on the productivity of office workers [41,42]. The increase of productivity should be compared with the cost of conditioning the indoor environment, which for office buildings in the developed countries is typically less than 1% of the labour cost. ...

Phase 2 of the California Healthy Building Study: A Status Report

... In addition, past studies indicate that the PCS has energy-saving potential, as initially demonstrated by Madsen and Saxhof [38], which indicates a 10% savings. According to Bauman et al., [39], the use of desktop PCs might save up to 18% of cooling energy and 10% of overall electricity consumption in San Jose, United States. Glicksman and Taub [40] claimed that well-built occupantcontrolled HVAC systems might lower energy consumption by 5-16%, and by up to 20% if the lighting and plug usage efficiency is also considered. ...

Localized thermal distribution for office buildings; final report-phase III
  • Citing Article
  • January 1994