Carlos Montes’s research while affiliated with Autonomous University of Madrid and other places

The Conference of the Parties of the signatories of the Convention on Biological Diversity agreed in 2022 to protect 30% of terrestrial and marine areas by 2030 (the “30 × 30” target). What challenges emerge or intensify once (if) this 30 × 30 goal is achieved globally? To help practitioners and researchers pre-empt and plan along the path towards 30% protected area (PA) coverage, we draw lessons from a sizable and biodiversity-rich region that has already hit the target on land. Based on experiences and research about PAs in Spain (36% of land and 12% of marine area protected), we identify, illustrate and discuss the socioeconomic and management challenges that emerge with a high proportion of a country’s area protected, as well as possible strategies to address them. We structure these challenges in three levels: PA governance and management, PA integrity, and the landscape matrix outside PA boundaries. Important strategies to address these challenges include enhancing engagement, participation and stewardship; increasing institutional resilience and a cross-sectoral approach for socio-environmental goals. Achieving quantitative targets of protection will not be sufficient to conserve the world’s biodiversity and, in a leap forward, we envision the governance areas that need the most attention as countries reach (or get close to) sizeable proportions of protection.

Protected areas (PAs) are the most effective tools to protect biodiversity and ecosystem services. They have proven to be effective in stopping extensive land use conversion in well-conserved terrestrial ecosystems. However, land cover changes around PAs threaten biodiversity and ecosystem services within their limits and reduce ecological connectivity. In this study, we analysed the urban sprawls on the boundaries of 159 PAs (national, regional, and natural parks) in Spain, using 2.5 and 5 km non-protected buffer zones from 1990 to 2018. We clustered PAs based on biophysical and socio-economic characteristics and modelled urban sprawl in different buffers and periods. Hierarchical clustering revealed three groups of PAs: (a) proximate urban parks, (b) mountainous parks, and (c) parks in the Madrid autonomous region. We found that urbanisation in the surroundings of PAs in Spain has nearly doubled since 1990. General linear models explained a significant proportion of the urbanisation trends observed, with the number of municipalities in the boundary of the PA, the distance to a main road, and the distance to a big city acting as the most important drivers of urban sprawl. Our results also show that some PAs exert significant effects on urbanisation trends in their surroundings through the park-view effect. Finally, we highlight three coexisting phenomena that might explain the observed urban sprawl processes: (a) PAs attracting urbanisation in their surroundings due to the park-view effect, (b) PAs as a deterrent for urban sprawl within their limits, and (c) PAs occupying residual areas among previously urbanised lands.

Land-use changes, especially urbanization, have largely impacted the capacity of ecosystems to deliver ecosystem services (ES) on which human wellbeing depends. The current sectorial landscape and territorial planning approaches that separately address protected areas and urban areas have proven ineffective in conserving biodiversity. To address this important challenge, integrated territorial planning has been claimed to be able to better reconcile interests between nature conservation and urban planning, and ES supply and demand mapping may be a useful tool for such purposes. In this study, we quantitatively mapped biodiversity and the supply and demand of eight ES along an urban-rural gradient in the region of Madrid (Spain). Then, we clustered the municipalities in this gradient into four groups based on their common biodiversity and ES supply and demand characteristics. Additionally, we reviewed the urban plans from these municipalities and the management plans of three protected areas, analysed the references to ES in the plans, and searched for potential conflicts between urban and protected area planning aims. We found that municipalities with highly coupled ES supply and demand are in high altitude areas, coinciding with protected areas, while in urban areas, the ES demand exceeds the supply. Municipalities exhibiting a high demand for regulating ES usually include them in their plans, while municipalities with a high supply of regulating ES do not. Given the several conflicts between protected areas and urban planning that we detected, we discuss the utility of mapping biodiversity and ES supply and demand beyond administrative boundaries to overcome the challenge of integrating spatial planning approaches, especially in the context of urban-rural gradients and megacities. We also explore the utility of these methods for coordinating urban planning tools to achieve integrated territorial planning.

Protected areas are the most tried and tested tools for biodiversity conservation, although biodiversity continues to decline worldwide. Their original concept has evolved to incorporate territorial, social and economic aspects into the original conservation objectives. Global change is accelerating the need for a more holistic and innovative approach to their planning and management. The transfer of scientific knowledge to decision making and the involvement of society are crucial. This article reviews the current needs to improve the multiple objectives of protected areas taking as a framework the "Society and Protected Areas Programme: protected areas for human well-being" promoted by EUROPARC-Spain and the Fernando González Bernáldez Foundation.

Keywords: InVEST Land use and land cover Protected areas Territorial planning Urban-rural gradient Urban sprawl A B S T R A C T Global trends in land-use changes, including urbanization and abandonment of rural areas, have important repercussions for the supply and demand of ecosystem services (ES). In this study, we assessed and mapped the supply and demand of three ES (water provision, climate regulation, and outdoor recreation) along an urban-rural gradient in the Madrid region (Spain) from 1990 to 2012. We mapped ES supply, based on land use/land cover (LULC) data, using InVEST models and complementary methods, and ES demand, using population density and demand indicators. Then, we explored spatial supply-demand mismatches at a municipality spatial scale. Despite an increase in ES supply in some areas, a general increase in ES demand led to increasing dependence by the Madrid metropolitan area on outlying areas. We found that the number of municipalities that exhibited mismatches between the supply and demand in ES increased throughout the study period, due mainly to urban sprawl. Our results suggest the need for comprehensive land-use planning at the regional scale, taking into account that many ES flows reach beyond municipality boundaries. Finally, we discuss the utility of analyzing spatial mismatches in the supply and demand of ES for land-use planning and decision-making.

The authors would like to make the following corrections to their published paper [...]

Context Urban–rural gradients provide a suitable framework for studying the provision of urban and rural ecosystem services (ES), linked to social welfare. Landscape structure (LS) changes along urban–rural gradients but our understanding of the effects of LS on ES remains at an early stage. Objectives We have quantified the relationship between changes in LS and ES supply along an urban–rural gradient in Central Spain, and compared the intensity of change with the land conservation status, degree of urbanization and proximity to Madrid city. Methods We inferred the provision of ES at municipality level based on proxies from socio-economic data and land use maps, and characterized LS through metrics calculated from Corine land cover maps at two dates. We used Canonical Correspondence Analysis and Generalized Linear Models to analyse the data. Results There was a marked tendency for change in 20 years towards heterogeneous and poorly connected landscapes. This structural change appeared associated with trade-offs in ES, consisting of a loss of provisioning and regulating services inherent to agricultural and silvo-pastoral landscapes in favour of tourist-cultural and accommodation services, recently demanded by a growing urban population. The intensity of this change was favoured by urbanization processes, the proximity to the city, and restrictive protection measures linked to supramunicipal land management conservation plans. Conclusions Our results question the effectiveness of long-term conservation measures taken in Spain to protect cultural landscapes. The innovative approach we use to analyse LS–ES coupling along urban–rural gradients provides a powerful tool for social-ecological land planning.

Context European agricultural landscapes are facing contradictory phenomena in that some areas are experiencing unsustainable land-use intensification while others are being abandoned. Specifically, agricultural intensification is increasing resulting in numerous negative environmental impacts on European soils, water and biodiversity; increased crop ecological footprints; and creation of social conflicts and inequalities. Within this context, we mapped and assessed ecosystem services from Spanish agricultural landscapes to identify ecological and economical win–win situations that could provide good examples of sustainable landscape management. Objectives We aim to spatially identify gaps and areas of overlap of ecological and economic values of ecosystem services at the national scale for Spanish agricultural landscapes. Additionally, we analyse possible connections among social concerns and preferences related to environmental issues and ecosystem services with economic and ecological values of local agricultural landscapes. Methods First, we quantified and mapped the economic value of crop production at the national level. Second, we mapped the ecological value of agricultural landscapes based on the “high nature value farming” index. Third, we explored the spatial correlations between economic and ecological values to identify major agricultural landscape patterns at the national level and specific win–win situations at the local level. Fourth, we conducted a public survey of the Spanish population about environmental concerns and their preferences towards ecosystem services. Fifth, we analysed the links among the social concerns and preferences with the ecological and economic values of agricultural landscapes at the national level. Results Our results allow us to better understand the main landscape patterns and help develop more balanced management strategies. For instance, the results show how current landscape management in Spain is polarized between areas with high economic values and areas with high ecological performance. The maps produced also allow the identification of agricultural landscapes with high economic and ecological values that can be used as good examples for sustainable landscape management. Additionally, the public survey revealed that environmental concerns of the Spanish population and the importance the population places on agricultural ecosystem services received very low scores. Conclusions The results from this study show that the possibility of balancing and reconciling the supply of ecological and economic values from agricultural landscapes exists in practice. The results help identify areas in Spain where actions should be taken to enhance sustainable landscape planning at the national level. Among the analysed environmental concerns of the Spanish population, the three environmental concerns that had the lowest scores are those that are tightly linked to the type of action needed to shift towards more sustainable agroecological systems. Finally, we discuss how complex interactions among ecosystem services should become part of the planning strategies for new sustainable landscape management at the national level.