Allan C. Wilson's research while affiliated with University of California, Berkeley and other places
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Publications (142)
Up to the 1960s, geology was the only source of information about the times when common ancestors lived. Since then, molecular genetics has become a major contributor to knowledge of these times. By comparing genetic macromolecules from any two living cells or species, one can now tell roughly when they had a common ancestor. Our contribution aims...
This essay reviews comparative studies of animal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), with emphasis on findings made and ideas developed at Berkeley. It argues that such studies are bringing together two previous paths of progress in evolutionary biology. One path is that of those who worked far above the species level and were concerned with genealogical tr...
Restriction analysis had revealed only Mus domesticus mtDNA in house mouse populations in northern Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, where the nuclear genomes are Mus musculus. The goals of the present study were to (1) test the proposal that these Scandinavian musculus mice arose by a series of founder and island-hopping events from one or a few popul...
Isolation of DNA from plants with large amounts of secondary metabolites Nucleic Acid Isolation from Environmental Aqueous Samples Nucleic acid isolation from ecological samplesvertebrate gut flora Nucleic acid isolation from ecological samples fungal associations, lichens Nucleic acid isolation from ecological samplesfungal associations, mycorrhiz...
Cow stomach lysozyme genes have evolved in a mosaic pattern. The majority of the intronic and flanking sequences show an amount of sequence difference consistent with divergent evolution since duplication of the genes 40-50 million years ago. In contrast, exons 1, 2, and 4 and immediately adjacent intronic sequences differ little between genes and...
A reliable phylogeny relating the major groups of Galliformes was sought in order to shed light on an unusual case of coupled amino acid replacements in the lysozymes c of these birds. The New World quail and the African guinea fowl share a unique trio of amino acids at three internal positions but have been separated phylogenetically by the majori...
Several estimates of the time of occurrence of the most recent common mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) ancestor of modern humans have been made. Estimates derived from noncoding regions based on a model that classifies sites into two categories (variable and invariable) have been consistently older than those derived from the third positions of codons. Th...
Mice have two lysozyme c genes that are the products of a gene duplication. The rat genome also possesses two lysozyme genes, which implies that the duplication of the lysozyme gene preceded the mouse-rat divergence. Concerted evolution has homogenized the 3' half (middle of exon 2 through 3' flanking) of the genes in each species. A mosaic pattern...
This chapter describes a method to integrate immunological information with other kinds of molecular information. The microcomplement fixation method allows rapid estimation of the approximate degree of sequence difference between monomeric, globular proteins from many different species. Two other ways of comparing proteins are electrophoresis and...
We compared the patterns of movement of sex chromosomal and autosomal loci along a 160 km transect across a zone of hybridization between M. domesticus and M. musculus in southern Germany and western Austria using seven genetic markers. These included one Y-specific DNA sequence (YB10), two X-specific loci (DXWas68 and DXWas31), and four autosomal...
We compared the patterns of movement of sex chromosomal and autosomal loci along a 160 km transect across a zone of hybridization between M. domesticus and M. musculus in southern Germany and western Austria using seven genetic markers. These included one Y-specific DNA sequence (YB10), two X-specific loci (DXWas68 and DXWas31), and four autosomal...
Genetic studies reveal that an African woman from less than 200,000 years ago was our common ancestor
The nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial origin of light-strand replication and the five tRNA genes surrounding it were determined for three marsupials. The region was found to be rearranged, leaving only the tRNA(Tyr) gene at the same position as in placental mammals and Xenopus. Distribution of the same rearranged genotype among two marsupia...
Genomic blotting and enzymatic amplification show that the genome of the langur monkey (like that of other primates) contains only a single gene for lysozyme c, in contrast to another group of foregut fermenters, the ruminants, which have a multigene family encoding this protein. Therefore, the langur stomach lysozyme gene has probably evolved rece...
An electrophoretic survey of concentrations of lysozymes M and P was carried out with seven species in the house mouse group (spretus, hortulanus, abbotti, musculus, castaneus, domesticus and molossinus). In most species M is the predominant lysozyme in all tissues tested, except the small intestine, where P predominates if present. In inbred strai...
The proposal that all mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) types in contemporary humans stem from a common ancestor present in an African
population some 200,000 years ago has attracted much attention. To study this proposal further, two hypervariable segments
of mtDNA were sequenced from 189 people of diverse geographic origin, including 121 native Africans....
For nearly 20 years it has been assumed on the basis of low-resolution experiments that mitochondrial (mt)DNA, in contrast to the genes in the nucleus, has an exclusively maternal mode of inheritance in animals. Using the polymerase chain reaction, paternally inherited mtDNA molecules have now been detected in mice at a frequency of 10(-4), relativ...
We compared restriction fragments of mitochondrial DNA and sequences of portions of the cytochrome b gene of the following: the Hawaiian Goose (Nesochen sandvicensis), five subspecies of the Canada Goose (Branta canadensis), the Pacific Black Brant (B. bernicla nigricans), and the Emperor Goose (Chen canagica). Both comparisons support the associat...
Guidelines for submitting commentsPolicy: Comments that contribute to the discussion of the article will be posted within approximately three business days. We do not accept anonymous comments. Please include your email address; the address will not be displayed in the posted comment. Cell Press Editors will screen the comments to ensure that they...
With the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and versatile primers that amplify the whole cytochrome b gene (approximately 1140 bp), we obtained 17 complete gene sequences representing three orders of hoofed mammals (ungulates) and dolphins (cetaceans). The fossil record of some ungulate lineages allowed estimation of the evolutionary rates for various...
Complete primary structures for the major non-coding region of 13 human and two chimpanzee mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) were determined by direct sequencing via the polymerase chain reaction and compared to published sequences for one other human and two other chimpanzees. The human mtDNAs were chosen to represent the deepest branches found in a gen...
This paper shows that questions of an unexpected phylogenetic depth can be addressed by the study of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences. For decades, it has been unclear whether coelacanth fishes or lungfishes are the closest living relatives of land vertebrates (Tetrapoda). Segments of mtDNA from a lungfish, the coelacanth, and a ray-finned fish...
Lake Victoria, together with its satellite lakes, harbours roughly 200 endemic forms of cichlid fishes that are classified as 'haplo-chromines' and yet the lake system is less than a million years old. This 'flock' has attracted attention because of the possibility that it evolved within the lake from one ancestral species and that biologists are t...
This article summarizes knowledge of house mouse diversity based on restriction analysis of mtDNA from 202 individuals representing 83 localities in Europe, North Africa, the Middle East, and the Americas. It begins by describing the variation among 34 newly collected European mice and relating the 15 new types of mtDNA found in them to the 37 type...
We present compositional statistics, a new method of phylogenetic inference, which is an extension of evolutionary parsimony. Compositional statistics takes account of the base composition of the compared sequences by using nucleotide positions that evolutionary parsimony ignores. It shares with evolutionary parsimony the features of rate invarianc...
The advent of direct sequencing via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has opened up the possibility of molecular studies on museum specimens. Here we analyze genetic variation in populations over time by applying PCR to DNA extracted from museum specimens sampled from populations of one species over the last 78 years. Included in this study were...
The controversy surrounding the idea that neutral mutations dominate protein evolution is attributable in part to the inadequacy of the tools available to evolutionary investigators. With a few exceptions, most investigations into the force driving protein evolution have relied on indirect criteria for distinguishing neutral and non-neutral variant...
Complete amino acid sequences are presented for lysozymes c from camel and goat stomachs and compared to sequences of other lysozymes c. Tree analysis suggests that the rate of amino acid replacement went up as soon as lysozyme was recruited for the stomach function in early ruminants. The two lysozymes from goat stomach are the products of a gene...
Restriction-fragment analysis was used to measure mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variability in 79 individuals of two species of temperate sea urchins. For the purple urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, individuals were collected 1,500 km apart in 1985 and again from the same localities in 1988 (about one urchin generation). Twenty mtDNA genotypes bel...
Restriction-fragment analysis was used to measure mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variability in 79 individuals of two species of temperate sea urchins. For the purple urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, individuals were collected 1,500 km apart in 1985 and again from the same localities in 1988 (about one urchin generation). Twenty mtDNA genotypes bel...
With a standard set of primers directed toward conserved regions, we have used the polymerase chain reaction to amplify homologous segments of mtDNA from more than 100 animal species, including mammals, birds, amphibians, fishes, and some invertebrates. Amplification and direct sequencing were possible using unpurified mtDNA from nanogram samples o...
The phylogenetic affiliation of the extinct marsupial wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus), which once was widespread in Australia, has been uncertain. On the basis of morphology, some systematists argue that the thylacine was most closely related to an extinct group of South American carnivorous marsupials, the borhyaenids, whereas others consider it to...
With a standard set of primers directed toward conserved regions, we have used the polymerase chain reaction to amplify homologous segments of mtDNA from more than 100 animal species, including mammals, birds, amphibians, fishes, and some invertebrates. Amplification and direct sequencing were possible using unpurified mtDNA from nanogram samples o...
By sequencing lysozymes c from deer and pig stomachs and comparing them to the known amino acid sequences of other lysozymes c, it was possible to examine the rate of sequence change during and after the period in which this enzyme acquired a new function. Evolutionary tree analysis suggests that the rate went up while lysozyme was being recruited...
Although apparently inactive in the whole animal, the delta globin genes from three species of Old World monkey (rhesus, baboon and green monkey) are all functional in an in vitro transcription assay. Their activities in vitro are similar to that of the functional human delta gene. A fourth monkey gene, from the colobus monkey, is transcribed appro...
Two minisatellite loci from a Eurasian songbird, the willow warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus) were isolated, sequenced and used as probes to detect more than 20 related hypervariable loci. In addition, a sequence flanking
one of the minisatellite loci was isolated, and used to study a VNTR locus. The bird minisatellites have a repeat unit of
either...
Pieces of mitochondrial DNA from a 7000-year-old human brain were amplified by the polymerase chain reaction and sequenced.
Albumin and high concentrations of polymerase were required to overcome a factor in the brain extract that inhibits amplification.
For this and other sources of ancient DNA, we find an extreme inverse dependence of the amplifi...
Restriction enzyme analysis of 241 human mtDNAs revealed polymorphism in the electrophoretic mobility of a fragment corresponding
to part of the ND4 gene. Enzymatic amplification and direct sequencing of this fragment demonstrates that a single T C transition
correlates with the faster mobility exhibited by the fragment in seven mtDNAs from Papua N...
Parsimony trees relating DNA sequences coding for lysozymes c and alpha-lactalbumins suggest that the gene duplication that allowed lactalbumin to evolve from lysozyme preceded the divergence of mammals and birds. Comparisons of the amino acid sequences of additional lysozymes and lactalbumins are consistent with this view. When all base positions...
Molecular evolutionary clocks have ticked at much the same rate per year in many eubacterial genes as in the nuclear genes of animals and plants. This implication emerges from comparative studies of ribosomal RNA and protein-coding genes. The existence of nearly universal molecular clocks in cellular genomes provides a challenge to explain them as...
The convergent evolution of a fermentative foregut in two groups of mammals offers an opportunity to study adaptive evolution at the protein level. The appearance of this mode of digestion has been accompanied by the recruitment of lysozyme as a bacteriolytic enzyme in the stomach both in the ruminants (for example the cow) and later in the colobin...
The molecular and genetic basis of large differences in the concentration of P lysozyme in the small intestine has been investigated by crossing inbred strains of two species of house mouse (genus Mus). The concentration of P in domesticus is about 130-fold higher than in castaneus. An autosomal genetic element determining the concentration of P ha...
Restriction enzymes were used to search for genetic variability at 162 cleavage sites in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) purified from 22 mice caught at seven Swedish localities. Although all of these mice bear the nuclear genes of Mus musculus, they bear the mtDNA of M. domesticus exclusively. Yet, some of the Swedish localities are 750 km away from the...
Sequences are reported for portions of two mitochondrial genes from a domestic horse and a plains zebra and compared to those published for a quagga and a mountain zebra. The extinct quagga and plains zebra sequences are identical at all silent sites, whereas the horse sequence differs from both of them by 11 silent substitutions. Postmortem change...
Mitochondrial DNA was purified from five American species of geese representing the genera Anser and Branta, which have fossil records. The results of electrophoretic comparisons of about 75 fragments per individual produced by 14 restriction enzymes imply that the mean extent of sequence divergence between species of Anser and Branta is about 9%....
Two major types of lysozyme c (M and P) occur in the mouse genus, Mus, and have been purified from an inbred laboratory strain (C58/J) of M. domesticus. They differ in physical, catalytic, and antigenic properties as well as by amino acid replacements at 6 of 49 positions in the amino-terminal sequence. Comparisons with four other mammalian lysozym...
A specific segment of mitochondrial DNA from 18 people was examined by two methods of direct DNA sequencing. This segment includes a small noncoding region (V) shown before by restriction analysis to exhibit length polymorphism. All 11 of the human mtDNAs previously reported to have a deletion in this region proved to lack one of the two adjacent c...
This paper constructs a temporal scale for bacterial evolution by tying ecological events that took place at known times in the geological past to specific branch points in the genealogical tree relating the 16S ribosomal RNAs of eubacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. One thus obtains a relationship between time and bacterial RNA divergence wh...
Restriction endonuclease cleavage maps were prepared by the double digestion method for mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) purified from Xenopus borealis, X. clivii, X. fraseri, X. muelleri, X. ruwenzoriensis, X. vestitus, X. laevis victorianus, X. l. laevis, and a variant of X. laevis designated X. laevis "davis." An average of 21 cleavage sites per geno...
Mitochondrial DNAs from 147 people, drawn from five geographic populations have been analysed by restriction mapping. All these mitochondrial DNAs stem from one woman who is postulated to have lived about 200,000 years ago, probably in Africa. All the populations examined except the African population have multiple origins, implying that each area...
Restriction endonuclease cleavage maps were prepared by the double digestion method for mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) purified from Xenopus borealis, X. clivii, X. fraseri, X. muelleri, X. ruwenzoriensis, X. vestitus, X. laevis victorianus, X. l. laevis, and a variant of X. laevis designated X. laevis “davis.” An average of 21 cleavage sites per geno...
As one approach to analysing the genetic barriers between species, we studied the numbers and types of parasitic worms in two species of house mice (Mus musculus and M. domesticus) and in their natural hybrids. Where the ranges of these two species meet in southern Germany, there is a zone of hybridization less than 20 kilometres across, in which a...
Extensive restriction mapping of 76 human genomic DNAs defines multiple sites of length and point mutation near the zeta-globin locus, which codes for an embryonic alpha-like globin chain. There are two major sites of DNA length variation: one in the intergenic region with three alleles and one in the first intron of the zeta 1 gene with at least f...
The authors used allozymes encoded by nuclear genes and restriction enzyme analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to study secondary contact between westslope (Salmo clarki lewisi) and Yellowstone cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki bouvieri) in Forest Lake, Montana. Eleven diagnostic allozyme loci identified this as a random-mating hybrid swarm. No paren...
The DNA base sequences of the entire chimpanzee 1 globin gene and an additional 1 kb of DNA flanking both the human and chimpanzee genes have been determined. Whereas the human 1 gene contains a termination codon in the sixth position, the chimpanzee gene appears to be functional. This finding confirms Proudfoot et al.'s suggestion that the human 1...
As judged by restriction analysis, mitochondrial DNA shows strictly maternal inheritance during 6-8 generations of backcrossing in both directions between Mus domesticus and Mus spretus. The average number of paternal mitochondrial genomes contributed to the next generation is estimated to be no more than one per thousand maternal mitochondrial gen...
The DNA sequences of three members of the Alu family of repeated sequences located 5' to the chimpanzee alpha 2 gene have been determined. The base sequences of the three corresponding human Alu family repeats have been previously determined, permitting the comparison of identical Alu family members in human and chimpanzee. Here we compare the sequ...
To determine whether DNA survives and can be recovered from the remains of extinct creatures, we have examined dried muscle from a museum specimen of the quagga, a zebra-like species (Equus quagga) that became extinct in 1883 (ref. 1). We report that DNA was extracted from this tissue in amounts approaching 1% of that expected from fresh muscle, an...
In this paper, we examine first the steadiness of the rate of evolutionary change in a larval hemolymph protein, LHP, in numerousDrosophila species. We estimated amino acid sequence divergence from immunological distances measured with the quantitative microcomplement fixation technique. Using tests not depending on knowledge of absolute times of d...
Differences in the binding of the substrate analogue chitotriose to lysozymes correlate with amino acid substitutions in the binding site and not with substitutions elsewhere. This is evident from binding studies done with an immunological method as well as a conventional spectroscopic method. The immunological technique, based on the microcompleme...
Twelve restriction enzymes were used to screen for the presence or absence of cleavage sites at 441 locations in the mitochondrial DNA of 112 humans from four continents. Cleavage maps were constructed by comparison of DNA fragment sizes with those expected from the published sequence for one human mtDNA. One hundred and sixty-three of the sites we...
We have determined the sequence of 2400 base pairs upstream from the human pseudo alpha globin (Φα) gene, and for comparison, 1100 base pairs of DNA within and upstream from the chimpanzee Φα gene. The region upstream from the promoter of the Φα gene shows no significant homology to the intergenic regions of the adult α2 and αl globin genes.
The ch...
This study extends knowledge of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) diversity in mice to include 208 animals belonging to eight species in the subgenus Mus. Highly purified mtDNA from each has been subjected to high-resolution restriction mapping with respect to the known sequence of one mouse mtDNA. Variation attributed to base substitutions was encountered...
Mice that lack a maternally transmitted antigen (Mta) on the cell surface share a distinctive type of mitochondrial DNA. This
1s evident from restriction analyses of mitochondrial DMAs from 25 strains of mice whose antigenic state 1s known. One hundred
sixty-eight cleavage sites have been mapped 1n the mitochondrial DNA of Mta mice. Detailed maps f...
This paper examines the molecular basis for the origin and subsequent silencing of the delta globin gene during the evolution of higher primates. We cloned and sequenced the delta gene from representatives of the two most distantly related types of Old World monkeys in which the gene is silent. The silent delta genes of these two monkeys (rhesus an...
Quantitative methods of comparing body shapes were applied to 184 taxa of frogs, lizards and mammals. The shape comparisons were based on measurement of eight linear traits from all major parts of the body. Four metrics were tested for their use-fulness in quantifying overall shape difference. The metrics vary in the amount of information required...
The rapid evolution1 and maternal mode of
inheritance2 of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) make it a valuable
marker for individuals related by descent from the same
female3. We report here a study of wild and inbred mice which
illustrates this point. We have examined mouse mtDNA from various
locales in the Northern Hemisphere using restriction enzymes th...
We have sequenced the 3' and 5' untranslated regions of beta-globin mRNAs from cebus monkey, rhesus monkey and chimpanzee. A comparison with the corresponding human sequences reveals that the rate of sequence divergence among the higher primates is the same in the 3' and 5' noncoding regions and that this rate is several times lower than the rate f...
An extended argument about the suitability of the use of the M-statistic for exploring morphological evolution reponds to a William R. Atchley criticism that the statistic does not agree with the traditional Mahalanobis D statistic. The authors argue that the M-statistic is more appropriate than Mahalanobis D is itself due to instabilities caused b...
Immunological studies were carried out with four closely related lysozymes—those of chicken, California quail, bobwhite quail, and chukar partridge—using anti-lysozyme and anti-loop antibodies. With micro-complement fixation and phage inhibition assays, it was shown that substitution of lysine for arginine at position 68 influences the binding of a...
To examine the effect of amino acid substitutions in lysozyme on the binding of antibodies to lysozyme, we purified lysozyme from the egg whites of California quail and Gambel quail. Tryptic peptides were isolated from digests of the reduced and carboxymethylated lysozymes and subjected to quantitative analysis of their amino acid compositions. The...
Summary: Quantitative methods of comparing body shapes were applied to 184 taxa of frogs, lizards and mammals. The shape comparisons were based on measurement of eight linear traits from all major parts of the body.
Four metrics were tested for their usefulness in quantifying overall shape difference. The metrics vary in the amount of information...
Lysozyme was purified from the annelid wormNephthys hombergii and re-examined for immunological cross-reactivity with antisera to human and chicken lysozymes. It was determined that the previously reported reaction between worm lysozyme and anti-human lysozyme and also the presently observed reaction between worm lysozyme and anti-chicken lysozyme...
A FEW years ago, Crumpton1 and Reichlin2 reviewed information about the antigenic structure of globular proteins of known amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure. It seemed that only a small fraction of the amino acid residues in such proteins participated directly in antibody binding. This impression was reinforced by Atassi and co-wor...
The methods of Fitch and Margoliash and of Farris for the construction of phylogenetic trees were compared. A phenetic clustering technique - the UPGMA method — was also considered.
The three methods were applied to difference matrices obtained from comparison of macromolecules by immunological, DNA hybridization, electrophoretic, and amino acid se...
The body shapes of humans and chimpanzees were compared quantitatively by criteria chosen for their capacity to discriminate well among the body shapes of frogs. By these criteria, the difference in body shape between humans and chimpanzees was found to be greater than that between the most dissimilar pairs of frogs examined--that is, frogs classif...
Fourteen mammalian pancreatic ribonucleases of known amino acid sequence were compared by 1 or more of 3 different immunological methods: standard quantitative micro-complement fixation, spot-plate micro-complement fixation, and inhibition of phage inactivation. It was found that, while the results obtained by the 3 techniques were correlated with...
For immunochemical and evolutionary reasons we determined the primary structure of cytochrome c from two strains of laboratory mice. Thioacetylthioethane and thioacetylthioglycolic acid were used in addition to conventional reagents for sequence determinations. The sequence was found to be identical with that of the rabbit except for residues 44 an...
For evolutionary reasons, we determined the primary structure of rat lysozyme. The chymotryptic peptides from the reduced and carboxymethylated protein were sequenced and aligned by homology with the sequence of human lysozyme. Overlaps were confirmed by partial structures of tryptic peptides and an automatic sequencer run on the whole protein. By...
Citations
... Most of the mitochondrial DNA mutations are point mutations, with few insertions or deletions. Moreover, as mitochondrial gene evolution rates differ (Aquadro and Greenberg 1983;Cann et al. 1984), different genes in the mitochondrial genome can be used to address different issues in phylogenetics and population genetics (Wenink et al. 1994). Mitochondrial genes are more closely linked and easier to identify than nuclear genes. ...
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... There are many features within an organism that could potentially be quantified and several different metrics to attempt to capture the range of forms being characterized. For instance, Cherry et al. (1982) explored disparity within 184 vertebrate taxa based on a relatively small set of linear measurements. They found an equitable degree of morphological variation within genera of amphibians, lizards, and mammals. ...
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... The introgression patterns are clear and consistent regardless of the methodology used ( we find it likely that the observed signal of introgression was driven by introgressed variation that has been fixed. Furthermore, given that population structure is nearly non-existent in these sea urchin species (Palumbi & Kessing, 1991;Palumbi & Wilson, 1990), it is likely that most populations and individuals of introgressed taxa would show a similar signal of introgressed ancestry. ...
... Generations were treated as the unit of time, and our results could be applied to organisms with any generation time. For simplicity, we assumed a recombination rate of 0.51 cM/Mb, equal to the genomic average for house mice (Cox et al., 2009), a classic genetic and genomic model for studying reproductive isolation in hybrid zones (Boursot et al., 1993;Sage et al., 1993;Teeter et al., 2010;Tucker et al., 1992;Turner et al., 2014). Because we focused on the effects of demography, natural selection was absent from all simulations. ...
... Interestingly, longevity does not correlate with nucleotide excision repair (43), which mediates point mutations. This observation appears consistent with the earlier observation in salamanders that rates of evolution at the organismal level correlate more with genome evolution than with rates of evolution in structural genes (44). ...
... Xenopus gilli shows geographical partitioning between communities to the west (Cape Point) and the east (Kleinmond and Cape Aghulas) of False Bay, with high genetic differences between eastern and western haplotypes of X. gilli (Evans et al. 1997;Fogell et al. 2013). Conversely, X. laevis is continuously distributed across the study area with a single haplotype most common on both sides of False Bay (Evans et al. 1997), and there is homogeneity of X. laevis in mtDNA in the Cape Region (Carr et al. 1987). The lower level of genetic diversity in X. laevis was interpreted as indicating that X. laevis was a recent arrival to the 48 MATTHEWS ET AL.-An early Pliocene (5.1 Ma) fossil frog community from Langebaanwegsouthwestern Cape region relative to X. gilli (Evans et al. 1997). ...
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... At the mitochondrial DNA level, the separation between continent and FA is evident (Abud 2011;Lessa et al. 2010; this work), with a high percentage of divergence and the presence of unique FA haplotypes, as we mention above. In this case, given the higher rate of mitochondrial mutation (Brown et al. 1979;Kocher et al. 1991;Moritz et al. 1987), we are observing more recent events and, coinciding with the proposals of Giorello et al. (2021), the FA population would be the product of a recent colonization event from the south of SC. This last scenario is reflected in our data, where there is no clear genetic structure, as was demonstrated by the AMOVA, due to the lack of IBD, and in GENELAND's graphs, where there is no clear separation between the proposed groups. ...
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... Montezuma and California Quail egg lysozymes both have a histidine at this position, which has both the shorter side chain and an imidazole group, suggesting that these would be less likely to be recognised 189,190 . Lysozymes of other bird species carry less conservative differences as well as differences at other residues as previously mentioned. ...
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... 61 in Waddell, Okada, and Hasegawa [1999] and favored in Murphy, Eizirik, Johnson, et al. [2001] and Waddell et al. [2001]), Perisodactyla and Ferae (Waddell, Okada, and Hasegawa 1999; Murphy, Eizirik, O'Brien, et al. 2001; Kullberg et al. 2006; Waters et al. 2007), and even Carnivora + Cetartiodactyla (Prasad et al. 2008, although the exact position of Pholidota was not determined ). The name Cetungulata was attached to the clade (crown or stem group unspecified) of Cetartiodactyla plus Perissodactlya by Irwin and Wilson (1993), but it was unclear if they also intended Cetungulata to include Hyracoidea, which they did not sample in their analyses because it was widely thought at the time to be the closest mammalian order to Perissodactyla. ...