Andrew McGordon's research while affiliated with The University of Warwick and other places
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Publications (94)
There has been little published research critically examining the vibration loading that battery assemblies within large sized electric two wheelers (ETWs) experience during their lifetime. Much of the existing research has been focused on assessing the battery packs of electric passenger vehicles, which have a different dynamic response to their t...
One of the major challenges in implementing the equivalent fuel consumption minimisation strategy in hybrid electric vehicles is the adaptation of the equivalence factor to real-world driving. In this paper, a novel adaptive equivalent fuel consumption minimisation strategy (A-ECMS) has been developed for a hybrid two-wheeler to further improve fue...
The fuel economy of a vehicle is known to be highly dependent on its average speed during driving, with a maximum in fuel economy being present at around 40-50mph. Comparatively little work has been done on the investigation of how fuel economy varies for the same average speed. In this paper we report a theoretical simulation study of nine drive c...
The variability of fuel economy (FE) is of significant importance as that of average FE to realize FE benefits of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) consistently by all users in the real world. Over the years, majority of the research has been focused on improving average FE overlooking the variability. Although in recent years few studies have been f...
Electric vehicles (EVs) experience a range reduction at low temperatures caused by the impact of cabin heating and a reduction in lithium ion performance. Heat pump equipped vehicles have been shown to reduce heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) consumption and improve low ambient temperature range. Heating the electric battery, to impro...
A micro gas turbine (MGT) can potentially be an alternative power source to the conventional internal combustion engine as a range extender in hybrid electric vehicles. The integration of the MGT into a hybrid vehicle needs a new approach for technical validation requirements compared to the testing of an internal combustion engine. Several attribu...
This study investigated a micro turbine generator (MTG) as a range extender for a series hybrid electric vehicle application for a range of constant and dynamic power demand strategies. The power demands were calculated through a mathematical model based on a specific vehicle platform using the New European Drive Cycle (NEDC). The power demands wer...
An appropriate energy management strategy is essential to enhance the performance of hybrid electric vehicles. A novel modified equivalent fuel-consumption minimization strategy (ECMS) is developed considering the engine operating point deviation from the optimum operating line. This paper focuses on an all-inclusive evaluation of this modified ECM...
![Comparison of physical properties of different coolants [32].](publication/340842517/figure/tbl1/AS:883132148494344@1587566520927/Comparison-of-physical-properties-of-different-coolants-32_Q320.jpg)
Today’s market leading electric vehicles, driven on typical UK motorways, have real-world range estimation inaccuracy of up to 27%, at around 10 °C outside temperature. The inaccuracy worsens for city driving or lower outside temperature. The reliability of range estimation largely depends on the accuracy of the battery’s underlying state estimator...
Growing global sales of electric vehicles (EVs) are raising concerns about the reverse logistics challenge of transporting damaged, defective and waste lithium ion battery (LIB) packs. The European Union Battery Directive stipulates that 50% of LIBs must be recycled and EV manufacturers are responsible for collection, treatment and recycling. The I...
![Fig. 3. Relationship between (a) phase diagram (adapted from [91] ),...](profile/Matthieu-Dubarry/publication/330369302/figure/fig3/AS:715037287120901@1547489582759/Relationship-between-a-phase-diagram-adapted-from-91-b-Gibbs-free-energy-and_Q320.jpg)
![Fig. 5. Change of OCV profile (GITT) with cycling as reported by [129] .](profile/Matthieu-Dubarry/publication/330369302/figure/fig5/AS:715037291327490@1547489583561/Change-of-OCV-profile-GITT-with-cycling-as-reported-by-129_Q320.jpg)
Lithium-ion cells currently power almost all electronic devices and power tools; they are a key enabling technology for electric vehicles and are increasingly considered to be the technology of choice for grid storage. In line with this increased applicability, there is also an increase in the development of new commercial lithium-ion cell technolo...
Industrial and academic communities have embarked on investigating the sustainability of vehicles that contain embedded electrochemical energy storage systems. Circular economy strategies for electric vehicle (EV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) battery systems are underpinned by implicit assumptions about the state of health (SOH) of the battery....
To reduce the number of collision fatalities at crossroads intersections many countries have started replacing intersections with non-signalised roundabouts, forcing the drivers to be more situationally aware and to adapt their behaviours according to the scenario. A non-signalised roundabout adds to the autonomous vehicle planning challenge, as na...
Existing validation methods for equivalent circuit models (ECMs) do not capture the effects of operating lithium-ion cells over legislative drive cycles at low ambient temperatures. Unrealistic validation of an ECM may often lead to reduced accuracy in electric vehicle range estimation. In this study, current and power are used to illustrate the di...
Previous research has focused on the use of heat pumps in electric vehicles, with the focus on recuperating heat from, normally, ambient and one thermal source on the vehicle. Here 5 potential thermal sources on a vehicle have been identified and thorough testing on the benefit of each source has been performed. The results presented suggest the mo...
The high power and high energy density of the Li-ion batteries (LIBs) are highly desirable for automotive applications which can be achieved by using cathodes with higher specific energy and rate capability. The existing cathode materials have various merits and demerits such as LiMn 2 O 4 (LMO) has good rate capability, high power and low cost but...
An exact prediction of temperature inside cylindrical lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries is important for their safe operation, extended life expectancy and development of next generation battery management systems. Research attempts have been made to place temperature sensors inside cylindrical Li-ion batteries [1, 2], but such arrangements are not ye...
Ageing prediction is often complicated due to the interdependency of ageing mechanisms. Research has highlighted that storage ageing is not linear with time. Capacity loss due to storing the battery at constant temperature can shed more light on parametrising the properties of the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI); the identification of which, usi...
Motivated by energy security and environmental concerns, policymakers around the world are directing attention to electrified vehicles as a partial solution to reducing fossil fuel consumption and carbon emissions. In recent years, rechargeable Li-ion batteries emerge as an important power source, and their performance highlights the adoption into...
Li-ion batteries (LIBs) have the highest gravimetric and volumetric energy density than other rechargeable batteries and are a potential candidate which can replace internal combustion engines (ICEs) in the present and future automobiles to reduce the transport sector’s problems of oil supplies and CO 2 emission climate change. The limitations asso...
This work introduces a new method for inserting a Lithium reference electrode into commercially available 18650-type cells in order to obtain electrode potentials during cell operation. The proposed method is simple and requires limited equipment. Furthermore, electrical performance is significantly better and the cell capacity and resistance can b...
The power capability of a lithium ion battery is governed by its resistance, which changes with battery state such as temperature, state of charge, and state of health. Characterizing resistance, therefore, is integral in defining battery operational boundaries, estimating its performance and tracking its state of health. There are many techniques...
Ambient conditions can have a significant impact on the average and maximum temperature of the battery of electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. Given the sensitivity of the ageing mechanisms of typical battery cells to temperature, a significant variability in battery lifetime has been reported with geographical location. In addition, high...
Lithium-ion cell technology is well known for its high power and energy density in the automotive application. This paper presents development of a 1D electrochemical model which can be used to predict 18650 lithium-ion cell performance under different operating conditions. COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2a software has been utilized to develop the electroc...
An automotive Battery Management System (BMS) provides the on-board estimation of remaining energy, which in-turn employs an equivalent circuit model (ECM). ECM provides vital information like state of charge and state of health of the battery. The ECM is commonly developed and parameterised using cell level test data. The lithium-ion battery pack...
Hybrid and electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular due to their benefits in lowering emissions and lower dependency on fossil fuels. A hybrid vehicle battery spends around 70% of its time in storage at different temperatures compared to being cycled. However there is less work on the effect of storage on battery life time than on cyclin...
It is crucial to maintain temperature homogeneity in lithium ion batteries in order to prevent adverse voltage distributions and differential ageing within the cell. As such, the thermal behaviour of a large-format 20 Ah lithium iron phosphate pouch cell is investigated over a wide range of ambient temperatures and C rates during both charging and...
In freight classification, lithium-ion batteries are classed as dangerous goods and are therefore subject to stringent regulations and guidelines for certification for safe transport. One such guideline is the requirement for batteries to be at a state of charge of 30%. Under such conditions, a significant amount of the battery’s energy is stored;...
The requirement for including the air-conditioning and the battery-cooling loads within the energy efficiency analyses of a hybrid electric vehicle is widely recognized and has promoted system-level simulations and integrated modelling, escalating the challenge of balancing the accuracy and the speed of simulations. In this paper, a hybrid electric...
Cylindrical 18650-type lithium-ion cells are being utilized more often for automotive applications. This introduces error in calculating expected lifetime due to varied usage conditions accelerating or reducing material damage. One such usage condition is vibration, which has been shown to impact the electrical performance over extended periods. Wi...
Micro pore-clogging in the electrodes due to SEI growth and other side reactions can cause adverse effects on the performance of a Lithium-ion battery. The fundamental problem of volume fraction variation and particle radius change during the charge-discharge process in a lithium-ion battery is modelled in this paper with the help of mass transfer...
In a battery pack, cell-to-cell chemical variation, or the variation in operating conditions, can possibly lead to current imbalance which can accelerate pack ageing. In this paper, the Pseudo-Two-Dimensional(P2D) porous electrode model is extended to a battery pack layout, to predict the overall behaviour and the cell-to-cell variation under const...
The Pseudo Two Dimensional (P2D) porous electrode model is less preferred for real time calculations due to the high computational expense and complexity in obtaining the wide range of electro-chemical parameters despite of its superior accuracy. This paper presents a finite volume based method for re-parametrising the P2D model for any cell chemis...
Structural identifiability is a critical aspect of modelling that has been overlooked in the vast majority of Li-ion battery modelling studies. It considers whether it is possible to obtain a unique solution for the unknown model parameters from experimental data. This is a fundamental prerequisite of the modelling process, especially when the para...
Increased charging rates negatively affect the lifetime of lithium-ion cells by increasing cell resistance and reducing capacity. This work is a post-mortem study of 18650-type cells subjected to charge rates of 0.7-, 2-, 4-, and 6-C. For cells charged at 0.7-C to 4-C, this performance degradation is primarily related to surface film thickness with...
The Pulse Power Current (PPC) profile is often the signal of choice for obtaining the parameters of a Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM). Subsequently, a drive-cycle current profile is used as a validation signal. Such a profile, in contrast to a PPC, is more dynamic in both the amplitude and frequency bandwidth. Modelling...
An Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM) of a lithium ion (Li-ion) battery is an empirical, linear dynamic model and the bandwidth of the input current signal and level of non-linearity in the voltage response are important for the model’s validity. An ECM is, however, generally parametrised with a pulse current signal, which is low in signal bandwidth (P...
The ability of autonomous vehicles to successfully replace human drivers depends on their capability to plan safe, efficient and usable paths in dynamically evolving traffic scenarios. This challenge gets more difficult when the autonomous vehicle has to drive through complex scenarios such as intersections which demand interactive behaviour betwee...
Electrodes are routinely washed to remove electrolyte deposits, salt, and high boiling point solvents prior to analysis with surface-sensitive techniques. The effect of washing on the surface films of graphite electrodes from LiCoO2/graphite cells, which contained varying amounts of vinylene carbonate (VC), was investigated by comparing the microst...
During typical lithium-ion cell usage over application lifetimes (e.g. automotive) they form a film, which is nanometres thick, on the surface of the negative electrode which helps to passivate against further reaction. Its chemical composition and thickness affect capacity and power capabilities of a cell through 1. Consumption of lithium inventor...
Open circuit voltage (OCV) is a crucial parameter in an equivalent circuit model (ECM). The path dependence of OCV is a distinctive characteristic of a Li-ion battery; this is known as OCV hysteresis. In this manuscript the influence of temperature and charge/discharge rate on OCV hysteresis has been identified. OCV hysteresis was found to be 13mV...
Battery sizing has significant importance for the performance of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Although several research has been done over the years for the battery sizing, no research has focused on battery system efficiency which affects fuel economy. This paper has investigated battery system efficiencies of different optimum battery sizes w...
It is known that differences in driving styles have a significant impact on fuel efficiency and driving styles are affected by various factors such as driver characteristics, street environment, traffic situation, vehicle performance, and weather conditions. However, existing knowledge about the relationship between driving style and fuel consumpti...
Predicting the remaining range of a battery reliably, accurately and simply is imperative for effective power management of electrified vehicles and reducing driver anxiety resulting from perceived low driving range. Techniques for predicting the remaining range of an electric vehicle exist; in the best cases they are scaled by factors that account...
Apart from improving the fuel economy, a reduction in the variability of the fuel economy is also of significant importance for hybrid electric vehicles. Previously, research on how to optimise the sizes of the powertrain components of hybrid electric vehicles has generally focused on improving the fuel economy over a given driving pattern. The var...
As electrified vehicles become widely accepted, consumers expect the characteristics to be similar to those with a conventional, internal-combustion engine. Among these is the ability to ‘refuel’ quickly. For example, current lithium-ion battery technology takes an hour or more to recharge (refuel) whereas a conventional car can take 5 minutes or l...
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are of great interest to the automotive industry due to their higher power and energy density, higher cell voltage, longer cycle life and lower self-discharge compared to other battery chemistries. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is a powerful tool employed to investigate the fundamental electrochemical reactio...
Among the auxiliary systems on electric and hybrid electric vehicles the electric air conditioning (eAC) system causes the largest load on the high voltage battery and can significantly impact the energy efficiency and performance of the vehicle. New methods are being investigated for effective management of air conditioning loads through their int...
The specifications that define an automotive development project are established at an early point in the process and define the direction of such a development, and changing these decisions becomes more costly the further the project progresses. Tools to enable better consideration of choice can help prevent this. The tool presented is designed to...
State-of-Charge (SOC) of a battery is one of the most important parameters used by a Battery Management System (BMS). It is subsequently very important for the efficient functioning of an electric/hybrid vehicle. Since, the SOC is a derived quantity, it is important that the algorithm, on which the estimator is based, is robust and accurate. The al...
This paper proposes a blended rule based Energy Management System (EMS) for a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV). The proposed EMS is formulated over driving information and vehicle trip energy and not over vehicle speed profiles as usually seen. The proposed EMS design structure and strategy is described followed by its evaluation. This is the...
It is well established that individual variations in driving style have a significant impact on vehicle energy efficiency. The literature shows certain parameters have been linked to good fuel economy, specifically acceleration, throttle use, number of stop/starts and gear change behaviours. The primary aim of this study was to examine what driving...
Range anxiety is a major barrier for the mass adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), a contributing factor to this is the variability of the predicted range remaining presented to the driver in the vehicle. This study aims to better understand the causes of potential inaccuracies and how ITS can help resolve these issues. Eleven participants complete...
This paper describes a systematic study of the effect of cell relaxation after a charge or
discharge event. The EIS technique was used to investigate how the properties of the cells
changed with time after charge or discharge up to a maximum of 15 hours. It was found that
different chemistries show different relaxation rates and frequency depend...
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) are considered to be one of the energy-efficient technologies for near-term sustainability of the transportation sector. Over the years, research has focused on improving fuel economy (FE) for a given drive cycle, but FE variability over a realistic range of real-world driving patterns has been generally overlooked,...
A Micro Gas Turbine (MGT) can be considered as an alternative to the internal combustion engine as a range extender for electric vehicles. The MGT produces less raw exhaust gaseous emissions such as HC and CO in aerospace and static applications compared to the internal combustion engine. In addition, the MGT weight is less than an equivalent inter...
The introduction of lithium-ion batteries for vehicle powertrain electrification has increased in recent years. They feature high energy density, high power density, long cycle life, and is also environmentally friendly compared with other types of batteries. A large number of Li-ion cells are usually required to meet the demand in capacity and pow...
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have emerged as near term sustainable technologies to reduce fossil-fuel dependency. The variation in fuel economy (FE) due to the variation in driving patterns exists in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). Powertrain component size optimisation based on a methodology considering a range of driving patterns including di...
A Micro Gas Turbine (MGT) can be considered as an alternative to the internal combustion engine as a range extender for electric vehicles. The MGT produces less raw exhaust gaseous emissions such as HC and CO in aerospace and static applications compared to the internal combustion engine. In addition, the MGT weight is less than an equivalent inter...