Carol Warren’s research while affiliated with Murdoch University and other places

As a Hindu-majority province in Indonesia, Bali presents a unique and distinctive culture. Patrilocal ( purusa ) marriage and patrilineal inheritance as a continuation of the patriarchal system puts a male in the key role of family representative and successor. Having a son is a priority for a married couple in Balinese society. As a consequence, Balinese women experience several constraints related to their economic productive, reproductive, and adat (ritual) roles. When a family does not have a male heir, their daughter is pressed to find a spouse willing to accept sentana (daughter succession) marriage. This secondary form of marriage brings another complication for Balinese-Hindu women and does not necessarily relieve their submissive position. This study analyzes Balinese-Hindu women’s perspectives on their marriage experiences and fertility decisions in patrilineal society in changing rural and urban conditions. The data was collected in two areas representing rural (Gianyar) and urban (Denpasar) locations in Bali Province, Indonesia from November 2019 to February 2020. Primary data was based on in-depth interviews of six rural and six urban married Balinese-Hindu women. This qualitative inquiry into Balinese women's experience of the marriage system and fertility options in urban and rural Bali revealed varying degrees of social expectation to provide male descendants for their families. At the same time, economic burdens still haunted them in this development era and manifested conflicting implications for family size. Their stories of purusa and sentana marriage were complex because it has strongly associated with customary law ( adat ) in traditional society. Paradoxically, this study found that it was predominantly rural women who opted for the sentana arrangement and expressed a preference for smaller family sizes. This study explores women's fertility aspirations, notably regarding son precedence. It problematizes the sentana marriage alternative as a potential solution to alleviate the expectations and burdens placed on women.

Background: As a Hindu-majority province in Indonesia, Bali presents a unique and distinctive culture. Patrilocal (purusa) marriage and patrilineal inheritance as a continuation of the patriarchal system puts a man in the key role as a family successor. Having a son is a priority for a married couple in Balinese society. As a consequence, Balinese women experience several constraints related to their economic productive, reproductive, and adat (ritual) roles. When a family does not have a male heir, their daughter is pressed to find a spouse willing to accept sentana (matrilocal) marriage. This secondary form of marriage brings another complication for Balinese-Hindu women and does not necessarily relieve their submissive position. This research analyzes Balinese-Hindu women’s perspectives on their marriage experiences and fertility decisions. Methods: The data was collected in two areas representing rural (Banjar Tumbakasa in Gianyar) and urban (Banjar Biaung in Denpasar) locations in Bali Province, Indonesia from November 2019 to February 2020. Primary data was based on in-depth interviews of six rural and six urban married Balinese-Hindu women. Results: This qualitative inquiry into Balinese women's experience of the marriage system and fertility options in urban and rural Bali revealed varying degrees of social expectation to provide male descendants for their families. At the same time, economic burdens still haunt them in this development era, and have conflicting implications for family size. Their stories of purusa (patrilocal) and sentana (matrilocal) marriage were complex, being strongly associated with customary law (adat) in traditional society. Paradoxically, however, it was rural women in the study sample who disproportionately opted for the sentana arrangement and limitation of family size. Conclusions: This study explores women's fertility aspirations, notably regarding son precedence. It problematizes the sentana marriage alternative as a solution to lighten the expectations and burdens affecting women.

The Indonesian family planning program has been running for over five decades. Until the present, the implementation of this program still generates debate over important policy issues. On June 14th, 2019, the Balinese provincial government released a new pro-natalist family planning policy No.1545 (Keluarga Berencana Krama Bali) to respond to the concerns from the national family planning program two-child policy success. What are the implications for Balinese women's position in response to the political and cultural policies that impact their reproductive rights? This study analyzes the tensions between the national family planning program's two-child policy and the recent local Balinese Keluarga Berencana Krama model by focusing on Balinese women's perspectives. Ethnographic research was conducted from January to February 2020 in Bali. This study indicates that the women's fertility decisions were constrained by patrilineal structures, economic stresses, and government population policies. Krama Bali, which encourages a four children model according to the Balinese naming system, complicates the triple burden impacts on Balinese women's agency. The new pro-natalist provincial policy explicitly prioritizes cultural values and indirectly exacerbates the pressure to produce inheriting sons. Balinese women had to choose between cultural preservation and economic considerations, which intensified the tensions between their productive, reproductive, and customary (adat) obligations. Internal and external pressures imposed upon the Balinese women participants have forced them to navigate conflicting economic, political, and cultural demands with varying degrees of agency.