Chantelle Wood’s research while affiliated with The University of Sheffield and other places

In this digital era, individuals are regularly exposed to sexual objectification in a variety of media types, which may negatively affect body image. However, existing measures do not fully capture exposure to and direct experiences of sexual objectification in different media. The purpose of the current programme of research was to develop and evaluate the Women-Sexually Objectifying Media Exposure Scale (W-SOMES) and Men-Sexually Objectifying Media Exposure Scale (M-SOMES), to measure exposure to and experiences of sexual objectification in the media. In Study 1, drawing from existing literature and two online surveys (women = 80, men = 76, age representative samples), items for the W-SOMES and M-SOMES were developed. Optimal items solely reflected exposure to sexual objectification in the media. In Study 2, exploratory factor analysis (women = 340, men = 100) suggested an underlying structure of three correlated factors for the W-SOMES and a single factor for the M-SOMES. In Study 3, confirmatory factor analysis (women = 331, men = 328) supported a higher-order model for the W-SOMES (15 items across three subscales: Importance of Physical Appearance, Sexualised Body Representation and Body Evaluation) and a single factor model for the M-SOMES (4 items measuring Sexualised Body Representation). The W-SOMES and M-SOMES displayed satisfactory internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and differentiation by known groups but did not adequately display convergent and discriminant validity. The M-SOMES also displayed satisfactory incremental validity. Future research should further examine the psychometric properties of the W-SOMES and M-SOMES for measuring exposure to sexual-objectification in the media.

A large body of literature demonstrates that self-objectification can harm individuals’ body image. However, measures of self-objectification are primarily designed for women and have not been adequately validated in men. This research investigated the psychometric properties of the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (SOQ), the Objectified Body Consciousness Body Surveillance Scale (OBC-Surv), and the Self-Objectification Beliefs and Behaviors Scale (SOBBS) in cisgender heterosexual women and men. Study 1 (women = 180, men = 163) and Study 2 (women = 137, men = 138, age-representative samples) used an online longitudinal study design, with a follow up after two weeks to assess test-retest reliability. While the SOQ, OBC-Surv and SOBBS generally displayed satisfactory psychometric properties in women, only the OBC-Surv and SOBBS displayed satisfactory psychometric properties in men. In addition, while women scored significantly higher on the SOQ, OBC-Surv, SOBBS Factor 1 and SOBBS Total in both Studies 1 and 2, sexual objectification experience only adequately accounted for gender-differences in scores on the SOBBS, and not the SOQ or OBC-Surv. To confirm that the SOBBS is appropriate for measuring and comparing self-objectification across women and men, Study 3 reanalysed the data from Study 2 to examine measurement invariance. This analysis demonstrated measurement invariance of the SOBBS between women and men. Accordingly, the SOBBS is recommended for measuring and comparing self-objectification in women and men. Future research should further examine the psychometric properties of the SOBBS in men and potential explanations of gender-differences in scores on the OBC-Surv.