A. Paoletti's research while affiliated with University of Rome Tor Vergata and other places
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Publications (171)
CVD diamond is an interesting material for radiation detection, its atomic number (Z = 6) is close to that of soft tissues (Z = 7.1) and it can also work in harsh environments. Since many years CVD diamond films have been grown at the Faculty of Engineering, Rome 'Tor Vergata' University, and in 1998 a collaboration with ENEA Fusion Division was es...
The analysis of the time behavior of pulses generated by CVD diamond films irradiated with α-particles has been recently shown to be a general and powerful tool to investigate trap properties in diamond films (M. Marinelli et al., Phys. Rev. B 64 (2001) 195205). We use here this technique to measure the activation energy of traps in CVD diamond fil...
This work reports on the development and characterization of large area (1 cm2) vacuum UV CVD diamond photodetectors to address the requirements of space missions where pixel and 2D arrays are used. The quality of the CVD diamond was characterized by photoluminescence and Raman spectroscopy. The performance of these devices in the dark and under il...
The deposition of diamond films on silicon substrate by MWPECVD is described and microstructural characteristics of the obtained films are reported. The resistive and piezoresistive properties of the diamond-on-silicon films have been measured beyond 200 C by means of a purposely developed apparatus, and experimental results are reported. The piezo...
The transport properties in synthetic diamond are studied using high quality diamond films grown by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (CVD). In particular, electron and hole contributions to the diamond carrier dynamics are successfully separated and defect distribution inside specimens is obtained. This is achieved through a syst...
Proper hydrogen addition in sputtered carbon nitrides is shown to remarkably reduce the film internal constraints. Significant differences in the hydrogen bonding are evidenced by infrared (IR) spectroscopy. Thus, the small variation (from 14 to 20%) of the total film H-content is accompanied by relevant changes in the microstructures of a-CN:H fil...
Proper analysis of the Raman (and IR) spectra of amorphous carbon nitride-based alloys can give information on the carbon and nitrogen distributions in the material. In fact, a correlation exists between the relative carbon content in such films and the center of the G-band, and on this basis we have drawn a ‘rule of thumb’ allowing us to obtain an...
The present study is focused on the vibrational and structural characterization of a set of disordered hydrogenated carbon nitride (a-CN:H) thin films grown by reactive sputtering. A comparative analysis of the experimental results as achieved by Raman and infrared (IR) spectroscopies is made. The disorder-induced features of IR and Raman spectra a...
Many outstanding properties of diamond can, in principle, lead to the development of radiation detectors with interesting capabilities. In particular, diamond-based nuclear particle detectors are good candidates to replace silicon-based detectors in several fields, e.g. in high-flux applications such as next generation particle-accelerator experime...
An analysis of the time evolution of the response of diamond particle detectors is carried out, using as a probe 5.5 MeV α particles impinging on high-quality diamond films grown by microwave chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Both the amplitude and the time evolution of the pulses are shown to change drastically when the detector is preirradiated wi...
A systematic Raman analysis has been carried out on diamond films prepared by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition, using a CH4–CO2 gas mixture at methane concentrations varying between 47 and 52%, at 750 and 850°C substrate temperatures, in order to assess the influence of the growth conditions on the film crystalline quality, as m...
Layer-by-layer pulsed-laser deposition has been used to grow ultrathin superconducting (Ba0.9Nd0.1)CuO2+x/CaCuO2 artificial structures with various thicknesses of the two constituent layers. Superconductivity was observed in the ultrathin structure consisting of a single CaCuO2 superconducting block sandwiched between two (Ba0.9Nd0.1)CuO2+x blocks....
Pulsed laser deposition in molecular-beam epitaxy environment has been used to grow high quality BaCuOx/CaCuO2 superlattices. In situ reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) shows that the growth mechanism is two-dimensional. Furthermore, weak but reproducible RHEED intensity oscillations have been monitored during the growth. Ex situ X...
Diamond based particle detectors were built up using high quality diamond films grown by microwave chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The efficiency (η) and charge collection distance (CCD) of such devices were tested by a 5.5 Mev 241Am α-particle source. Their response times were then carefully investigated both in the as-grown normal state and afte...
A systematic investigation on the influence of metal–diamond interfaces on the electro-optical properties and on the UV response of CVD diamond photo-detectors was carried out in order to identify the optimal electric contacts maximizing the performance. To this purpose, a set of four nearly identical diamond samples has been grown using the microw...
Because of its high radiation hardness, diamond can be used better than other materials in the intense radiation field characterizing the interior region of a particle beam in an accelerator. In effect, the measurements reported here were carried out by placing diamond detectors under continuous irradiation in the 26-MeV proton beam of the 15-MV TA...
We have grown good-quality epitaxial LiNbO3 thin films on (0001) sapphire substrates using a pulsed laser deposition technique. The growth conditions permitted us to deposit c-axis oriented films avoiding the problem of the LiNb3O8 Li-deficient phase. The chemical composition of thin films was investigated by secondary ion mass spectrometry and res...
The efficiency and charge collection distance (CCD) of nuclear particle detectors based on high quality diamond films grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) have been systematically studied as a function of the methane content in the growth gas mixture and for varying film thickness. The effects of preirradiation with β particles (pumping) have b...
The Raman spectra of sputter-grown a-C:H(N) films are analyzed giving particular emphasis to the regions below and above that dominated by the well-known D and G bands, in order to deduce complementary information about the film physical properties and eventually clarify the nature of the features there detected. The conventionally studied evolutio...
High quality synthetic diamonds were grown on single-crystal silicon by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition
(CVD). A careful optimisation of both the experimental setup and the growth parameters was necessary before that the achievement
of the best results was made possible. The films were deposited using a CH4-H2 gas mixture at me...
Microwave CVD diamond films with very high particle detection efficiency have been obtained using a NIRIM-type reactor. The efficiency and charge collection distance (CCD) of nuclear particle detectors based on these films have been systematically studied as a function both of the methane contents in the growth gas mixture and of the film thickness...
High quality synthetic diamonds have been grown on single-crystal silicon by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition, using a CH4–H2 gas mixture at variable methane concentrations in the range 0.6–2.2%. Film surface morphology and preferential orientation have been investigated by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Ram...
The electrical transport properties of [BaCuOx]2/[CaCuO2]n(CBCCO-2×n) underdoped high-temperature superconducting superlattices grown by pulsed laser deposition have been investigated. Starting from the optimally doped CBCCO-2×2 superlattice, having three CuO2 planes and Tc around 80 K, we have systematically increased the number n up to 15 moving...
Diamond is a very attractive material to realise nuclear detectors due do its outstanding properties. In order to realise the detectors described in this work, diamond films were grown on silicon by microwave chemical vapor deposition (CVD) using an H2–CH4 gas mixture. The α particle spectra were measured by using a 5.5 MeV 241Am source. A maximum...
We present an investigation on the fabrication of synthetic diamond based photon detectors. These devices are made by depositing
small gap interdigitated contacts on polycrystalline diamond films grown by Microwave Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition.
Gold interdigitated contacts were deposited on the typically rough surface of these films b...
New functional materials are being considered having in perspective an important role in the development of microsystems.
In particular, in an experiment of pulsed laser deposition (equipped with in situ reflection high-energy diffraction of the
growth surface) thin Pt epitaxial layers have been deposited on SrTiO3 (0 0 1) substrates. It is shown t...
Diamond films were grown on silicon by microwave chemical-vapor deposition using a CH4–H2 gas mixture. The crystalline quality of the films was assessed through their α-particle detection performance, a property highly sensitive to film quality, by using a 5.5 MeV 241Am source. A maximum collection efficiency η of 70%, 50% being the average value,...
A detailed structural characterisation of synthetic diamond films, previously investigated as UV photodetectors, has been
carried out by SEM, X-ray diffraction, catholuminescence (CL), micro-Raman spectroscopy and micro-photoluminescence. The films
were deposited by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition using a CH4–CO2 gas mixture....
A set of diamond films was grown by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition using a CO2–CH4 gas mixture. Film morphology, preferential orientation and crystal quality were systematically changed by varying the CH4 concentration and substrate temperature in the ranges 47–52% and 750–850 °C, respectively. The resulting films were charact...
A detailed Raman analysis is carried out in order to explain the results of the systematic morphological and mechanical characterisation
of unhydrogenated and hydrogenated amorphous carbon films prepared by the pulsed laser deposition at substrate temperatures
ranging from 25 to 600°C. The carbon bonding modifications produced by the different dep...
In this paper we show that
(BaCuO2)m/((Ca,Sr)CuO2)n
superlattices with good crystallographic quality can be engineered by
Pulsed Laser Deposition in a wide range of composition, namely for m
equals 2 and n ranging form 1 to 6. The temperature dependence of
resistivity of the superlattices grown at relatively high oxygen
pressure and temperatures ab...
(BaCuO2)2/(CaCuO2)n superconducting superlattices have been grown by pulsed laser deposition for n ranging from 1 to 6. The critical temperature was found to depend strongly on the growth conditions. A maximum Tc value of about 80 K (zero resistance temperature) was found for superlattices grown at high oxygen pressure (PO2~=0.8 mbar) and relativel...
Recently the application of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique to grow different material of relevant interest for applications, especially in the field of micro devices, has been considered. We show that thin films of diamond like carbon (DLC) can be grown by means of the PLD technique, using an XeCl excimer laser. Their characterization was...
Summary The typical problem is addressed of the numerical approximation of the physical laws ruling the behaviour of systems, whose
modelling requires handling a great number of variables. A semi-empirical method is proposed as a physical approach to the
solution of this problem, usually faced by means of purely mathematical techniques. Demonstrati...
Pulsed laser deposition technique (PLD) has been successfully used to
grow artificially layered films of the
CuBa2(Ca1-xSrx)n-1
CunOy compound using only two targets having
nominal composition BaCuOy and
(Ca1-xSrx)CuOy respectively. n was
varied between 2 and 5. The kinematic analysis of the x-ray diffraction
spectra reveals that the average random...
The aim of the present work was to investigate the correlation between response to UV photons and crystal orientation in diamond films. Some chemical vapor deposition diamond samples were exposed to UV radiation (4–6 eV) and the photocurrent measured applying several electric fields. The orientation of diamond films has been checked by X-ray diffra...
Summary Several sets of diamond films have been grown by Microwave Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (MWPECVD) using CH4-H2 and CO2-CH4 gas mixtures. The growth conditions were systematically changed in order to obtain different film morphologies, preferential
orientations and crystal qualities. In particular, the CH4 concentration in the g...
Recently the application of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique to grow different material of relevant interest for applications, especially in the field of micro devices, has been considered. We show that thin films of diamond like carbon (DLC) can be grown by means of the PLD technique, using an XeCl excimer laser. Their characterization was...
In this paper we show that (CaCuO2)m/(BaCuO2)n and (SrCuO2)m/(BaCuO2)n superlattices with good crystallographic quality can be engineered by Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) in a wide range of composition, namely for n=2 and m=1–6. However, Sr- and Ca-based superlattices result to have qualitatively different electrical transport properties. Supercond...
Diamond films grown by microwave plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition have been investigated as particle detectors for nuclear physics. A CH4CO2 gas mixture was used as gas feed during the growth process. The film morphology, preferential orientation and crystal quality were systematically changed by varying the deposition parameters. In part...
Synthetic diamond films have been used to fabricate both particle and UV-radiation detectors. A CH4-CO2 gas mixture was used as a gas feed during the chemical vapor deposition (CVD) growth process. Film morphology, preferential orientation and crystal quality were systematically changed by varying the deposition parameters. In particular, the subst...
In this paper, Monte Carlo modelling of electron scattering in a general composite substrate in the elastic regime is considered. In spite of the great number of physical variables involved in the process, a simplified formulation of the problem in terms of a limited number of dimensioniess parameters is demonstrated by a modified application of Bu...
In this letter we show that SrCuO2/BaCuO2 and CaCuO2/BaCuO2 based artificial structures of very good crystallographic quality can be grown by pulsed laser deposition. We demonstrate that the most important parameters which determine the superconductive properties are the chemical composition, the oxygen growth pressure, and the CO2 contamination. A...
A set of diamond films was grown by microwave chemical vapor deposition (MWCVD) using a CH4-H2 gas mixture. Structural and crystallographic defects were induced in the samples either by choosing a relatively high substrate temperature, Ts=950 °C or by intentional contamination. In addition, different preferential orientations were obtained by appro...
We have shown that the pulsed laser deposition technique (PLD) can be successfully used to grow artificially layered films of the CuBa <sub>2</sub> (Ca <sub>1-x</sub> Sr <sub>x</sub>)<sub>n-1</sub> Cu <sub>n</sub> O <sub>y</sub> compound using only two targets having nominal composition BaCuO <sub>y</sub> and (Ca <sub>1-x</sub> Sr <sub>x</sub>) CuO...
Summary Monte Carlo simulation of electron scattering in solids is considered and an extremely simplified picture of the process is
demonstrated by a semi-empirical application of the Π theorem of dimensional analysis. The case of electron beam lithography
is presented as an example. A set of parameters fully characterising the process is derived,...
Summary We have shown that the pulsed-laser deposition (PLD) technique can be successfully used to grow artificial superlattices based
on the infinite-layer compounds BaCuO2 and SrCuO2. We have demonstrated, by a kinematic analysis of the X-ray diffraction spectra, that the random discrete thickness fluctuations
affect both the BaCuO2 and the SrCuO...
We have shown that the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technique, with no in situ diagnostic, can be used to grow good quality superlattices based on the infinite layer compounds SrCuO2 and CaCuO2. We demonstrated that the major source of disorder in these superlattices, grown at temperatures lower than 600 °C, comes from random discrete thickness fl...
We show that good quality epitaxial films of magnetic lithium ferrite (both pure and Mn,Zn substituted) can be grown by pulsed laser deposition technique either using a XeCl excimer laser or a Nd-YAG laser. The use of the excimer laser allows to grow films with a better surface morphology. Furthermore, energy dispersive X-ray analysis shows that, f...
High quality epitaxial films of the ‘infinite layer’(IL) compound SrxCa1 –xCuO2(x= 0–1) have been grown by pulsed laser deposition on NdGaO3(110) substrates, thus including the last member of this series CaCuO2, for the first time, to our knowledge. The quality of films varied with the composition: higher quality films were obtained for x= 0 and 0....
We show that good quality epitaxial films of magnetic lithium ferrite can be grown by pulsed laser deposition technique either using an XeCl excimer laser or a Nd-YAG laser. The use of the excimer laser allows to grow films with a better surface morphology but does not improve the magnetic properties of films. Structural and electrical transport me...
Summary The typical problem is addressed of system and process modelling depending on a large number of variables. Demonstration is
given that the number of independent variables can be dramatically reduced, by a modified application of Buckingham's theorem
of dimensional analysis, resulting in a simplified formulation of the problem in terms of a...
In this paper, Buckingham's theorem on physically similar systems is applied for the first time to the derivation of interpolation curves of numerical data. A simplified dependence of the curves on a limited number of effective dimensionless parameters is found by a novel approach. In particular, the method is applied to Monte Carlo modelling and t...
A critical experimental test of the empirical unifying scheme recently proposed by Bachmann, Leers, and Lydtyn [Diamond and Related Mater. 1, 1 (1991)] about the gas compositions useful to grow diamond films by plasma‐assisted chemical‐vapor deposition has been performed. The data confirm the main concept of the Bachmann scheme, namely, the existen...
Electron scattering phenomena, occuring in the pattering of tungsten/carbon reflection-masks for X-ray projection lithography, are theoretically investigated. A bi-layer resist subtractive process is analysed by Monte Carlo simulation and proximity-effect evaluation. Results are utilised in order to calculate resist development profiles. Electron-b...
Summary The increasing interest for infinite-layer materials is due essentially to the possibility of studying the simplest high-T
c superconductors parent structure. The usual method to produce this material is high-pressure synthesis. In this paper we
report on this new material deposited by pulsed laser deposition and on the possibility to creat...
Textured diamond films have been deposited on single‐crystal silicon substrates by microwave plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Several unconventional gas mixtures (CO 2 –CH 4 , CO 2 –C 2 H 6 , and CO 2 –C 2 H 4 ) were used in order to study the texturing formation within the diamond stability region in the C–O–H phase diagram. Optical emis...
The theorem of Dimensional Analysis, usually applied to the inference of physical laws, is for the first time applied to the derivation of interpolation curves of numerical data, leading to a simplified dependence on a reduced number of arguments , dimensionless combination of variables. In particular, Monte Carlo modelling of electron beam lithogr...
A theoretical investigation of electron-scattering properties of diamond substrates is presented. A complete simulation combining Monte Carlo calculation of energy deposition and a resist development model is carried out for evaluating the suitability of diamond as a membrane for high-resolution X-ray masks, with respect to silicon. Simulation resu...
We report a novel technique to grow crystals of the high‐temperature superconductor Bi 2 Sr 2 Ca 2 Cu 3 O 10+x and Bi 2 Sr 2 CaCu 2 O 8+x (2223 and 2212 BSCCO phases), both pure and Pb substituted. The technique, based on chemical transport in a thermal gradient in molten KCl, is simple and inexpensive, and yields a continuous output of crystals, w...
Deposition rates of polycrystalline diamond films are investigated as a function of concentration of water vapor in a microwave chemical vapor deposition (CVD) apparatus. For CH4:H2 = 2%:98% gas composition the measured deposition rates are compared with mass spectroscopic data published in the literature and predictions suggested by the widely acc...
The chemical origin of the CHO phase diagram of diamond plasma deposition methods has been presented. According to the suggested chemical reactions, in almost all C-H-O-gas-containing plasmas the principal reactions begin with carbon removal by oxygen to the very stable CO. The rest of the gases during diamond deposition can be regarded as basica...
A theoretical investigation is presented of electron scattering effects in tungsten/carbon mask fabrication process for x-ray projection lithography. A Monte Carlo simulation is carried out and results are utilised to evaluate proximity effects. Electron-beam energy (20 to 100 keV) and mask substrate material (silicon and diamond) are process varia...
The scattering properties of low-Z high-density materials are discussed, through Monte Carlo simulation, in view of their utilization as membranes for X-ray masks. The interplay between low atomic number and high atomic density is discussed and a comparison with silicon is carried out, both in case of bulk targets and membranes. The low Z causes sm...
An additive process using the three-level resist scheme for X-ray mask fabrication by electron beam lithography is analysed
by Monte Carlo simulation of electron scattering. The resist exposure is calculated for specific e-beam test patterns aimed
at 0.2μm resolution. The time evolution of the developed resist profiles is simulated by using a strin...
We have studied the effects of oxidizing and reducing thermal treatments on the critical current density in epitaxial Bi 2 Sr 3-x Ca x Cu 2 O 8+y films. Reducing treatments, while increasing the transition temperature up to 94 K, reduces the critical current density relative to the as‐grown value in the whole range of reduced temperatures. On the c...
In this paper a novel modelling of electron scattering trajectories is presented. The scattering is discussed in terms of short and long range components and a comparison is made with the conventional approach considering forward and back-scattering. The usual analysis is shown to uncorrectly take as representative of short-range effects the forwar...
The scattering properties of diamond membranes for x-ray masks are discussed through MC simulation. The better intrinsic scattering characteristics of diamond with respect to silicon may result, in actual systems, in only minor advantages, both at low and high e-beam energy. At intermediate energy, we show that, while in case of diamond a 0.15 μm r...
We have studied the growth of diamond films from microwave plasma using gas mixtures of CH4-CO2 (not previously reported in the literature) onto Si substrates. The diamond phase is obtained in the molar ratio.range 0.7 less-than-or-equal-to CO2/CH4 less-than-or-equal-to 1.38 +/- 0.05, in close agreement with the empirical model of Bachmann et al.,...
As a test of the unifying scheme recently proposed by Bachmann et al., we studied the growth of diamond films from microwave plasma using non-conventional gas mixtures, i.e. CH4CO2 and C2H2CO2. For CH4CO2, we observed a sharp compositional threshold between the diamond-yielding range and the no-growth range. By investigating systematically the p...
We have studied the emission spectra from plasmas excited in several compositions of three different gas mixtures useful for the growth of diamond films, namely CH 4 ‐H 2 (the classical one), CH 4 ‐CO 2 and C 2 H 2 ‐CO 2 (not previously reported by other authors). In all three cases we find the same correlation between the quality of the obtained d...
In this paper the physical mechanisms of electron scattering in solids are studied, emphasis being placed on the processes
relevant in electron spectroscopy and lithography. The essential features of the Monte Carlo approach to electron penetration
are reviewed. Lithography applications are briefly discussed.
We have studied the effects of reducing and oxidizing thermal treatments on truly epitaxial Bi 2.1-x Pb x Sr 2.9-y Ca y Cu 2 O 8+z films. Films were grown on NdGaO 3 substrates by liquid phase epitaxy with a very narrow mosaic spread (less than 0.1°). Transport and structural properties were investigated for a number of films after various annealin...
An analysis of electron scattering is presented, into short and long range components, and a comparison is made with the conventional decomposition into forward and back scattering. A generalized ν is defined in place of the usual backscattering coefficient. Results are shown, in terms of Monte Carlo simulation, relative to some cases of practical...
Lead free single crystals of the ferrimagnetic garnet Bi3-2xCa2xFe5-x-yInyVxO12 are grown by using the flux method. High quality single crystals having a dimension greater than 10 mm and few inclusions can be obtained for all materials with different In content by the technology described in this paper. Faraday rotation and optical absorption of a...
The growth of Bi 2-y Pb y Sr 3-x Ca x Cu 2 O 8+z films by liquid phase epitaxy is illustrated. Films are shown to be good single crystals epitaxial relative to the substrate. Films stoichiometry was varied changing the melt composition. The effects of the Ca and Pb stoichiometry on both the structural and superconducting properties are discussed. T...
The study of electron beam penetration in solids is fundamental to understanding the basic processes in a variety of applications,
such as microscopy, electron probe microanalysis and microlithography. The physics of electron scattering in solids has been
discussed in sect. 2, in order to obtain a useful theoretical description of the electron tran...
The Liquid Phase Epitaxy (LPE) technique has been used to grow epitaxial, single-phase BSCCO films of both the 2201 and the 2212 phase. The possibility to introduce in the BSCCO structure ions different from the basic constituent ones by simply adding new elements to the melt has been explored. The effects on the c-lattice parameter of Ba and Pb do...
Epitaxial films of Bi2Sr2Ca1Cu2O8 have been grown on NdGaO3, twin-free substrates by liquid phase epitaxy. The films have high crystallographic quality and thickness of about 1 μm. The resistivity curve is metallic, with a sharp (2.9 K wide) resistive transition and zero resistivity at 84.5 K. The critical current density at 77.3 K is 104 A/cm2, ex...
Theoretical understanding of electron scattering phenomena is essential to the implementation of X-ray lithography. In this
paper we theoretically investigate electron scattering effects in X-ray mask-making, by means of a subtractive process, in
the 0.2 μm region. The results of Monte Carlo simulation are utilized in order to calculate radial abso...
In this paper, a three-layer system for additive patterning on silicon substrates is discussed with reference to the effects of electron beam scattering and in view of 0.2 μm resolution. The results of Monte Carlo simulations are fed into proximity-function and resist development calculations and compared with experimental test patterns. The variab...
Epitaxial Bi 2 Sr 2 CaCu 2 O 8+x films have been grown by the liquid phase technique on twinned LaGaO 3 and untwinned SrTiO 3 substrates. Crystallographic properties and transition temperatures are comparable, but the transport critical current density J c depends dramatically on the substrate. Films grown on SrTiO 3 have J c comparable with single...
The growth, structural and electrical properties of single-crystal films of the high-Tc superconductor “BSSC 2212” obtained by liquid phase epitaxy onto LaGaO3 are reported. High quality epitaxial films have been reproducibly obtained, having smooth, continous, and mirror-like surfaces, very little mosaic spread, narrow superconducting transitions...
Epitaxial films of Bi 2 Sr 2 CaCu 2 O 8+x have been grown from liquid KCl solution, onto (100)‐oriented SrTiO 3 substrates. The films show a resistance versus temperature behavior of ‘‘metallic’’ character down to the transition temperature. The residual resistance extrapolated at 0 K is 1/10 of resistance at room temperature. The onset of the supe...