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The African cherry (Prunus africana): Can lessons be learned from an over-exploited medicinal tree?
Abstract
For the last 35 years, the African cherry (Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalm.) has been used in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and other disorders. The bark, from which the treatment is derived, is entirely wild-collected. The major exporters of bark include Cameroon, Madagascar, Equatorial Guinea, and Kenya. Groupe Fournier of France and Indena of Italy produce 86% of the world's bark extract, both for their own products and for the free market. Worldwide exports of dried bark in 2000 have been estimated at 1350-1525 metric tons per year, down from its peak of 3225 tons in 1997. Bark extracts (6370-7225 kg per year) are worth an estimated $4.36 million US dollars per year. In 2000, Plantecam, the largest bark exporter in Africa, closed its extraction factory in Cameroon, due to complex ecological, social, and economic factors. Wild-collection is no longer sustainable (and probably never was) where harvest seriously affects morbidity and mortality rates of harvested populations. Since 1995, it has been included in CITES Appendix II as an endangered species. In this paper, alternatives to wild-collection to meet future market demand are investigated, including conservation practices, enrichment plantings, small- and large-scale production, and protection of genetic resources. The species is at the beginning of a transition from an exclusively wild-collected species to that of a cultivated medicinal tree.
... The African cherry, Prunus africana, is a tree widely distributed in Africa, occurring in the mountainous regions of central, eastern and southern Africa as well as on the islands of Bioko, Sao-Tomé and Grande Comores (Kalkman 1965;Bile et al. 2024). It has a long history for is traditional use and is the source of a non-timber product (bark) that has entered international trade (Stewart 2003). Since the 1960s, bark extracts have been shown to be effective in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (Komakech and Kang 2019). ...
... Due to the sustainable trade concerning in Prunus africana, the species was added to the Red List of Threatened Species in Appendix II in the category "Endangered" at the 9th Conference of the Parties to the CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) in 1995 (Betti and Ambara 2013;Betti et al. 2014;Mpouam et al. 2022). In 2007, trade was suspended in other countries, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon, Uganda, Burundi and Madagascar (Stewart 2003;Muhesi et al. 2023b). ...
... Uses of P. africana wood P. africana is used in households as a source of energy (firewood and charcoal), as a building material for houses (poles, rafters, etc.) and in crafts (making wooden chairs, beds, furniture, mortar, etc.). Stewart (2003) reports that in eastern DR Congo, P. africana produces firewood, construction timber (lorry bodies, beer boats, bridges, cabinets and furniture, roof supports, window and door frames, cutting blocks, behave supports, etc.) and is used in handicrafts (making mortars and pestles) (Muhesi et al. 2023a). The wood is used for the manufacture of carts, carts, furniture and huts, interior finishing products, agricultural tools, tool handles, sporting goods and turning tools (Stewart 2009). ...
Background: Prunus africana (Hook. f) Kalkman has been the spotlight of foresters and scientists for several decades.
However, the knowledge about this plant, which is classified as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), is patchy. This article provides a bibliographic review for the current knowledge on Prunus africana, focus on
harvesting methods, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological use, trade and stakeholder involvement in the sustainable
management of this species.
Methods: The literature cited was obtained from Google Scholar, PubMed, JSTOR and Scopus databases. A total of 122
documents (scientific articles, reports and thesis) were consulted. Grey literature was used in addition to published scientific
research.
Results: Knowledge on the ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological importance of P. africana has developed considerably
in recent years. Prunus africana is known in more than 22 countries and is for the use of utilized for its bark, which is used on medicinally to treat various diseases. The literature shows the climatic diversity of P. africana habitats (altitude, rainfall and
temperature) in African countries. Currently, eight techniques are used to harvest the bark of P. africana: 1/2, 2/4 opposite,
3/4, 4/8, complete debarking, 1/4 felling and 3/6. Six techniques have been categorized as illegal (felling, complete debarking,
3/6, 3/4, 1/2, 1/4), while two have been presented as legal (2/4 and 4/8). While international trade in P. africana is regulated
to ensure sustainable management, the impact of exploitation and trade in products destined for local markets is not yet
known and evaluated in the literature on this species. The article raises concerns about the impacts of medicinal use, logging,
land-use and land-cover change, deforestation, habitat fragmentation and climate change on the conservation and
endangerment of P. africana.
Conclusion: Future research should be conducted to improve knowledge on ecology, genetics and phylogeny, phenology,
harvesting techniques that promote natural regeneration after debarking, and vulnerability of P. africana to climate change
to promote sustainable management of this species.
Keywords: Prunus africana, harvesting methods, ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological use, trade, sustainable
management
... Prunus africana has a long history of ethnobotanical use (Rubegeta et al., 2023). In East and Central Africa, the ground bark is extracted with water to treat stomach ache, chest pain, malaria, fever, diabetes and high blood pressure (Sunderland and Nkefor, 1997;Stewart, 2003;Ngule et al., 2014;Cunningham et al., 2016). The dry bark is crushed and consumed as a tea to treat various ailments, particularly for anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties (Stewart, 2003;Komakech and Kang, 2019). ...
... In East and Central Africa, the ground bark is extracted with water to treat stomach ache, chest pain, malaria, fever, diabetes and high blood pressure (Sunderland and Nkefor, 1997;Stewart, 2003;Ngule et al., 2014;Cunningham et al., 2016). The dry bark is crushed and consumed as a tea to treat various ailments, particularly for anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties (Stewart, 2003;Komakech and Kang, 2019). Prunus africana has been used for the treatment of cancer, diabetes, stomach problems, high blood pressure and for the management of malaria (Njoroge and Bussman, 2006;Ngule et al., 2014;Ochwang'i et al., 2014). ...
... Phytochemical investigations of P. africana have led to the isolation of phytosterols (3-β-sitosterol, 3-β-sitosterone, 3-β-sitosterol-glucoside), phenols (ferulic acid, N-butylbenzenesulfonamide, atraric acid), triterpenes (ursolic acid, oleanolic acids, friedelin, maslinic acid, epimaslinic acid, 2α-hydroxyursolic acid and β-amyrin), fatty acids (ndocosyl ferulate, lauric acid), linear fatty alcohols (nonacosane, hentriacontane, n-docosanol) and other classes of compounds that include tannins, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoic acids, glycosides, alkaloids etc (Longo and Tira, 1981;Catalano et al., 1984;Uberti et al., 1990;Fourneau et al., 1996;You and Cheng, 1997;Ganzera et al., 1999;Schleich et al., 2006;Kadu et al., 2012;Nyamai et al., 2015). Numerous biological effects have been verified in extracts and purified compounds derived from P. africana, exhibiting anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimutagenic, antiproliferative, anti-asthmatic, and anti-androgenic activities (Stewart, 2003;Komakech and Kang, 2019). ...
The stem-bark of Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (African cherry) is traditionally used for the treatment of stomach ache, chest pain, malaria, fever, diabetes and high blood pressure. A large number of constituents have been isolated from the stem-bark including β-sitosterol and ursolic acid, which were reported to have anti-inflammatory activity. The aim of the study was to establish chemotypic variation among Prunus africana samples collected from three African countries, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Zimbabwe. Ninety-five stem-bark samples were collected from a total of nineteen populations, 11 in Cameroon (n = 55), 4 in Democratic Republic of Congo (n = 20) and 4 in Zimbabwe (n = 20). The samples were extracted with ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol (1 g in 10 mL, 1 g in 10 mL and 2 mg in 5 µL, respectively). Chemometric analysis of chromatographic data obtained from high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS), one-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (1D GC–ToF–MS) and spectroscopic data obtained from proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) were done using MetaboAnalyst 4.0 software to explore chemotypic variation. A sample from each country was analysed by two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (2D GC–ToF–MS) to resolve compounds that co-eluted in the 1D GC analysis. Quantification of selected compounds (β-sitosterol and ursolic acid) were done using a validated ultra performance liquid chromatography-photodiode-array detection (UPLC–PDA) method. The chemical profiles obtained from each of the four techniques were very similar for the samples from each country. The HPTLC profiles for Zimbabwe samples were distinctly different from the other two countries with a unique band at Rf value of 0.80. Multivariate analysis of the HPTLC data (using rTLC software), UPLC–MS, 1D GC–ToF–MS and 1H–NMR data revealed three clusters that were country specific. Chemometric analysis through the construction of PCA and a PLS–DA scores plots was performed, followed by the construction of variable important in projection plots, whereby marker compounds contributing significantly to the separation of the three clusters were selected and tentatively identified. Quantitative analysis revealed that samples from Zimbabwe contained higher levels of β-sitosterol (29.2 – 119 µg/g dry weight (DW) of the extract) compared to DRC and Cameroon, while samples from Cameroon were found to contain the highest levels of ursolic acid (1.80 – 141 µg/g DW of the extract). HPTLC, UPLC–MS, 1D and 2D GC–ToF–MS and 1H–NMR are valid tools for quality control of P. africana plant materials after revealing three clusters of samples collected from the three countries. Cameroon samples had high content of ursolic acid, while Zimbabwe samples showed high levels of β-sitosterol. The number of compounds detected across the three countries by 1D GC–ToF–MS was less compared to 2D GC–ToF–MS, which enhanced separation and resolution.
... Beyond medicinal use, the results of our study show that the species is used as a source of energy in households (fuelwood and charcoal), produces building materials for homes (poles, rafters, etc.) and is used in handicrafts (manufacture of wooden chairs, beds, furniture, mortar, etc.). These results are similar to those obtained in various countries (DR Congo, Cameroon, Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, South Africa, and West Africa) where climatic conditions are favorable to the growth of this species (Stewart, 2003). For all these countries except DR Congo and Burundi, Stewart (2003) reports that P. africana produces firewood, construction wood (truck bodies, beer boats, bridges, cupboards and furniture, roof supports, window and door frames, cutting blocks, beehive supports, etc.) and is used in handicrafts (mortar and pestle manufacture, …). ...
... These results are similar to those obtained in various countries (DR Congo, Cameroon, Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, South Africa, and West Africa) where climatic conditions are favorable to the growth of this species (Stewart, 2003). For all these countries except DR Congo and Burundi, Stewart (2003) reports that P. africana produces firewood, construction wood (truck bodies, beer boats, bridges, cupboards and furniture, roof supports, window and door frames, cutting blocks, beehive supports, etc.) and is used in handicrafts (mortar and pestle manufacture, …). ...
... The wood of this species results in a highly valued hive in terms of its durability. In addition to medicinal use and the production of wood for various purposes, Stewart (2003) reports that some indigenous populations in countries where this species is found use it in traditional rituals and ceremonies (ceremonial spear handles, wainscoting on sculptures). P. africana also has agricultural importance in that the young stems (1.5-5 cm in diameter) are also used as stakes for the cultivation of voluble beans in many populations. ...
Background: Prunus africana (Hook. f) Kalkman (Rosaceae) is a multi-purpose species with important utility value for the populations that depend on it. Indeed, local populations living in community forests use P. africana. The objective of this study is to document the different uses of P. africana by local populations in traditional medicine for a better vulgarization for a sustainable management of the resource.
Methods: Ethnobotanical surveys were conducted in four P. africana distribution areas in North Kivu. Data were collected
on the basis of a survey from 221 informants. Statistical analysis and calculation of ethnobotanical indices were performed using R 4.1.2 software.
Results: Results of the investigations show that P. africana is by far used in medical practices (96.83%). It is also used as wood energy (60.18 %), charcoal (40.27 %), in handicrafts (7.24 %), construction (6.79 %), food (2.26 %) and traditional rites (0.45 %). In traditional pharmacopoeia, the characterization of the uses allowed us to identify 23 diseases for which P. africana extracts are used to treat them. The bark and leaves are the most used organs in the recipes. The decoction (99.5%), the macerated (10.41%) and the powders (7.69%) are the galenic or pharmaceutical forms in which the local populations prepare the remedies. The potions prepared are mainly administered orally (99.5%).
Conclusion: The multiple forms of use of P. africana by the populations of North Kivu, both in medicine and in other categories of use, constitute a threat to its survival. For a sustainable management, the results of this study reveal that it is possible to substitute the species P. africana with other plant species with similar potential in order to limit its overexploitation
... 200 km²), where they face increasing threats from hunting and deliberate burning of their habitat, causing the retreat of the forest/savannah boundary in some places (Bayly and Motombe 2004). The gradual disappearance of African Cherry whose seeds are believed to be eaten and disseminated by the Francolin together with excessive debarking for international trade represent another threat jeopardizing the conservation of Francolins (Stewart 2003, Mayaka et al. 2021. ...
... Places within the montane forest occupied by the Mount Cameroon Francolin are characterized by dense undergrowth vegetation within forest patches containing large trees (more than 20 m in height). These are often cloudy and have a discontinuous canopy cover (Thomas and Cheek 1992 (Stewart, 2003). Before the creation of the Mount Cameroon National Park, the forest was degraded by fires and agricultural encroachment, uncontrolled hunting, and African Cherry exploitation (Djomo Nana and Tchemadeu, 2014). ...
... So, market demand of the African cherry (Prunus Africana) has caused resource depletion and an erosion of traditional resource protection practices. Preservation of the ecology of the area will depend on sustainable harvesting methods and on cultivation [4][5][6][7]. ...
... While Saw palmetto may act to inhibit 5-reductase and as an anti-androgenic and anti-estrogenic, Prunus Africana appears to interfere in the associated inflammatory response in the prostate, thus, some herbal formulations contain both products, and there are interrelations between the two markets -Saw palmetto and Prunus Africana-, and both products are entirely wild collected. The ecological result of harvest of saw palmetto fruits are more unknown than the effects of the Prunus Africana harvest which are known [4][5][6][7][8][9][10]. ...
Ecological thinking goes beyond humans and animals, this approach considers the inextricable links between ecosystems and health. Thus, ecology ranges from molecules to the ecological and sociocultural context, including the relationship between the economy and ecological and social processes. While pharmaceuticals are essential for human and animal well-being, their release into the environment is of growing concern. Emissions of pharmaceutical residues can occur during drug manufacturing, through urine and feces after use in humans or domestic animals, in some cases through use in plants, and through improper disposal of unused drugs (1).
The scenario of excessive medicalization of society in general with the consequent increase in drug consumption gives rise to the fact that drug prescription is one of the largest contributors to the carbon footprint generated by the health system, being of special importance in Primary Care. The production and use of medicines account for between 12% and 25% of greenhouse gas emissions from healthcare, the most important element of the supply chain with respect to carbon footprint (2, 3 )....
... It is a novel green tree having white or green flowers, growing up to a height of more than 40 meters, from which medicinal preparations are made [122]. The species is said to be geographically located in African mountains at altitudes above 1500 meters, and the bark extracts of Prunus africana are used to make capsules for treatment of BPH, while also reportedly powdered and drunk as a tea for inflammation, genito-urinary complaints, kidney disease, malaria, allergies, fever and stomach ache [123], [124]. The use of the bark extract of P. africana for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia dated as far back as 1966 when a patent was issued for this purpose [125]. ...
... The use of the bark extract of P. africana for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia dated as far back as 1966 when a patent was issued for this purpose [125]. The use of the bark extracts has been shown to be effective in reducing LUTS in BPH patients [123], [124]. It was also reported that due to the apoptotic and antiproliferative effect of the bark extracts of the plant, it improved urologic symptoms in prostate cancer patients [126]. ...
Introduction: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) and Prostate cancer (PC) are diseases affecting the prostate glands of aging men. Objective: We reviewed common biological factors in BPH and PC, conventional and phytotherapeutic approaches employed in both conditions. Method: PubMed, Google Scholar and Web of Science databases were used to search for information using key words, "Common biological factors in BPH and PC", "Conventional approach used in BPH and PC", and "Medicinal plants used in BPH and PC". All 174 articles included in this review were from 1942 to 2023, published in English language as original articles or reviews. Result: Inflammation, hormones and apoptosis are implicated in both conditions. Conventional interventions include watchful waiting, active surveillance, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy, advanced definitive therapies and surgery. Phytotherapy including Saw palmetto believed to inhibit type 1 and 2 isoenzymes of 5α-reductase, Prunus africana which possesses anti-inflammatory activity, inhibits synthesis of prostaglandins, aromatase and 5α-reductase activity, suppresses growth factors of the prostate and cholesterol build-up, disrupts congestion of blood vessel, reduce excessive blood, decrease prostate adenoma size, and inhibit cell proliferation in the prostate gland; Urtica dioica, Epilobolium rosmarinifolium, Vitex agnus, amongst others have reportedly demonstrated potentials against BPH and PC. Conclusion: Researchers give more attention to PC probably because it is more life threatening, even though BPH is more predominant in males than PC. Therefore, it is worthwhile to give more attention to BPH to reduce life-threatening PC.
... It is a novel green tree having white or green flowers, growing up to a height of more than 40 meters, from which medicinal preparations are made [122]. The species is said to be geographically located in African mountains at altitudes above 1500 meters, and the bark extracts of Prunus africana are used to make capsules for treatment of BPH, while also reportedly powdered and drunk as a tea for inflammation, genito-urinary complaints, kidney disease, malaria, allergies, fever and stomach ache [123], [124]. The use of the bark extract of P. africana for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia dated as far back as 1966 when a patent was issued for this purpose [125]. ...
... The use of the bark extract of P. africana for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia dated as far back as 1966 when a patent was issued for this purpose [125]. The use of the bark extracts has been shown to be effective in reducing LUTS in BPH patients [123], [124]. It was also reported that due to the apoptotic and antiproliferative effect of the bark extracts of the plant, it improved urologic symptoms in prostate cancer patients [126]. ...
Introduction: Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) and Prostate cancer (PC) are diseases affecting the prostate glands of aging men. Objective: We reviewed common biological factors in BPH and PC, conventional and phytotherapeutic approaches employed in both conditions. Method: PubMed, Google Scholar and Web of Science databases were used to search for information using key words, "Common biological factors in BPH and PC", "Conventional approach used in BPH and PC", and "Medicinal plants used in BPH and PC". All 174 articles included in this review were from 1942 to 2023, published in English language as original articles or reviews. Result: Inflammation, hormones and apoptosis are implicated in both conditions. Conventional interventions include watchful waiting, active surveillance, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy, advanced definitive therapies and surgery. Phytotherapy including Saw palmetto believed to inhibit type 1 and 2 isoenzymes of 5α-reductase, Prunus africana which possesses anti-inflammatory activity, inhibits synthesis of prostaglandins, aromatase and 5α-reductase activity, suppresses growth factors of the prostate and cholesterol build-up, disrupts congestion of blood vessel, reduce excessive blood, decrease prostate adenoma size, and inhibit cell proliferation in the prostate gland; Urtica dioica, Epilobolium rosmarinifolium, Vitex agnus, amongst others have reportedly demonstrated potentials against BPH and PC. Conclusion: Researchers give more attention to PC probably because it is more life threatening, even though BPH is more predominant in males than PC. Therefore, it is worthwhile to give more attention to BPH to reduce life-threatening PC.
... Unsustainable use of the species, which mainly affects large, reproductively mature trees, is likely to reduce gene flow and seed dispersal increasing isolation and reducing viability of existing populations [4]. Bark extracts of P. africana are used to treat benign prostate hyperplasia [5]. Prostafx, Tadenan and Pygenil are some of the herbal preparations of P. africana in the market. ...
... The use of the bark in traditional medicine includes the treatment of chest pain, urinary and bladder infections, stomach aches, kidney disease and malaria. The bark is either chewed or crushed into powder and drunk as tea [5]. The high demand of the bark extracts of P. africana has caused serious damage to the wild population [14]. ...
... P. africana is used for the treatment of prostate cancer because these compounds may help with urinary issues such as decreased urine flow and midnight urination. This magnificent evergreen plant was first identified in Sub-Saharan Africa and is in high demand due to its unique anticancer phytochemical (Stewart 2003;Ting et al. 2014). In reality, the utilization of P. africana in African traditional medicine (ATM) to cure prostate cancer and other illness is not a recent concept in many African cultures (Ting et al. 2014). ...
... P. africana bark has been used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate gland enlargement (prostate cancer) in the past (Komakech et al. 2017) Crushed bark is blended with water, and the resulting crimson liquid is used to alleviate stomachache, chest discomfort, urinary infections, STDs, and malaria treatment (Grace et al. 2003;Stewart 2003;Boderker et al. 2014;Maina et al. 2014). Cattle may be given the bark extract as a purgative (Grace et al. 2003). ...
Prostate cancer is still one of the world's top triggers of mortality. In light of the restricted therapy choices for people with prostate cancer, natural substance-based prevention and therapeutic techniques can contribute significantly to combating this illness. P. africana, a Rosaceae-family evergreen shrub native to Sub-Saharan Africa, has traditionally been used to cure prostate cancer. The focus of this research was therefore to review the phytochemistry of P. africana against prostate cancer. P. africana extracts produced from various plant sections have been reported to constitute a number of phytochemical components. Triterpenoids, phenols, sterols, and fatty acids are the most important. In vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that phytochemicals obtained from P. africana have antiprostate cancer characteristics. P. africana extracts have been shown to have powerful antiangiogenic and antiandrogenic properties, which have been partly attributed to synergistic effects of the constituent compounds. The extracts exert anticancer effect in prostate cancer cells by inducing apoptosis, inhibiting cell growth and proliferation, and suppressing signaling factors that promotes invasion, migration, and metastasis of cancer cells. Although, further preclinical and clinical studies are still needed to provide a more reliable scientific validation on the use of P. africana in cancer treatment. The qualitative synthesis from this review provides an evidence-based platform that will stimulate future studies, with prospects of developing safe, affordable, and effective pharmaceuticals for treating prostate cancer.
... Prunus africana, belonging to the Rosaceae family, is the only species of the genus Prunus, which comprises more than 400 species found in Africa. It is widely used in traditional medicine in southern, eastern, and central African countries (1) to treat prostatic cancer and related conditions across various communities for many years (2)(3)(4). The stem bark is used by herbalists in the treatment of various ailments including prostate problems, stomach aches, urinary and bladder infections, chest pain, malaria, microbial infections, and renal disease (5)(6)(7)(8)(9). ...
... Compound 1 was isolated as white crystalline substance with a melting point of 134-135 °C. 1 H NMR spectrum (Table 1) showed an olefinic proton at δH 3.54 (1H, tdd, 11.2, 6.5, 4.6 Hz) corresponds H-6 and oxymethine proton at δH 3.54 (1H, tdd, 11.2, 6.5, 4.6 Hz) for H-3. It also showed proton signals at δH 0.69 (3H, s), 1 This was in agreement with existing literature spectra of typical β-sitosterol (14). Therefore, based on these spectral data and comparison with literature values, the compound was identified as βsitosterol. ...
Chromatographic separation of the methanolic extract of Prunus africana stem bark led to the isolation of five compounds (β- sitosterol (1), benzoic acid (2), two oleanolic derivatives (3 and 4), and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (5). The structures of compounds were elucidated based on 1D and 2D NMR spectral data and compared with reported literature values. This is the first report of benzoic acid and its derivatives from the genus Prunus. The crude extract and isolated compounds were evaluated for their antibacterial activity against five bacterial strains (E. coli, S. aureus, S. flexineri, S.typhimurium, and P. aeruginosa) using disc diffusion assay and showed good antibacterial activity against the tested strains. The crude extract showed potent activity (21.03 + 0.05 mm) against P. aeruginosa, which is even greater than the reference drug gentamycin (14.06 + 0.09 mm). The antibacterial activity of P.africana extract and isolated compounds supports its traditional use, suggesting that it could be considered as a source of bioactive compounds in antimicrobial drug development.
... Prunus africana, belonging to the Rosaceae family, is the only species of the genus Prunus, which comprises more than 400 species found in Africa. It is widely used in traditional medicine in southern, eastern, and central African countries (1) to treat prostatic cancer and related conditions across various communities for many years (2)(3)(4). The stem bark is used by herbalists in the treatment of various ailments including prostate problems, stomach aches, urinary and bladder infections, chest pain, malaria, microbial infections, and renal disease (5)(6)(7)(8)(9). ...
... Compound 1 was isolated as white crystalline substance with a melting point of 134-135 °C. 1 H NMR spectrum (Table 1) showed an olefinic proton at δH 3.54 (1H, tdd, 11.2, 6.5, 4.6 Hz) corresponds H-6 and oxymethine proton at δH 3.54 (1H, tdd, 11.2, 6.5, 4.6 Hz) for H-3. It also showed proton signals at δH 0.69 (3H, s), 1 This was in agreement with existing literature spectra of typical β-sitosterol (14). Therefore, based on these spectral data and comparison with literature values, the compound was identified as βsitosterol. ...
Chromatographic separation of the methanolic extract of Prunus africana stem bark led to the isolation of five compounds (β-sitosterol (1), benzoic acid (2), two oleanolic derivatives (3 and 4), and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (5). The structures of compounds were elucidated based on 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data and compared with reported literature values. This is the first report of benzoic acid and its derivatives from the genus Prunus. The crude extract and isolated compounds were evaluated for their antibacterial activity against five bacterial strains (E. coli, S. aureus, S. flexineri, S.typhimurium, and P. aeruginosa) using disc diffusion assay and showed good antibacterial activity against the tested strains. The crude extract showed potent activity (21.03+0.05 mm) against P. aeruginosa, which is even greater than the reference drug gentamycin (14.06+0.09 mm). The antibacterial activity of P.africana extract and isolated compounds supports its traditional use, suggesting that it could be considered as a source of bioactive compounds in antimicrobial drug development.
... Alternatively, Tadenan dissolved in DMSO has been reported to possess the antiproliferative and apoptotic effects in the cultured prostate stromal cells from patients with BPH (Quiles et al., 2010). The Tadenan active compounds, namely, ferulic acid esters are the potent prostatic anti-hypercholesterolemia (Cristoni et al., 2000;Stewart, 2003b). To date there are very few studies on the activity of other P. africana bark extracts and no other long term studies on the efficacy of Tadenan has been conducted (Lowe, 2001;Fagelman 1996, 1999;Madersbacher et al., 2007). ...
... In this HFD rat model, Karachi (2009) reported that the fasting plasma FFA, TG and TC levels are significantly lowered in the HF+Pa group compared to the HF group. In addition, fasting plasma HDL-C levels in the HF+Pa group have been found to be significantly lowered than that in both HF and LF groups, with no change in the LDL-C levels (Karachi, 2009; contains the ferulic acid esters, which have potent anti-hypercholesterolemia effects in the prostate as a potent treatment of BPH (Cristoni et al., 2000;Stewart, 2003b), however the limited solubility of ferulic acid esters in water makes it an unlikely component in the aqueous extract prepared for this study. ...
Non‐alcoholic fatty liver diseases (NAFLD) is manifested in the absent of alcohol abuse. This disease is the major cause of liver failure and death among adults and children worldwide, including South Africa. Its increasing prevalence urges the need of therapeutic intervention. The main objectives of this study were to investigate the following: (1) The effect of 38.9% high fat diet (HFD)‐induced insulin resistance and fatty liver in male Wistar rats, (2) The efficacy of aqueous extracts from Sutherlandia frutescens leaves and Prunus africana bark and metformin in the treatment of HFD‐induced insulin resistance and fatty liver. Male Wistar rats were fed on HFD (the HF group)or normal rat chow (the LF group) for 12 weeks. Even though the HFD‐fed rats had developed insulin resistance by week 12, fatty liver developed by week 16. After week 12, the HF group was divided into four groups of 6‐7 rats each and three of those groups were gavaged with either 0.125 mg P. africana extract/kg bwt/day (the HF+Pa group) or 50 mg S. frutescens extract kg bwt/day (the HF+Sf group) or 16 mg metformin/ kg bwt/day (HF+Met group), while kept on the same diet for an additional of 4 weeks, to investigate whether two medicinal plant extracts and metformin can prevent HFD to induce fatty liver or not. After 16 weeks, the liver histological images revealed that the HF group developed fatty liver in the form of both microsteatosis and macrosteatosis. Fatty live was confirmed by significant increased liver total lipid (TL) and activities of glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase (cG6PD) and xanthine oxidase (XO), mitochondrial NADH oxidase (mNOX) and by a decrease (P<0.05) in the activities of the homogenate superoxide dismutase (hSOD) and mitochondrial complex II in the HF group, when compared to the LF group. Since the activities of mCS and cACL enzymes were not changed in the HF group, hence increased cG6PD activity in the HF group indicates that there was increased NADPH demand for lipid accumulation from activated NEFAs taken up by the liver from circulation and for maintenance of the NADPH‐dependent antioxidants and oxidants, respectively. The obtained data also show that mitochondria of the HFD‐fed rats adapted to an increase in energy availability, thereby compensation through decreasing complex II activity, to allow electron flux from β‐oxidation to respiratory chain in the HF group. Liver TL content was significantly decreased in the rats treated with metformin and P. africana extract, but not in the rats treated with S. frutescens when compared to the HF group (P < 0.05). However, the TL content remained >5% per liver weight in all treated groups. The present study demonstrates that these two plant extracts and metformin have different glucogenic and lipogenic effects from that presented by HFD alone when compared to the LFD alone. In conclusion, metformin and P. africana extract can attenuate HFD‐induced fatty liver without changing the dietary habits. Hence S. frutescens extract is less effective in the prevention of HFD‐induced fatty liver. A change in the dietary habits is recommended to be considered during the use of these three remedies in the treatment of HFD‐induced insulin resistance and fatty liver. All three treatments enhanced antioxidant capacity, and may improve insulin resistance and fatty liver mediated by the present HFD through different mechanism of actions in the liver.
... Cameroon supplied over one half of the bark exported, followed by Madagascar, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Uganda, and Equatorial Guinea (Sunderland and Tako 1999;Cunningham et al. 2002). After over two decades of utilization, significant changes in population status were expected amidst growing concerns by governments in East and West Africa over sustainability of this international trade (Stewart 2003;Luke 2011). ...
... Besides treatment of prostate cancer as reported by Cunningham et al. (2002), other studies show that medicinal extracts from P. africana are used to treat gonorrhoea and relieve fever, chest and stomach pain (Bodeker et al. 2014). In African countries such as Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Comoros, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ethiopia and Kenya, kidney disease, urinary infections, and malaria, as well as for arrow poison are treated using P. africana (Stewart 2003). This study reports four additional ailments (Ulcers, Asthma, Hypertension and open wounds) treated on the list, suggesting that its medicinal potential is extensive. ...
Globally, the diversity of indigenous medicinal tree species is threatened and yet such plants provide the least costly means of treatment for the poor. The factors that inspire adoption of such plants on farm are unclear. This study was conducted in communities adjacent to six protected areas in central Uganda, to (1) document the local uses of Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman, (2) assess the farmers’ perception towards integration of P. africana on farm, and (3) determine the factors that influence adoption of P. africana on farms. A total of 206 smallholder farmers were engaged through semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data were analyzed in SPSS 20.0. Both material (medicine, timber, fuel) and non-material (windbreak, boundary marking and shade) uses were recognized. Up to 73% of the farmers perceived well the planting of P. africana on farms, and the positive perception evolved from training them in tree seed handling techniques, general nursery operations, and on-farm tree management. The farmers’ age, income and farm size were the most important factors predicting their readiness to integrate P. africana on-farm. However, their involvement was likely to only be beneficial if they get access to sufficient land and quality seedlings. Moreover, the farmers needed to be continuously provided with free/low cost seed/seedlings, trained in on farm tree management and soil fertility enhancement to approve integration of indigenous tree technologies
... Bark extracts (6370-7225 kg per year) are worth an estimated $ 4.36 million per year. 11 While, in Ethiopia, the African cherry is basically used for fuel wood, charcoal, ornamental, windbreaks and green manure. 12 Bark infusions were used in the treatment of chest pains and as a purgative for cattle. ...
Prunus africana is one of the most popular to treat benign prostate hyperplasia (BHP), and to treat diarrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, infertility, irregular menstruation, kidney disease, disorders, fevers, obesity, pneumonia, hypertension, antigonorrheic, antimalarial, chest pain; other various diseases. The air dried and powdered plant material (200g) was first soaked with 500 mL n-hexane for 72 hours and yielded 1.3 g of n-hexane extract. Marc was soaked with 400 mL of ethyl acetate for 72 hours and afforded 2g of ethyl acetate extract. Finally, Marc was soaked with 400mL of methanol and yielded 12.6 g of methanol extract. The ethyl acetate extract of the root bark of P. africana afforded a compound coded as AYU. Its Structural determination was accomplished by means of spectroscopic techniques, namely IR, 1 H NMR, 13 C NMR and DEPT-135. The compound, AYU was isolated and characterized from the root bark of P. african. It was shown that spot on TLC only up on spraying 1% vanillin sulphuric acid and after heating for a few minutes. Generally, chromatographic techniques like PTLC and HPLC are required to isolate more compounds from leaves of P. africana. Also MS and 2D NMR spectroscopic techniques are needed to fully characterize the isolated compound.
... Among the known compounds, three groups are greatly important: (A) Phytosterols especially β-sitosterol, have antiinflammatory properties that inhibit the swelling of the prostate gland, (B) Pentacyclic triterpenoids that provide anti-edematous activity, and (C) Ferulic acid esters, which have a powerful hypocholestero-lernic activity in the prostate, as well as anti-tumor activity [9]. Leaves are used as an inhalant for fever or are drunk as an infusion to improve appetite, remedy for stomach pain and insanity [10,11]. In Ethiopia, the leaves of the species were used to dress wounds. ...
Prunus africana (P. africana) is a geographically wide spread tree to forest habitats of the African continent. P. africana is one of the most popular plant in traditional medicine for threatening various ailments. It is mainly is used to treat benign prostate hyperplasia (BHP). The study aimed at phytochemical investigation and characterization on the leaves extract of P. africana. The air dried and powdered plant material (155 g) was first soaked with 500 ml n-hexane for 72 hours and yielded 1.3 g of n-hexane extract. Residue was soaked with 400 ml of ethyl acetate for 72 hours and afforded 1.8 g of ethyl acetate extract. Finally, residue was soaked with 400 ml of methanol and yielded 12.6 g of methanol extract. The ethyl acetate extract of the leaves of P. africana afforded a compound coded as CM whose structural determination was accomplished by means of spectroscopic techniques. The compound, CM was isolated and characterized from the leaves of P. africana. It was shown that spot on TLC only up on spraying 1% vanillin sulphuric acid and after Original Research Article Begeno et al.; IRJPAC, 21(14): 47-57, 2020; Article no.IRJPAC.51916 48 heating for a few minutes. Generally, chromatographic techniques like PTLC and HPLC are required to isolate more compounds from leaves of P. africana. Also MS and 2D NMR spectroscopic techniques are needed to fully characterize the isolated compound.
... Extensive depletion of forest resources and over-exploitation of aromatic plants from the wild have faded away the availability of widely used medicinally important aromatic plants and many are on the verge of extinction. Most notable are "yohimbe" (Pausinystalia johimbe) from Central Africa used to treat male impotency (Sunderland et al.,2002),African cherry (Prunus africana) from Cameroon and Madagascar used to treat prostatitis (Stewart, 2003), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) from eastern North America (White, 1991), Pacific yew producing anticancer agent taxol (Atanasov et al.,2015) and many more.In India,sixteen medicinal plants of the north-western Himalayas including widely used Dioscorea deltoidea, Atropa acuminata, and Rauvolfia serpentina have been categorized as endangered species (Gupta, 1986;Salick et al., 2014). The list is continuously growing throughout the world. ...
The present book opens the ability of aromatic plants for phytoremediation
programs and explores the opportunity of obtaining essential oil as
an economy from polluted lands through the phytomanagement of valuable
aromatic plants. The present book provides the notion of phytoremediation
using aromatic plants to make phytoremediation a more viable option for remediating
contaminated lands, as the essential oil of aromatic plants is famous
for its bioeconomy significance. Some aromatic grasses show significant roles
in the restoration of polluted lands because of their fast growth, regeneration,
and easy establishment. This unique book is a matchless compilation that
offers a pioneering fusion of scientific and practical knowledge on the
phytoremediation of polluted lands using aromatic plants. It also addresses
useful facts for practitioners and stakeholders to select specific aromatic
plants rendering to site specificity.
... With regard to leaf shape, the Cr2 population with the most rotund leaves and the BH4 population with the narrowest leaves are the most promising. Finally, it should be mentioned that when we consider the cultivation of rare plants it should be kept in mind that commercial production of endemic and endangered species can prevent the collection from the wild and reduce the danger of a species becoming extinct [74,75]. ...
Due to climate extremes and limited natural resources, especially water, we can expect increased demand in the future for species that can better tolerate climate extremes such as drought. One potentially valuable horticultural species is the endemic species of the Dinaride Mountains Micromeria croatica (Pers.) Schott (family Lamiaceae). It grows in the crevices of carbonate rocks, extending from an altitude of 150 m to more than 2000 m. This study aims to provide additional insight into the genetic and morphological diversity of this endemic species, focusing on valuable horticultural traits. To achieve this goal, morphological and molecular analyses were performed on ten natural populations. Through STRUCTURE and PCoA analyses, ten M. croatica populations were placed into western and eastern genetic groups, with several individuals from western populations assigned to the eastern group and vice versa. These atypical individuals assigned to the new genetic group by BAPS analysis indicate gene flow between western and eastern populations. Similarly, an analysis of molecular variance revealed fewer genetic differences than within studied populations. Both PCA and CANDISC analysis based on eleven morphological traits largely confirmed the existence of two slightly different genetic groups. Two populations containing plants with the most flowers per shoot, one with white-flowered individuals, one with the roundest leaves, and one with the narrowest leaves proved to be the most horticulturally valuable. The genetic and morphological variability found should be a sufficient basis for the potential selection of M. croatica populations and individuals for horticultural purposes.
... Traditionally, P. africana has multiple uses (Ingram et al., 2009). It produces lumber used to make tool handles and poles for house and fence construction, as well as firewood, especially for charcoal (Fashing, 2004;Stewart, 2003). The major importance of Prunus africana is related to its bark. ...
... Even though medicinal plant products are very popular in the market, very few studies have looked at their value chain. There are only several published reports on the value chains of herbal medicinal plant products (Stewart 2003;Winkler 2008) in comparison with an abundance of reports on research and production of the plant products. Generally, three criteria have been discussed in previous research (Bryceson 2008;Menon 2008) on the strategy to increase the value of medicinal plants in the value chain which consists of demand in the market, quality of the product, and financial advantages (Fig. 21.6). ...
Herbs with medical value are of great importance as it is widely used in complementary and alternative healthcare and medical practices due to its alleged health benefits, easy availability, perceived effectiveness, and safety. It is a source of natural products with health value which claimed to treat various illness from minor cuts and general infections to post-partum care. Herbs are also consumed as a functional food and have high market values in both pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries. Their pronounced efficacy has been attributed to their phytochemical constituents especially the bioactive compounds. Bioactive compounds from medicinal herbs found to be effective as anti-bacterial, anti-oxidants, anti-tumour, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and numerous more. Therefore, plant-derived substances have recently become a subject of interest and very demanding as people are now in a trend going back to nature. However, they are affected by different environmental changes. The quality of alternative medicine usually depends on the secondary metabolites produced and usually, these metabolites are influenced by an environmental factor. Despite the complex nature of the biosynthesis of different plant secondary metabolites, research indications highlighted that their biosynthesis and accumulation remain under the control of the environment. Changes from environmental influence have been reported at genetic or protein level which caused profound alteration of the metabolite pool of the affected medicinal plants. This chapter aims to discuss the progress and scenarios of different strategies used by researchers worldwide to preserve the herbs under various adverse conditions that encompassing sustainable development approaches as well as how different environmental factors influence qualitatively and quantitatively the production of secondary metabolites of medicinal benefits which can be developed as detection tools to ensure medicinal quality in phytomedicines.
... The few plant products obtained from native and endemic species that have given rise to export sectors are sourced entirely by harvesting them in their natural habitat. For instance, at the beginning of the twentieth century, this was the case for different natural rubber species belonging amongst others to the Mascarenhasia and Landolphia genera , raffia palm (Raphia farinifera) (Perrier de la Bâthie 1931; Mouranche 1955), precious woods (Dalbergia spp., Diospyros spp.) (Perrier de la Bâthie 1950;Schurman et Lowry II 2009), copal, the extracted resin of Trachylobium verrucosum (Jacob de Cordemoy 1911), and in recent years, the bark of Prunus africana (Stewart 2003), which has led to the rarefaction of them all, and in some case, even threatened the species concerned. ...
introduced species. The associated agrobiodiversity, including plants that grow spontaneously and are protected or tolerated by farmers, is composed of a mix of native and introduced species. This situation, which is paradoxical for an island with a very high level of endemicity is the result of a double process of species introduction. The first is associated with the waves of migration, which, during the past three thousand years or so, allowed colonisation of the island, previously devoid of human occupants. The migrant populations originating from Austronesia and then from Africa, introduced their own crops and associated growing practices and only exploited local biodiversity through gathering, which did not require planting or tending. This situation is therefore the result of a long process of farmers' strategies to manage natural resources in a context of subsistence agriculture. The second process is more recent and is associated with increasing occupation by Europe-ans from the 16th/eighteenth century onwards, which peaked at the end of the nineteenth century with the French colonisers, who introduced and then developed cash crops (coffee, cloves, vanilla). This long-term retrospective study sheds light on the dynamics at the origin of the biodiversity "melting pot" visible today in the AFS along the east coast of Mada-gascar. It shows the constant evolution and adaptation of farmers' strategies and cropping systems, but also their historical roots. The cohabitation between introduced and indigenous species, observed today in Madagascar, is found in other AFSs built around Abstract An inventory of the species in and around the clove agroforestry systems (AFS) on the east coast of Madagascar revealed that none of the currently grown species derive from the native Malagasy biodiversity: the herbaceous and woody plants which comprise planned agrobiodiversity, i.e. are deliberately planted by the farmer, are without exception, an introduced cash crop, in various tropical zones. Knowing the origins and determinants of this cohabi-tation could be useful to support future evolutions of these cropping systems in the current context of changing agricultural practices in response to ecological and macroeconomic pressures.
... The powdered bark has been used by indigenous people for urinary tract disorders and as an aphrodisiac drug in the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa [174,175]. The bark is traditionally applied in the treatment of cough and cold in Kenya [176] and South Africa [177]; asthma [178], malaria and prostate cancer in Kenya [179]; BPH in Ethiopia [180] and Mozambique [181]; as anticancer drug in Uganda [182]; for jaundice in Ethiopia [183]; for tuberculosis, HIV, and stomach problems in South Africa [177]; for mental disorders, diabetes, skin infection, ulcers, gonorrhea, as well as for hypertension,; while the root and the fruit for chest pain; the leaf for fever, and e.g., for mental disorders, diabetes, skin infection, ulcers, gonorrhea, and hypertension [184][185][186][187][188]. ...
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is one of the most common urinary diseases affecting men, generally after the age of 50. The prevalence of this multifactorial disease increases with age. With aging, the plasma level of testosterone decreases, as well as the testosterone/estrogen ratio, resulting in increased estrogen activity, which may facilitate the hyperplasia of the prostate cells. Another theory focuses on dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and the activity of the enzyme 5α-reductase, which converts testosterone to DHT. In older men, the activity of this enzyme increases, leading to a decreased testosterone/DHT ratio. DHT may promote prostate cell growth, resulting in hyperplasia. Some medicinal plants and their compounds act by modulating this enzyme, and have the above-mentioned targets. This review focuses on herbal drugs that are most widely used in the treatment of BPH, including pumpkin seed, willow herb, tomato, maritime pine bark, Pygeum africanum bark, rye pollen, saw palmetto fruit, and nettle root, highlighting the latest results of preclinical and clinical studies, as well as safety issues. In addition, the pharmaceutical care and other therapeutic options of BPH, including pharmacotherapy and surgical options, are discussed, summarizing and comparing the advantages and disadvantages of each therapy.
... This disparity in the number of host trees identified in this region could be closely related to the fact that our study was conducted at a grassland edge of a natural and monospecific G. glauca forest (Momo et al. 2017), but also to the strong threat to P. africana over the past several years by unsustainable harvesting in many countries where it occurs. Indeed, this species is used by pharmaceutical companies to manufacture a drug used in treating benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate gland hypertrophy (Stewart 2003). Cunningham (2005) reported that over the last 40 years, P. africana bark harvest for its medicinal properties has shifted from subsistence use to large-scale commercial use for international trade. ...
Background and aims-A recent taxonomic and molecular study of the genus Cyrtorchis revealed three new species. Here, we describe one of these new species, endemic to the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL), and compare it to its closest relatives. Its conservation status is provided along with detailed information on its ecology and reproductive biology. Material and methods-A detailed examination of 21 herbarium specimens was performed using standard practices of herbarium taxonomy. The conservation status of the new species was assessed using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Furthermore, we investigated the reproductive biology of the new species in an easily accessible subpopulation in Cameroon and tested the hypothesis of hawkmoth pollination in the genus Cyrtorchis. Key results-The newly discovered species, here named C. okuensis, is restricted to the montane forest (1600 to 2500 m elevation) of the CVL and is currently assessed as Near Threatened (NT). Among angraecoid orchids in which hawkmoth pollination is recorded (~16 species), C. okuensis has the shortest nectar spur (19-40 mm). In situ observations revealed hawkmoths with short proboscis of the genus Hippotion (H. celerio, H. eson, and H. osiris) as the main pollinators. The rate of pollination and fruiting under natural conditions was low and among the 448 surveyed flowers only 38.8% (174/448 flowers) had their pollinia removed, 19% produced fruits (87/448 flowers), and 16% (70/448 flowers) set mature fruits. Conclusion-Cyrtorchis okuensis is clearly differentiated from C. submontana by its longer and wider floral bracts, longer anther caps, and wider triangular dorsal sepal.
... Efforts to preserve endangered species such as Prinus africana, Euphorbia tirucalli, Erythrina abyssinica, Ficus thonningii, and Dracaena afromontana are important based on their cultural, social, ecological, and medicinal values [8,38,78]. Converting wild habitats, such as forests, into agricultural lands and for commercial purposes are among the major contributors to the steep decline in medicinal plants and trees [31,77]. Domestication and cultural integration of some medicinal plants would prevent their extinction [33,35]. ...
Diarrhea, often caused by microorganisms, has been associated with high morbidity and mortality in Africa. Increased rates of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens have reignited the quest for alternative therapies. This review aimed at identifying medicinal plants used in the treatment of human diarrheal cases in Rwanda and analyzing their ethnobotany, ethnopharmacology, and phytochemistry. We searched PubMed/Medline, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, and the Web of Science for published articles on medicinal plants used to treat diarrhea in Rwanda. Additionally, specialized herbarium documents of different institutes were reviewed. Articles were assessed for relevance, quality, and taxonomical accuracy before being included in this review. Overall, 63 species of medicinal plants belonging to 35 families were recorded. Asteraceae was the predominant family with six species, followed by Fabaceae and Lamiaceae, with five species each. The most reported species with anti-diarrheal properties were Vernonia amygdalina Delile, Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd, Clerodendrum myricoides R. Br. and Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen. Leaves (66.7%) and roots (17.5%) were the commonly used plant parts in the preparation of medicine. Phytochemicals from medicinal plants with antidiarrheic activities were sesquiterpene lactones (V. amygdalina); terpene, sterols, saponosides, and flavonoids (C. ugandae); saponins and tannins (T. riparia); and tannins, flavonoids, and alkaloids (C. myricoides). Six studies tested the antimicrobial activities of the plants against bacteria and viruses known to cause diarrhea. Erythrina abyssinica, Euphorbia tirucalli, Dracaena afromontana, and Ficus thonningii are socio-culturally important. Further research on toxicity and posology is needed to ensure the safety of medicinal plants.
... This depletion of the resource could be an underlying cause of loss of diversity or lead to species being placed in alarming categories such as endangered (Broad et al. 2003, Stewart 2003. Furthermore, the overexploitation of the resource may lead to the economic decline of the families of managers and vendors themselves, who depend on the economic income from the sale of these resources. ...
Background:
Edible flowers are important food resources due to their high content of nutrients and bioactive compounds. In Mexico these resources have been part of the diet of indigenous and mestizo, and are also important sources of income for the families that cultivate, gather and sell them.
Questions:
What are the species of edible flower commercialized in local markets in Pachuca de Soto, Hidalgo, Mexico? How are they prepared? What are their nutritional contents and conservation risk categories according to literature?
Studied species:
Agave salmiana, A. mapisaga, Aloe vera, Arbutus xalapensis, Chenopodium berlandieri subsp. nuttalliae, Cucurbita pepo ssp. pepo, C. moschata, Dasylirion acrotrichum, Erythrina americana, Euphorbia radians, Myrtillocactus geometrizans, Phaseolus coccineus, Yucca filamentosa.
Study site and dates:
Local markets of Pachuca de Soto, Hidalgo, Mexico. January 2019 to March 2020.
Methods:
Interview-purchase with sellers and direct observations in markets. Bibliographic review of the nutritional contents of the recorded species and their conservation status.
Results:
We recorded 13 species of edible flowers and eight preparation methods. Five species are cultivated, five are gathered from the pine-oak forest or xerophilous scrub ecosystems and three are obtained from crops and natural ecosystems. The gualumbos (Agave salmiana and A. mapisaga) are the most commercialized flowers and had the most forms of preparation (six). Seven of the species traded are placed in a conservation risk category.
Conclusions:
The diversity of edible flowers used, and their preparation methods exemplify the traditional knowledge of the groups that handle them and their importance as food and economic sustenance.
... It is therefore difficult to assess whether it is an accurate observation, and we have listed the species as a potential new source for arrow poison (Table 2). Madivoli and colleagues (2018), for example, cite Stewart (2003a) who cites Neuwinger (2000 and Kalkman (1965). We could not trace the Neuwinger entry, and Kalkman only mentions that Graham (1960) noted 'poison for arrows' as a use for P. africana. ...
Some 170 years ago Piet Windvogel told William Atherstone about two plant-based arrow poisons prepared and used by Khoe-San living west of the Great Kei River in the modern-day Eastern Cape interior of South Africa. Atherstone’s interest in botany and in indigenous knowledge of local plant species fed into colonial intellectual networks, as well as imperialist concerns with scientific and/or economic profit. Yet his diarised record of Windvogel’s accounts has prompted us to compile a list of potential arrow poisons for a region where such ethnohistorical information is comparatively sparse. We have narrowed these down to the most likely botanical species used in Windvogel’s poison recipes: Prunus africana or rooistinkhout for the manufacture of t’ghee poison and perhaps Euphorbia mauritanica or gifmelkbos for taah poison, although species such as Acokanthera oppositifolia or gifboom, Asclepias fruticosa or melkbos and Carissa macrocarpa or the grootnoem-noem also merit consideration.
... africana is a widespread tree in the mountain forests of continental Africa and Madagascar, however, it is threatened by unsustainable harvesting in many countries where it occurs. Indeed, this species is used by pharmaceutical companies to manufacture a drug used in treating benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate gland hypertrophy (Stewart 2003). Cunningham (2005) reported that over the last 40 years, P. africana bark harvest for its medicinal properties has shifted from subsistence use to large-scale commercial use for international trade. ...
Le genre Cyrtorchis, groupait 18 espèces d’orchidées angraecoïdes endémiques d'Afrique tropicale, était connu pour ses grandes fleurs blanches, odorantes à long éperon bien adaptées pour des études sur la biologie de la reproduction. Il était également connu pour ses problèmes de délimitation taxonomique qui peuvent s’avérer préjudiciables pour la conservation des espèces.La présente thèse de doctorat ambitionne de résoudre les problèmes de délimitation au sein du genre au niveau inter et intraspécifique en utilisant une approche de taxonomie intégrative et de documenter sa biologie de la reproduction.Une inspection visuelle de 1752 spécimens, les analyses morphométriques et phylogénétiques ont été utilisées pour clarifier la taxonomie au sein du genre. L’inspection visuelle a permis de délimiter 27 morphogroupes à priori, desquels un échantillonnage de 171 spécimens représentant 20 morphogroupes a été utilisé pour les analyses morphométriques. Pour les reconstructions phylogénétiques, 69 spécimens représentant 21 des 27 morphogroupes ont été séquencés à partir de six marqueurs moléculaires. La caractérisation des patrons de floraison et l’observation et des pollinisateurs ont été réalisées au Cameroun grâce à un suivi phénologique en ombrière sur trois ans de 494 spécimens vivants représentant 15 taxons, et un suivi de la pollinisation naturelle in situ de deux de ces taxons. L’évaluation des facteurs affectant la production des fruits et des graines viables a été réalisée chez deux espèces du genre à travers 448 tests de pollinisation manuelle pour lesquels l’effet du système de pollinisation et de la limitation des ressources ont été examinés.Les approches morphologiques permettent de distinguer deux groupes correspondant aux deux sections préalablement identifiées pour le genre Cyrtorchis. Les analyses moléculaires quant à elles ne soutiennent que la monophylie d’une des deux sections, Cyrtorchis sect. Cyrtorchis. Huit taxons morphologiquement définis dans le genre incluant trois nouvelles espèces sont également bien supportés par les analyses morphométriques et phylogénétiques. Le point d’insertion des stipites au tier supérieur du viscidium semble être l’un des principaux caractères reproducteurs soutenant la monophylie du genre alors que d’autres traits (tels que la structure du viscidium, la forme des stipites et des lobes latéraux du rostelle) se révèlent être d’importants critères permettant d’inférer des relations phylogénétiques au sein du genre. Au final, cette analyse met en évidence 27 taxons au sein du genre(incluant six nouveaux taxons à décrire), dont 12 taxons, confirmé par les approches morphométriques et/ou phylogénétiques. La phénologie de la floraison des espèces en ombrière montre un pic de floraisons à la grande saison de pluie (entre août et octobre). Un décalage de la floraison est observé chez certains taxons distribués en sympatrie et un asynchronisme de la floraison entre population de la même espèce. La pollinisation naturelle est un évènement rare et difficile à observer chez les deux espèces étudiées (C. letouzeyi et C. okuensis). En effet, le taux de pollinisation/fructification est globalement faible (39 % de fleurs avec les pollinies emportées et 16 % de fruits produits chez C. okuensis ; 31-15 % de fleurs avec les pollinies emportées et 7-4 % de fruits produits chez C. letouzeyi), et ce, à cause du nombre réduit des visites des pollinisateurs. Par ailleurs, les pollinisateurs des deux espèces ont été identifiés et la pollinisation par les sphinx est confirmée dans le genre. Les tests de pollinisation manuelles ont révélé que la pollinisation croisée semble être le système de pollinisation le plus efficace pour la production de fruits et de graines viables. Cependant, davantage d’espèces devront être testées pour confirmer ce patron.Les approches multidisciplinaires développées dans ce travail sont des bases solides pour la définition et la mise en oeuvre de stratégies efficaces de conservation pour les espèces d’orchidées menacées. Afin de produire une révision taxonomique complète du genre, une phylogénie complète incluant les cinq taxons restants et ceux encore non résolus est nécessaire. Les nouveaux taxons identifiés devraient être décrits et les statuts de conservation évalués pour l’ensemble des espèces reconnues dans le genre
... Leur acceptabilité sociale reste faible et elles nécessitent des moyens importants, dont les pays du Sud sont généralement dépourvus (Bertrand et al., 2014). À Madagascar, les expériences passées de l'exploitation de l'écorce du Prunus africana (Stewart, 2003) et du caoutchouc (Danthu et al., 2016) illustrent ces difficultés. Des alternatives, fondées sur la cueillette aménagée et la culture semi-intensive, peuvent se révéler plus vertueuses d'un point de vue environnemental, social et économique (Kusters et al., 2006). ...
À Madagascar, le Tsiperifery , une espèce de poivrier sauvage endémique de l’île, est actuellement soumis à une surexploitation. Un programme participatif de domestication de cette plante a été lancé pour assurer la durabilité de son exploitation. Des techniques de culture sont co-construites par des chercheurs et des paysans sur trois sites pilotes. Cette étude s’intéresse aux facteurs influençant la propension des paysans à co-construire et expérimenter ces techniques. Les données collectées via 90 entretiens semi-dirigés ont été traitées en suivant les principes de l’approche « grounded theory ». Les principaux déterminants influençant le comportement des paysans sont (i) la logique économique, (ii) le contexte informationnel, (iii) l’accès au marché, (iv) les capacités productives de l’exploitation et (v) l’esprit de conservation de la nature. À partir de ces déterminants, nous avons pu définir cinq types de stratégies paysannes : les « homo-economicus » ; les « conservationnistes » ; les « opportunistes », les « exclus » et les « suiveurs ». Cette meilleure compréhension des stratégies paysannes permet d’améliorer la conception et la conduite des programmes de recherche participative.
... Despite the initial enthusiasm generated by the study of Peters et al. (1989), the simple exploitation of NTFPs like tsiperifery by forest dwellers has failed in most cases to provide both a way out of poverty and efficient means to protect tropical forests from deforestation (Kusters et al., 2006). Exemplary cases are natural rubber (Danthu et al., 2016) and Prunus africana (Stewart, 2003;Jimu, 2011), two Malagasy NTFPs which have been exploited until they have been included in the CITES appendix II (CITES, 2016). On the other hand, according to Kusters et al. (2006), the household strategies that provide the best compromise between sustainable profitability and acceptable habitat degradation/conservation are all based on NTFP cultivation, either as a specialized crop or integrated in a diversified agricultural system. ...
Introduction - Since the international popularity of tsiperifery, the Malagasy wild pepper (Piper sp.) from Madagascar started to grow, traditional low-intensity harvesting has turned into uncontrolled systematic collection, which is environmentally and socioeconomically unsustainable. Domestication could be key for sustainable exploitation of tsiperifery. Here we collated information from comparable domesticated Piper species to identify pathways to accelerate the domestication of tsiperifery. Materials and methods - We conducted a literature review, upon four steps: (1) identification of the already domesticated Piper species; (2) analysis of their domestication history and cultivation methods to highlight the common critical points for domestication; (3) comparison of these information with the limited ones available on tsiperifery; and (4) provision of preliminary recommendations on a possible domestication pathway for tsiperifery.
Results and discussion - We identified and analyzed 22 domesticated Piper species. We found nine critical issues, the most important being: (i) genotype selection; (ii) procedure for vegetative propagation; (iii) reproduction of the mi-croclimatic and edaphic conditions of the rainforest understory; (iv) choice of the best supports and cultivation system; (v) reduction of the delay before entry into production; and (vi) control of plant height. For each critical issue, we suggested preliminary recommendations.
Conclusion - This paper provides baseline information towards the domestication of tsiperifery. Further on-field and molecular experiments are needed to confirm these findings and identify suitable management practices.
... On the other hand, it has been observed previously that large scale use of some plant species in the absence of a program devised to ensure the sustainability of such use results in additional threats to biodiversity. For instance, Prunus africana has been over-exploited for years in countries like Cameroon and Madagascar for its medicinal properties, with the result that, after a few years, it had to be classified as endangered species (Stewart, 2003). The same has been observed for plant sourced rubber in Madagascar where the exploitation of this natural resource has led to biodiversity loss during a few years (Danthu et al., 2016). ...
Artificial dyes from petrochemicals are extensively used in the numerous sectors. They have adverse effects on human health and environment. Economical and bio-friendly approaches are needed to extract and produce dyes in an ecological manner to replace the hazardous and toxic artificial ones. In this regard, exploiting the potential of natural dyes sources from unconventional plant species presumes a sustainable management of natural resources, and the development of eco-friendly processing extraction technologies with high efficiency, low toxicity and low environmental impacts. In Madagascar, five plant species including Acridocarpus excelsus, Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora mucronata, Woodfordia fruticosa and Xylocarpus granatum are traditionally used as sources of natural red dyes by Malagasy craftspersons for textile dyeing at a very small scale. This original work is based on this assessment. t demonstrated that biopigments extracted via a low-toxicity and highly-efficient pressurized liquid extraction (PLE method from barks adventive roots collected from these five plant species of Madagascar could be used as red dyestuffs. These dye plant extracts have been demonstrated as having, in term of colors, great pH stabilities within a pH range of 3 to 9 and thermal stability up to 200 °C. By their chemical properties,ntioxidant and antimicrobial properties that could meet industrial application requirement. We are proposing lines of research that would improve the industrial sustainability and economic viability of the production of pigments extracted from Malagasy plant raw materials. The potential of PLE technique paired with eco-friendly solvents as an alternative method for the extraction and recovery of natural dyes is also discussed here. The valorisation of these plant species using green technologies could enable the development of local sectors in Madagascar with wide potential of applications. However, issues related to development ethics, preservation of biological heritage and sustainable resource management must be carefully considered.
... The actual impact of harvesting depends on the specific growth form or type of resource that is removed. Intensive and uncontrolled harvesting can reduce the abundance of solitary plants (Stewart, 2003;Bitariho et al., 2006). The harvesting of roots, bulbs and bark usually kills or fatally weakens the exploited plant species (Davenport & Ndangalasi, 2002). ...
Wounding of trees by debarking has been reported to form a callus tissue. This work aims to investigate macroscopic and microscopic modifications of wood after the removal of barks in Alstonia boonei, Scorodophloeus zenkeri, and Garcinia lucida. Species that are not yet barking were wounded to conducting experimental debarking. The wound was rectangular with 30 cm vertically with a lateral extent of 10 cm. Every three months, there was a follow-up for fifteen months during which the macroscopic and microscopic phenomena were observed and recorded. Microsections of 15–20 μm thickness were taken on a piece of wood from the regenerated and intact wood, with a sledge microtome. Staining of cell walls was done with safranin and fast green to increase contrast in an anatomical slide. Analyzes of the variability of xylem anatomical features were done by semi-automatic measurements using the SpectrumSee digital image analysis software. The speed of recovery of the bark of these three species is 9.04 cm/year for A. boonei, 5.9 cm/year for S. zenkeri, and 3.85 cm/year for G. lucida. The recovery of A. boonei’s bark is the fastest, and it just takes 15 months to heal its wound. Densities of vessels were 8, 38, and 17 per mm², respectively, for the wood of A. boonei, S. zenkeri, and G. lucida before barking. These values increased for A. boonei (26) and G. lucida (20) except for S. zenkeri (25). In all species, the diameter of the vessels has decreased in the regenerated wood. Management practices that enhance the monitoring of sustainable harvesting levels of species and promote alternative plants for the same uses should be considered as part of conservation strategies.
Prunus africana, a widely utilized medicinal plant in various African ethnic communities, continues to hold significant importance in traditional healing practices. Research has identified phytochemical compounds in this plant, exhibiting diverse pharmacological activities that offer potential for pharmaceutical development. Notably, P. africana is employed in treating various ailments such as wounds, diabetes mellitus, malaria, benign prostatic hyperplasia, chest pain, and prostate cancer. Its pharmacological properties are attributed to a spectrum of bioactive compounds, including tannins, saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phytosterols, and fatty acids. Multiple studies have documented the anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiandrogenic, antiangiogenic, antioxidant, antidipeptidyl peptidase-4 activity, analgesic, and astringent properties of P. africana extracts. This review offers a comprehensive compilation of ethnomedicinal applications, phytochemical composition, pharmacological effects, and toxicity assessments of P. africana, serving as a foundation for future preclinical and clinical investigations. By understanding its traditional uses and chemical constituents, researchers can target specific medical conditions with greater precision, potentially expediting the development of safe and effective pharmaceuticals. Moreover, toxicity assessments provide crucial insights into the safety profile of P. africana extracts, ensuring the development of safe pharmaceuticals to treat various diseases.
Scientific evidence suggests that threatened plants are disappearing at an alarming rate. Over the last decades, government spending in the fight against species extinction risk has immensely increased, exceeding US$7.1 billion annually. However, the rate of species extinction worldwide is rapidly increasing, with no indications of slowing down soon. Scientific scholars, including botanists, ethnobotanists, economic-botanists, conservationists, and anthropologists, share a mutual interest in using indigenous knowledge for livelihoods, scientific and economic growth. As a result, there is a growing interest in indigenous knowledge research, particularly the research fields involving plant species utilization and conservation. Given that recent scientific evidence suggests that such studies are lacking in South African Biosphere Reserves, there is a burning need to critically review the literature about threatened plant species utilization, conservation status, and distribution in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve. The literature search was conducted using various keywords in various electronic databases. The review findings demonstrate that Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Prunus africana, Rhychosia vendae, and Warbugia salutaris were being utilized for medicinal purposes in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve, and their conservation status range from Vulnerable to Critical Endangered. So far, none of the literature studies conducted in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve has specified the ailments that P. africana, R. vendae, and W. salutaris treat. The results revealed that many literature studies had reported on the distribution of threatened plant species in the Vhembe Region, at the national level or elsewhere. However, none of these studies have incorporated spatial information related to the exact locality of the species, except for B. zanguebarica. This review provides insights above utilized threatened plant species, their conservation statuses, and distribution in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve.
Keywords: Conservation status; Extinction; Indigenous knowledge; Threatened plant utilization; Vhembe Biosphere Reserve.
Ethnopharmacological relevance:
Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), commonly known as "Pygeum" or "African cherry", occurs in mainland montane forest "islands" scattered across sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and some surrounding islands. Traditionally, decoctions of the stem-bark are taken orally for the treatment of a wide variety of conditions, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), stomach ache, chest pain, malaria, heart conditions, and gonorrhoea, as well as urinary and kidney diseases. The timber is used to make axe handles and for other household needs. The dense wood is also sawn for timber.
Aim:
The fragmented information available on the ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and biological activities of the medicinally important P. africana was collated, organised, and analysed in this review, to highlight knowledge voids that can be addressed through future research.
Materials and methods:
A bibliometric analysis of research output on P. africana was conducted on literature retrieved, using the Scopus® database. The trend in the publications over time was assessed and a network analysis of collaborations between countries and authors was carried out. Furthermore, a detailed review of the literature over the period 1971 to 2021, acquired through Scopus, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Pubmed, Scirp, DOAJ and Google Scholar, was conducted. All relevant abstracts, full-text articles and various book chapters on the botanical and ethnopharmacological aspects of P. africana, written in English and German, were consulted.
Results:
A total of 455 documents published from 1971 to 2021, were retrieved using the Scopus search. Analysis of the data showed that the majority of these documents were original research articles, followed by reviews and lastly a miscellaneous group comprising conference papers, book chapters, short surveys, editorials and letters. Data were analysed for annual output and areas of intense research focus, and countries with high research output, productive institutions and authors, and collaborative networks were identified. Prunus africana is reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, antiviral, antimutagenic, anti-asthmatic, anti-androgenic, antiproliferative and apoptotic activities amongst others. Phytosterols and other secondary metabolites such as phenols, triterpenes, fatty acids, and linear alcohols have been the focus of phytochemical investigations. The biological activity has largely been ascribed to the phytosterols (mainly 3-β-sitosterol, 3-β-sitostenone, and 3-β-sitosterol-glucoside), which inhibit the production of prostaglandins in the prostate, thereby suppressing the inflammatory symptoms associated with BPH and chronic prostatitis.
Conclusions:
Many of the ethnobotanical assertions for the biological activity of P. africana have been confirmed through in vitro and in vivo studies. However, a disparity exists between the biological activity of the whole extract and that of single compounds isolated from the extract, which were reported to be less effective. This finding suggests that a different approach to biological activity studies should be encouraged that takes all secondary metabolites present into consideration. A robust technique, such as multivariate biochemometric data analysis, which allows for a holistic intervention to study the biological activity of a species is suggested. Furthermore, there is a need to develop rapid and efficient quality control methods for both raw materials and products to replace the time-consuming and laborious methods currently in use.
Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), commonly known as ‘African cherry’, is an evergreen tree, which grows up to 40 m in height, has open branches and a mature stem diameter of up to 1 m, and bears a blackish-brown stem-bark. Prunus africana is distributed in Central Africa, sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean islands. The stem-bark is used traditionally to treat benign prostate hyperplasia, stomach complaints, chest pains, malaria and fever, hypertension, diabetes, gonorrhoea and kidney disease. Commercial harvesting and trade of P. africana bark was established in Cameroon many years ago, but has since expanded to other countries. Over 23 different pharmaceutical companies market products containing P. africana and formulated into tablets, capsules and liquid extracts as herbal medicine. Both in vitro and in vivo activities have been investigated for this important medicinal plant. The chemical profiles of P. africana were investigated using several analytical methods such as high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC), gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS). β-Sitosterol, friedelin, ferulic acid, atraric acid, N-butylbenzenesulphonamide, myristic acid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid and ursolic acid were identified in the extract of P. africana.
Pygeum Africanum (PygA) extract is a popular phytotherapy agent that has been used in Europe since the early 1970s to treat mild to moderate lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) attributable to Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH), but with unconfirmed efficacy.
Ethiopia is strategically located in the Horn of Africa, and has the requisite conditions for developing good quality tropical forests. This strategic location offers potentially enormous opportunity for exporting a variety of value-added forest products to the neighboring countries, including those in the Middle East. Unfortunately, Ethiopia’s indigenous forests have rapidly been destroyed, leaving large tracts of mountains, mountain slopes and the fragile watersheds unprotected. Consequently, massive soil erosion and soil nutrient depletion have occurred resulting in widespread deficiency diseases in crops, animals and humans. In today's Ethiopia, there are fewer medicinal, nitrogen-fixing and keystone plant species than there were, say, 100 years ago. As we destroyed more and more of indigenous nitrogen-fixing trees, fewer and fewer of them were left for fixing molecular nitrogen from the atmosphere into the soil, thus resulting in the impoverishment of the latter. We now realize that the consequences of deforestation and soil impoverishment are not only directly linked to the unfulfilled human potential, but also to the massive amount of money we spend on purchasing fertilizers and timber. We do also realize that our soils are so 'addicted' to commercial fertilizers that without these widespread crop failures would occur, thus ushering in a massive food deficit. While commercial fertilizers are generally good at providing macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium, these macronutrients are likely to competitively inhibit the absorption of micronutrients such as iron, manganese, molybdenum, or zinc. Consequently, malnutrition (hence apathy for work, 'laziness') among Ethiopia’s rural (and urban) population remains chronic. There is therefore urgent need for restoring indigenous trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses on Ethiopia's extensively degraded landscapes, including its watersheds. Clearly, jus as indigenous trees and shrubs are essential for saving us from the 'swords' of climate change and desertification, they are also critical for 'pumping' up macro- and micronutrients to the surface of the soil.
Restoration of indigenous trees is much more than just planting them - it is about re-establishing (at a landscape scale) the lost vital ecosystem functions and services that vegetation used to provide for both people and other organisms, including wildlife and lower forms of life such as lichens, mosses, and ferns.
Landscape restoration through use of indigenous tees will connect (and hence help revive) forest fragments. It will establish a network of vegetation bridges among protected areas, thereby creating corridors for wildlife mobility. Landscape restoration helps mitigate the impacts of devastating climatic conditions manifested in Ethiopia through frequent droughts, increased likelihood of desertification, and intensified flooding. Although Ethiopia cannot be held responsible for the current global climate change, it has to play a constructive role in the sequestration of CO2, the primary molecule that causes global warming. One way of achieving sequestration is to allow the revival of pioneer plants, as well as to establish as many indigenous trees as possible over Ethiopia’s degraded landscapes, including its shattered watersheds.
The benefits of restoring indigenous trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses across degraded landscapes include biodiversity development, improvement of water quality and quantity, as well as regeneration and stabilization of the soil. Landscape restoration through the development of indigenous trees and biodiversity will have tremendous impacts on health (e.g. sustainable production of nutritious foods, provision of medicinal plants, and availability of fresh water) and economic growth (e.g. development of forest-based products and expansion of ecotourism).
One of the stumbling blocks in the restoration of indigenous trees had been lack of scientific knowledge on their propagation biology and the integrated physiological responses of these trees under field conditions. Consequently, indigenous trees have been denigrated under the triple mythical phrases, namely "difficult to propagate", "difficult to cultivate", and "slow growing". It is true that Ethiopia has slow-growing trees such as Pouteria adolfi-friederici (Engl.) Baehni [Aningeria adolfi-friederici (Engl.) Robyns & Gilbert], but it also has fast growing ones such as Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Baker and Cordia africana Lam. But who said slow growth is a negative quality? Compare, for example, the superb hardwood of P. adolfi-friederici or the excellent soft wood of Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) Mirb.).
Patients using nutraceuticals represent a diverse patient population with a keen potential interest and/or adherence to healthy lifestyle changes. BPH nutraceuticals, including saw palmetto were as safe, but not more effective than placebo in the STEP and CAMUS clinical trials, but another high-quality saw palmetto product could be tested in a phase 3 trial. Several other BPH supplements need more recent robust clinical data, environmental oversight, or safety data. ED supplements, including Panax ginseng, and the notable nitric oxide (NO) enhancing amino acids arginine and citrulline have positive preliminary short-term efficacy data with and without PDE-5 inhibitors, but herbal quality control (QC) or safety signals with some of these agents in specific patient populations need to be resolved. "Less is more" should be the current mantra in the prostate cancer milieu, and potentially in some men with male infertility based on the FAZST trial because it is plausible some antioxidants are exhibiting prooxidant activity in some settings. Some prescription anthelmintic medications are being studied, others are being purchased over-the-counter (OTC), but their preliminary safety and efficacy against cancer have been concerning and questionable. In fairness, ongoing additional objective clinical trial data should become available soon, especially with mebendazole. DHEA or DHEA enhancing products have multiple concerns including HDL reductions, and their questionable use in men with BPH or prostate cancer based on the limited data. Some of these concerns should also be addressed in long-term robust clinical trials of prescription testosterone agents. Regardless, more attention should be directed toward heart-healthy lifestyle changes for most urologic men's health conditions, whether they are used in a preventive or synergistic setting with other acceptable clinical treatment options.
Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (Rosaceae), commonly known as ‘African cherry’, is a large tree that can reach up to 20 m in height. The leaves impart a characteristic almond smell when bruised. The tree bears creamy-white flowers and purplish-red cherries that turn black when ripe. Prunus africana is widespread in many African countries including South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cameroon and Madagascar. The bark is exploited for its medicinal properties, which include treatment for benign prostrate hyperplasia, urinary tract infections, inflammation and cancer. Various in vitro (anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, anti-oxidant and antiviral) and in vivo (anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, anticancer and anti-asthmatic) studies have been conducted. The currect document summarises quality protocols for P. africana that were developed, based on chemical profiling of the bark. Six specimens were obtained, and methanol extraction of the bark was performed prior to analysis using semi-automated high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography, coupled to mass spectrometry and photodiode array detection (UPLC-MS-PDA). HPTLC revealed the presence of β-sitosterol and ursolic acid in the bark, following derivation and visualisation under 366 nm radiation and white light. Analysis using ULPC-MS-PDA revealed the presence of maslinic acid, β-sitosterol and ursolic acid.
Abaxial-Part of a plant organ (e.g., lower or dorsal side of a leaf) facing away from the axis or the stem. Abscissic acid (L. abscissus, to cut off)-A plant hormone that causes dormancy in buds, maintains dormancy in seeds, brings about stomatal closing, has effects on fruit growth and development, promotes resistance to injury, etc. Acuminate-Tapering towards the apex following the shape of a concave, as applied to leaves and other organs. Adaxial-Part of a plant organ (e.g., upper or ventral side of a leaf) facing towards the axis or stem. Agroforestry-According to Nair (1993) and Lundgren and Raintree (1982): "Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are deliberately used on the same land-management units as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economical interactions between the different components." Allelochemicals-Chemical substances produced by a plant (or group of plants) to inhibit the growth of another plant (or group of plants). Allelopathy-Is an interaction between plants and plants and/or other living organisms caused by allelochemicals. Anther (Gk. anthos, flower)-A structure that bears the pollen and is located on the tip of a stamen. Areola (L. 'open place'; plural, Areolae)-A space marked out on a surface; used to describe the raised area on the surface of seeds of the family Fabaceae/Leguminosae, subfamily Mimosoideae; also used to describe any circular area such as the coloured skin surrounding the nipple or the pimple. Apical dominance (syn: Correlative inhibition)-Auxin-regulated influence exerted by a terminal bud in suppressing the growth of lateral buds; the control over lateral bud or shoot development exerted by plant growth regulators (mainly auxin) from a shoot apex in the current year of growth.
Syzygium guineense subsp. guineense belongs to the Myrtaceae. As of to
date, Myrtaceae is composed of about 3,300 species that are classified into 150
genera. The family occurs widely in tropical and warm-temperate regions that are
considered as biodiversity hotspots.
Members of the Myrtaceae are characterized by their possession of
leathery leaves that contain oil glands. They are a useful family of plants which,
among other uses, are sourced as spices and timber trees.
S. guineense goes by many local or English common names including
‘waterpear’ and ‘waterberry’, with the term ‘water’ referring to the tree’s affinity
to water. Because the leaves and twigs of a number of species are commonly
clustered around contiguous points of origin on branches or branchlets, the name
Syzygium (Greek: ‘syzygios’, paired) was assigned to the genus. Similarly, the
specific epithet guineense refers to Guinea, a West African nation wherein the
species was first described.
S. guineense commonly occurs as part of riparian vegetation, growing
along river-sides and lake shores, as well as in and around swampy areas. The
species can also be found in areas where the water table is readily accessible to
the network of its roots.
The tree can grow to a height of 20 m, with some specimens measuring
as tall as 25 m. The species is characterized by a relatively dense canopy and
foliage (thus providing deep and cool shade), along with fairly droopy branches
(Figure 19.2). Because of the species’ interbreeding and the consequent
interactions between genetics and the environment, S. guineense is often rich in
variability, with a number of taxonomically distinct, but mating subspecies.
Consequently, several subspecies of S. guineense, including afromontanum,
barotsense, guineense, and huillense, have been proposed.
S. guineense enjoys wide ranging ecological adaptation, growing in soil
types that span from black cotton to red soils. It grows in landscapes with
altitudinal range from sea level up to 2500 m, and annual rainfall range of 750 to
1800 mm. The tree sheds its leaves when severe water stress ensues, thus
warranting its physiological status as dry-deciduous, which is a very important
adaptive trait.
S. guineense is one of Africa’s widely disturbed trees occurring in western
(e.g., Cameroun, Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Republic, Mali, Nigeria,
Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo), central (e.g., Chad, Central African Republic),
eastern (e.g., Burundi, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Sudan, South Sudan, Somalia,
Rwanda, Tanzania, Somalia and Uganda), as well as in central west, central
south, south eastern, south western and southern Africa (e.g., Angola, Botswana,
Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia,
South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe).
Ekebergia capensis (Figure 18.2) is a taxonomic member of the
Meliaceae. This family contains about 53 genera and 600 species, which are
important component of tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs. Examples
include Red Mahogany (Khaya anthoteca A. Juss.), African Mahogany (Khaya
senegalensis (Desv.) Juss.) and Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni (L. ) Jacq.).
E. capensis had been known by different Latin names including
Ekebergia buchananii Harms., Ekebergia meyeri Presl., Ekebergia ruppelliana
(Fres.) A. Rich., and Trichilia rupelliana Fres. The generic name, ‘Ekebergia’,
was assigned in honor of Captain Carl Gustaf Ekeberg (1716-1784), who
sponsored Anders Sparrman (the author of the species) to visit Africa. The
specific name ‘capensis’ means ‘of the Cape’, since this tree was first described
from the Cape region of the Republic of South Africa.
Likewise, E. capensis is known by different local names, but has also
several common English designations, including 'Cape ash', 'dog plum', or
'ekebergia'. Although it is called the Cape ash, this tree is not related to the true
ashes (Fraxinus spp., which are members of an entirely different family, the
Oleaceae).
E. capensis is an evergreen or semi-deciduous tree with a spreading
crown. When mature, the tree is characterized by its massive branches (Fig. 18.2),
and has the potential to grow to 35 m. Branch development progresses from erect
through spreading to drooping, resulting in a moderately heavy, somewhat flat
crown at maturity.
E. capensis is often found in regions between 1,600-3,000 m a.s.l with
average annual rainfall of between 750 and 2,000 mm. It is a widely distributed
tree species, occurring in a variety of habitats that include high-altitude evergreen
forests, riverine vegetation, coastal areas, shady locations, and open grasslands.
The tree can grow on different soil types that range from well-drained red
soils to the waterlogged vertisols. The species does particularly well in drained
and deep sandy soils, but struggles to survive in nutrient poor, waterlogged
vertisols, especially during its seedling and sapling stages.
African countries where E. capensis occurs naturally include Angola,
Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Central Republic of Africa, Côte d'Ivoire, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Guinea Republic, Kenya, Lesotho
Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zaire, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In many of
these countries the species is threatened, while in others it is protected by law, at
least on paper. Nevertheless, the tree's occurrence in various countries with a
wide range of habitats suggests its inherent adaptability to diverse ecological conditions.
Millettia ferruginea (Figures 9.1 and 9.2) belongs to the family
Fabaceae, subfamily Papilionoideae and is endemic to Ethiopia. Fabaceae is
recognized as the third largest flowering plant with about 751 genera and
19,000-20,000 species, and is composed of trees, shrubs, herbs and vines.
Because of its fast growth and nitrogen fixing capacity, the species is
viewed as a useful multipurpose tree with a great deal of potential for
agroforestry. The species' local names include Dadatu (Gédé-iffa/Oromiffa),
and Birbirra (Amharic).
The tree is said to have been growing along the streets of Addis Ababa
(the capital city of Ethiopia) during the 1920s, 30s, and 40s, possibly with
bigger numbers of trees per unit area than its current population would suggest.
The tree's occurrence along the streets of Addis Ababa is fortuitous perhaps
driven by random human activities rather than through a planned planting along
these streets. The present writer is not aware of a record showing systematic
planting of the species in the 1920s, 30s or 40s within Addis Ababa. But it is
quite possible to see M. ferruginea trees growing at predictable distances and
directions as the species is known for its unique mechanism of seed dispersal
achieved through the explosive liberation of seeds (mechanism to be discussed
latter in this chapter). Pod/legume and seed production in this species is
possible within a relatively short period of time, as short as 3 years after
planting the seedlings in the field. Birbirra is a remarkably fast growing tree,
even in a degraded landscape (see Figure 9.11).
Glen W. Russ (1944) wrote a report on a tree, which he called Millettia
dura Dunn. He said that the plant was a large or medium-sized leguminous tree
found in all except the drier parts of the country. Russ mentioned that the seeds
of Millettia dura contained over 1% rotenone and other alkaloids with
insecticidal properties. According to Russ (1944), the seeds were collected by
the local authorities in their typhus control work. When he commented that
there may be possibilities for its commercial development, Russ was probably
referring to the endemic tree species of Ethiopia, now known as Millettia
ferruginea/derassana. Indeed some taxonomists believe that the species is
related to Millettia dura Dunn.
The natural habitat of M. ferruginea is quite diverse, and the species is
generally recognized as having two subspecies, subspecies ferruginea and
derassana. Subspecies ferruginea commonly occurs between 1,000 and 2,500
m above sea level, while the range for subspecies derassana is between 1,600
and 2,500 m. Whereas subspecies ferruginea is characterized as a component of
an upland forest, subspecies derassana is part of rainforest and ground water
forest. In general, typical ferruginea is restricted to some areas of northern
Ethiopia (11º 30' N), while typical subspecies derassana occurs in parts of
southern Ethiopia, particularly in the coffee-growing Gédéo region. Most
populations from the central and western parts of the country appear to possess
character combinations of the two main subspecies. Both subspecies are
believed to be endemic to Ethiopia (i.e., are found only in Ethiopia, despite as
yet an unconfirmed report from the Sudan).
The two subspecies, ferruginea and derassana, can grow to big trees,
attaining a height of 25 m, especially when competing for light with tall trees
from other species. However, depending on the climatic and soil conditions, the
two subspecies could assume either the habit of a shrub or that of a big tree.
Faidherbia albida (Figure 8.2), commonly known as Applering Acacia
or Winter Thorn is classified under the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae),
subfamily Mimosoideae. The genus name Faidherbia is said to have been
designated in honor of Major L.L.C. Faidherbe, who was the French colonial
governor of Senegal between 1854 and 1865. The specific epithet ‘albida’
refers to the somewhat ashy-white stem (see figures 8.3 and 8.11B). Although
of the Acacieae tribe, the species is believed to have quite a number of different
taxonomical and phytochemical characteristics that justify its classification as a
separate, monotypic genus. Examples of such unusual characters include
presence of eglandular petioles and anthers, as well as possession of basally
connate filaments.
Africa's new generation will have to choose between (A) water, biodiversity, fertile soils, and hydropower or (B) Stands of alien tree species such as those of Eucalyptus globulus Labill., which are bereftof all of the above. A eucalypt stand is green on top, but Sahara beneath because of its allelopathic effects
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (synonym: Olea africana), commonly known as African wildolive (Figure 5.2), belongs to the Oleaceae, a family of trees and shrubs widely distributed in temperate and tropical regions. Oleaceae contains 25 genera and 600-615 species of economic or horticultural importance, including Olea (olive), Fraxinus (ash), Jasminum (jasmine) and Syringa (lilac).
In the Mediterranean region, the Latin name Olea europaea equally applies to both the domesticated and wildolive (= Oleaster). Estimates indicate that domestication of the tree started in about 3,500 B.C.
An olive tree can live for hundreds of years, and is propagated by both sexual and asexual means, but the cultivated olives are normally propagated through rooting of cuttings or by grafting scions onto rootstocks.
African wildolive is a handsome evergreen tree with large numbers of branches and branchlets that bear numerous light-green and shiny leaves. As a result, the spreading or dense and rounded crown yields a canopy system that is picturesque, especially when this is set in motion by wind. The species has the potential to grow to a height of over 25 m and is widely distributed in drier forests and forest margins. Once established, the tree is hardy, drought-resistant and long-lived but is threatened by humans for its multipurpose uses (Figures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.9), as well as by animals for its palatable leaves and twigs.
African wildolive is commonly encountered within holy places such as old Orthodox church compounds (for example in Ethiopia) or graveyards or other protected areas.
Young plants of African wildolive are much liked by both wild and domestic animals (e.g. gazelles, goats, sheep, and cattle) and are therefore heavily browsed. But the species manages to regenerate under the protection of spiny and/or thorny shrub plant species such as Caparis micrantha A. Rich., Carissa spinarum L., Maytenus arbutifolia (A. Rich.) Wilczek, Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan, and Rosa abyssinica Lindley (see Figure 5.3). Birds including Olive Thrush (Turdus olivaceus L.), Speckled Mousebird (Colius striatus), Tropical Boubou (Laniarius aethiopicus) and Blue-eared Glossy Starling (Lamprotornis chalybaeus) are some of the dispersal agents for the seeds either by ingesting whole ripe fruits or by carrying these in their mouth for feeding the fruits' flesh to their offsprings. In the former case, the flesh of the ingested fruits is digested off and used as food while the hardendocarps containing the seeds are left more or less intact in the birds' digestive system. The seed-containing endocarps (after having been somewhat modified in the birds’ digestive tract) are eventually excreted as the birds perch on thorny shrubs (which typically grow in dense bunches) and feed on the shrubs’ fruits. Some of the wildolive’s seeds, now excreted by the birds and fallen on the ground beneath the thorny/spiny shrubs, find the needed protection and favorable environmental conditions for germination, eventually developing into seedlings. Protected by the dense and tough, thorny or spiny shrubs, the seedlings grow safely into young trees (Figure 5.3). At this stage, the trees are both unattainable and unsuitable (to some extent) for browsing by the wild animals. Still, mature African wildolive trees find humans as their only formidable enemies.
The little studied Mount Cameroon Francolin Pternistis camerunensis is endangered and strictly endemic to the undergrowth of Mount Cameroon’s primary forest. We surveyed the species in the Mount Cameroon National Park in July–August 2016 using call playback at 86 plots systematically placed along 17 transects in an attempt to assess the occupancy and conservation threats to the species. The study’s three main results are as follows. Firstly, Mount Cameroon Francolin occurred in the stratified vegetation types across the altitudinal range of 1,023–2,186 m. Secondly, the response rates of francolin were 15% in submontane forest (800–1,600 m altitude range); 80.8% in montane forest (1,600–1,800 m); 3.9% in montane scrub (1,800–2,400 m); and nil in the lowland forest (0–800 m). Thirdly, bird abundance significantly increased with latitude, ground vegetation height, presence of Prunus africana and tall grass cover but decreased with the density of small trees and disturbance caused by heavy Prunus exploitation, and also, based on indirect evidence, hunting. We recommend: (1) systematic use of call playback in monitoring the population status of francolins; (2) an increase in patrolling and law enforcement to control illegal hunting, land clearance and burning of the upper slopes; (3) promotion of sustainable harvesting of Prunus and agroforestry practices aimed at curbing land clearance in the park surroundings. Further research priorities and conservation strategies have been suggested based on this study’s emerging results.
Globally, the diversity of indigenous medicinal tree species is threatened and yet such plants provide the least costly means of treatment for the poor. The factors that inspire adoption of such plants on farm are unclear. This study was conducted in communities adjacent to six protected areas in central Uganda, to (1) document the local uses of Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkman, (2) assess the farmers’ perception towards integration of P. africana on farm, and (3) determine the factors that influence adoption of P. africana on farms. A total of 206 smallholder farmers were engaged through semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Data were analyzed in SPSS 20.0. Both material (medicine, timber, fuel) and non-material (windbreak, boundary marking and shade) uses were recognized. Up to 73% of the farmers perceived well the planting of P. africana on farms, and the positive perception evolved from training them in tree seed handling techniques, general nursery operations, and on-farm tree management. The farmers’ age, income and farm size were the most important factors predicting their readiness to integrate P. africana on-farm. However, their involvement was likely to only be beneficial if they get access to sufficient land and quality seedlings. Moreover, the farmers needed to be continuously provided with free/low cost seed/seedlings, trained in on farm tree management and soil fertility enhancement to approve integration of indigenous tree technologies.
Saw palmetto [Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small] is the most common native palm in the U.S. and, possibly, the most useful. Cattle and wildlife, especially black bears and white-tailed deer, consume the fruits. The flowers are a favorite nectar source for honey bees, and the sprawling, shrubby palm provides excellent cover for birds, reptiles, and small animals. Saw palmetto's edible fruits were a staple in the diet of Florida's pre-contact inhabitants. Vegetative parts of the plant supply fiber, wax, and roof thatch. Current interest in saw palmetto stems from its use in the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia. An estimated 6 800 000 kg of the fruit are shipped to Europe each year. Preliminary data suggest that the economic value of saw palmetto harvesting may exceed that of cattle grazing, the common use of much saw palmetto habitat.
In an attempt to understand the practical and/or economic implications of primate seed dispersal, it was established which seed species are dispersed by frugivorous primates in Kibale National Park, Uganda, and which of this sort of species were used by Ugandan people. A list of fruit species consumed by Kibale primates was compiled using primary data and by reviewing all known published accounts of their fruit diet. Primates consume the fruit of 87 Kibale forest tree species; the seeds of 11% of these species are destroyed by the primates. The remaining 77 species are dispersed by either one, two, three or all four of the frugivorous Kibale primates. Of these 77 species, 42% have some utility to local Ugandan inhabitants, suggesting that maintaining populations of primates is important not only for natural forest regeneration, but also for human habitat use. This report illustrates the complexity of the seed dispersal process and suggests links not only between plants and their dispersers, but also between sets of plants/dispersers and the human populations that rely on forest resources.
Human prostate was used as a source of 5α reductase. Compounds were incubated with an enzyme preparation and [3H]testosterone. [3H]-dihydrotestosterone production was measured to calculate 5ã reductase activity. IC50 values (ng/ml) were finasteride = 1; Permixon = 5,600; Talso = 7,000; Strogen Forte = 31,000; Prostagutt = 40,000; and Tadenan = 63,000. Bazoton and Harzol had no activity at concentrations up to 500,000 ng/ml. In castrate rats stimulated with testosterone (T) or dihydrotestosterone (DHT), finasteride, but not Permixon or Bazoton, inhibited T stimulated prostate growth, while none of the three compounds inhibited DHT stimulated growth. These results demonstrate that finasteride inhibits 5α reductase, while Permixon and Bazoton have neither anti-androgen nor 5α reductase inhibitory activity. In addition, in a 7 day human clinical trial, finasteride, but not Permixon or placebo, decreased serum DHT in men, further confirming the lack of 5α reductase inhibition by Permixon. Finasteride and the plant extracts listed above do not inhibit the binding of DHT to the rat prostatic androgen receptor (concentrations to 100 μg/ml). Based on these results, it is unlikely that these plant extracts would shrink the prostate by inhibiting androgen action or 5α reductase. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Objective:
The development of the human benign prostatic hyperplasia clearly requires a combination of testicular androgens and aging. Although the role of androgens as the causative factor for human benign prostatic hyperplasia is debated, they undoubtedly have at least a permissive role. The principal prostatic androgen is dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Although not elevated in human benign prostatic hyperplasia, DHT levels in the prostate remain at a normal level with aging, despite a decrease in the plasma testosterone.
Results:
DHT is generated by reduction of testosterone. Two isoenzymes of 5alpha-reductase have been discovered. Type 1 is present in most tissues of the body where 5alpha-reductase is expressed and is the dominant form in sebaceous glands. Type2 5alpha-reductase is the dominant isoenzyme in genital tissues, including the prostate. Finasteride is a 5alpha-reductase inhibitor that has been used for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia and male-pattern baldness. At doses used clinically, its major effect is through suppression of type 2 5alpha-reductase, because it has a much lower affinity for the type 1 isoenzyme. Finasteride suppresses DHT by about 70% in serum and by as much as 85-90% in the prostate. The remaining DHT in the prostate is likely to be the result of type 1 5alpha-reductase. Suppression of both 5alpha-reductase isoenzymes with GI198745 result in greater and more consistent suppression of serum dihydrotestosterone than that observed with a selective inhibitor of type 2 5alpha-reductase. Physiological and clinical studies comparing dual 5alpha-reductase inhibitors, such as GI198745, with selective type 2, such as finasteride, will be needed to determine the clinical relevance of type 1 5alpha-reductase within the prostate. Two large international multicenter, phase III trials have been published documenting the safety and efficacy of finasteride in the treatment of human benign prostatic hyperplasia. Combining these two studies, randomized, controlled data are available for 12 months. Noncontrolled extension of these data from a subset of patients, who elected to continue drug treatment for 3, 4 or 5 years, are also available. Long-term medical therapy with finasteride can reduce clinically significant endpoints such as acute urinary retention or surgery. According to the meta-analysis of six randomised clinical trial with finasteride, finasteride is most effective in men with large prostates. A more effective dual inhibitor of type 1 and 2 human 5alpha-reductase may lower circulating DHT to a greater extent than finasteride and show advantages in the treatment of human benign prostatic hyperplasia and other disease states that depend on DHT.
Conclusion:
Clinical evaluation of potent dual 5alpha-reductase inhibitors may help define the relative roles of human type 1 and 2 5alpha-reductase in the pathophysiology of benign prostatic hyperplasia and other androgen-dependent diseases.
Recognizing that sound information is vital to the progress of conservation, IUCN have gathered together a visual portfolio of maps of rain forests in Africa. The accompanying text analyzes the extent and causes of deforestation and points a way towards sustainable forest development.
http://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/fac_monographs/1172/thumbnail.jpg
This study was done to examine the structure and assess the natural regeneration potential of Prunus africana in South Nandi forest and selected sites of Kakamega forest, Western Kenya. Forest survey was carried out to investigate the structure of P. africana, the forest was stratified into three different forest types that is pure, mixed and natural forest in Kakamega forest. South Nandi forest was taken as one stand since the whole forest is natural and it was not possible to stratify it like Kakamega forest. Transect belts measuring 0.04 km wide nnd 1.5 km long were laid in both forests along an access line. A total of 140 and 134 plots measuring 0.02 ha each were established along these transects in Kakamega and South Nandi forests respectively. At the centre of each plot was a P. africana tree whose diameter at breast height (dbh), height and crown length were assessed. Samplings of the species of (>1.5 m in height and <5 cm diameter) were counted on each plot, and seedlings (<1.5 m in height) were also counted in smaller plots of 5 in radius from the central P. africana. Sampled trees of P. africana showed a discontinuous size distribution of height and dbh where the young regeneration was not replacing the mature trees coming to the end of their reproductive life in both forests. There is a shift in dbh classes from seedlings and saplings to large diameter classes and this was more pronounced in South Nandi and the natural stand in Kakamega forest. Thus the results do deviate from the hypothesized inverted 'J' shape of dbh distribution in both forests. The natural regeneration levels were found to be high in both forests since there were many seedlings counted in the forest floor, but they hardly reach the size of 1m hence there were few saplings in both forests. As a result, this reduces the rate of regeneration of P. africana in both forests. Stand density, crown size and density of P. africana were found to have little effect on the density of seedlings and saplings counted in both forests suggesting light may not be a significant factor at germination, but could influence subsequent growth. This is evident by the absence of saplings in both forests. This study has given important information on the stand structure of P. africana and the potential for its natural regeneration in Kakamega and South Nandi forests, which can be used as a tool for future management of the species.
The lipophilic extract of P. africana trunk trunk is used in the therapy of BPH. The clinical efficacy and the tolerability of P. africana extract in the treatment of BPH has been demonstrated in several open and double-blind studies. Inhibition of the fibroblast proliferation induced by prostatic growth factors and of the production of the chemotactic leukotrienes from human polymorphonuclear cells, as well as of the 5α-reductase and aromatase activities, seems to play a role in the clinical efficacy of the extract.
The atlas, divided into two parts, details the current status of forests in Africa and addresses the issues involved in forest conservation and sustainable use. It examines the problems raised by growing populations and highlights the areas of most alarming forest losses. Part one describes the history of forests and climates, biological diversity, conservation of large mammals, the links between people, agriculture and the environment and the future for African forests. Part two presents up-to-date maps for each country containing tropical forests, compiled using aerial photography and satellite and radar imagery and produced through the collaboration of many specialised organisations. The atlas emphasises the need for integrated plans and strategies in the management of landscape. A list of acronyms used, a glossary and subject and species indexes are also provided. -L.J.Chellis
Sitosterol, the principal phytosterol in most higher plants and hence in plant-derived food products, is found in the serum and tissues of healthy humans in concentrations 800-1000 times less than the endogenous cholesterol. The glucoside of sitosterol (sitosterolin) is present in mammalian serum at even lower concentrations. In many animals, sitosterol and sitosterolin concentrations relative to cholesterol are considerably higher than in humans. Only plants can synthesise these compounds and humans and animals obtain them from their diet. Even though their absorption efficiency is low (~1/10 and ~1/50 for sitosterol and sitosterolin , respectively, relative to cholesterol), their apparent synergystic stimulatory effect on the immune system and prophylactic effect on a variety of diseases of civilisation indicates their importance in human and animal nutrition. Since modern food processing tends to reduce their concentration in processed plant-food products, and eating habits also affect their consumption adversely, it is desirable to eat sufficient unrefined or processed plant foods or resort to food supplements containing sitostero land sitosterolin.
Before the beginning of its large scale exploitation by a European pharmaceutical company in 1972, the tree species Prunus africana was known in Cameroon only for traditional uses. The present exploitation may lead to its extinction on Mount Cameroon. This paper explains the destruction of P. africana within the current regulatory framework and recommends stricter compliance with the regulations, which would guarantee survival of this species in the wild. Field observations are also presented.
The decline of Prunus africana in the most southern end of its distribution is attributed to unsuitable establishment conditions for the seedlings and adverse climatic conditions. Only 43 trees ≥ 10 cm D.B.H. occur 47% of which are dead. The trees grow low down near streams in the sheltered river gorge on warmer north-eastern slopes on the more fertile shale band. Seedlings establish only on bare soil caused by road collapse or other exposed sites with sufficient moisture on north-eastern slopes within otherwise steady-state, all-aged closed forest.
The angiosperm family Rosaceae poses a number of noteworthy systematic problems as well as many questions concerning morphological and chromosomal evolution. Phylogenetic analysis of rbcL gene sequences was performed to address systematic and evolutionary problems of Rosaceae. Both rbcL sequence variation and the presence of duplicated sequences near the 3' end of rbcL were useful in determining phylogenetic relationships in this family. Analyses of rbcL sequences indicate that there are groups of genera within Rosaceae comparable to the subfamilies Maloideae, Amygdaloideae, and Rosoideae, although the composition of each group differs from traditional circumscriptions. According to analysis of rbcL data, Maloideae and Amygdaloideae each include additional taxa not normally associated with them. All members of Rosoideae with x = 9 are phylogenetically well separated from the x = 8 and 7 members of the subfamily. In addition, Spiraeoideae are not monophyletic but appear to consist of several distinct evolutionary lineages. The rbcl-based phylogenies suggest that chromosome numbers are more reliable indicators of some generic alliances than the more commonly used fruit types. Sequence data are also useful in determining the alliances of several problematic genera, suggesting that the capsular and follicular-fruited genera Vauquelinia, Lindleya, and Kageneckia (usually placed in Spiraeoideae) should be included in the pome-fruited subfamily Maloideae, and that Quillaja is not a member of Rosaceae. Molecular data are consistent with several suggestions for the ancestral chromosome numbers and fruit types of Rosaceae, but do not support any one hypothesis for either. This study also suggests that the subfamily Maloideae may have descended from spiraeoid ancestors and that the pome is derived from follicular or capsular fruit types.
A chloroformic extract of barks of Prunus africana was found to contain triterpenic acids including derivatives of ursolic and oleanolic acids. Among them 24-O-trans-ferulyl-2α,3α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid, an original compound, was isolated. Their structure was established by chemical and spectral analysis.
Medical treatments have become available for benign hypertrophy of the prostate, including alpha-receptor blocking agents and 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors. Drugs derived from plants, for which no precise mechanism of action has been described, are widely used for this purpose in Europe. In a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled multi-centre study, 200 patients (recruited between April and October 1993) with symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia were treated with either 20 mg β-sitosterol (which contains a mixture of phytosterols) three times per day or placebo. Primary end-point was a difference of modified Boyarsky score between treatment groups after 6 months; secondary end-points were changes in International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS), urine flow, and prostate volume. Modified Boyarsky score decreased significantly with a mean of -6·7 (SD 4·0) points in the β-sitosterol-treated group versus -2·1 (3·2) points in the placebo group p
Prunus africana, a multipurpose and highly medicinal afromontane tree has been exploited for its bark for over two decades now in afromontane Cameroon by commercial exploiters under licences from government. This has resulted in over-exploitation and the death of most of the trees in the Kilum forest. Over a period of about 11 years (1982–1992) only one company had exploited 16,680 tonnes of the bark of the plant. Projections indicate that by the year 2010 if the exploitation goes on unchecked, 38,577 tonnes would be exploited. This is ecosystem endangering and may lead to the extinction of this important plant.An ecological survey of 52 Prunus trees in the Kilum forest revealed that 19 trees were alive, 17 were dying and 16 were dead. For now there is a ban on exploitation of bark of the plant in the Kilum forest and the whole of afromontane North west of Cameroon. Increasing demand for these resources and the banning of exploitation has caused the illegal exploitation and trafficking of bark of the species. Conservation projects have been established in afromontane Cameroon to conserve this medicinal plant. Conservation efforts are people oriented in cognizance of Cameroon's new forestry laws, which encourage the involvement of local people in the sustainable management of their forests.
The components of Pygeum africanum bark extracts, used for the treatment of benign prostatic hypertrophy, were characterized by high resolution gas chromatography (HRGC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Among various compounds n-docosyl trans-ferulate was identified and quantitated by HRGC as a derivative of n-docosanol, which is considered to be one of the active components of the extract. The origin of different Pygeum a. extracts can be studied by eigenvector projection of HRGC profiles with computer assistance.
An understanding of the patterns of variation within and among populations of tropical trees is essential for devising optimum genetic management strategies for their conservation and sustainable utilization. Here, random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis was used to partition variation within and among 10 populations of the endangered Afromontane medicinal tree, Prunus africana, sampled from five countries across the geographical range of the species (Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar and Uganda). Analysis of molecular variance ( AMOVA) employed 48 RAPD markers and revealed most variation among countries (66%, P < 0.001). However, variation among individuals within populations and among populations within Cameroon and Madagascar was also highly significant. Analysis of population product frequency data indicated Ugandan material to be more similar to populations from Cameroon than populations from Kenya and Ethiopia, while Malagash populations were most distinct. The implications of these findings for determining appropriate approaches for conservation of the species, particularly in Cameroon and Madagascar, are discussed.
To report the results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to evaluate Azuprostat® , a β-sitosterol, in patients with symptoms of outlet obstruction caused by benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
A randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted to assess the efficacy and safety of 130 mg free β-sitosterol (phytosterol) daily, using the international prostate symptom score (IPSS) as the primary outcome variable. In total, 177 patients with BPH were recruited for 6 months of treatment in 13 study centres. In addition to the relative difference in the IPSS, changes in quality of life, peak urinary flow rate (Qmax ) and post-void residual urinary volume (PVR) were recorded. The drug used in the trial consisted of a chemically defined extract of phytosterols, derived for example from species of Pinus, Picea or Hypoxis, with β-sitosterol as the main component.
There were significant (P<0.01) improvements over placebo in those treated with β-sitosterol; the mean difference in the IPSS between placebo and β-sitosterol, adjusted for the initial values, was 5.4 and in the quality-of-life index was 0.9. There were also significant improvements in the secondary outcome variables, with an increase in Qmax (4.5 mL/s) and decrease in PVR (33.5 mL) in favour of β-sitosterol when adjusted for the changes after placebo.
These results show that β-sitosterol is an effective option in the treatment of BPH.
IntroductionChallenges of a sedentary existenceAdaptive trendsReproductive imperatives of success and failureAdjusting to physical and biological realityConclusions
Shadetolerance and regeneration of some heavily exploited timber species(Uvariopsis congensis, Antiaris toxicaria, Funtumia africana,Prunus africana and Aningeria altissima)were studied in two adjacent sites in Kakamega tropical rain forest. The twosites have been subjected to different logging intensities. Within one of thesites, relatively intact areas were compared with adjoining more disturbedones.Seedling presence or absence in mature forest phase, sapling proportions in gapand the mature phase and diameter distributions were used to classify thespecies into shade tolerance groups. Results indicate that except forUvariopsis, the species are non-pioneer lightdemanders and could fit into three shade tolerance groups: A groupresembling pioneers but with seedling in shade, a mid-tolerant group andone showing a high shade tolerance. Amount of regeneration and disturbance wererelated: regeneration being higher in the more disturbed site except forUvariopsis. The intersite differences were mirrored whendisturbed and adjoining more intact areas within one of the sites werecompared.Species more abundant in the disturbed site also generally scored low in shadetolerance. However, the mid-tolerant Funtumia andnot Prunus or Aningeria that hadlowershade tolerance scores, dominated regeneration in the disturbed forest parts.The shade tolerance data suggest that Uvariopsis, Funtumiaand Antiaris could be amenable to natural forestmanagement. For Prunus and Aningeria,artificial regeneration in buffer plantations around the natural forest may beabetter option.
Bark extracts of the African cherry (Prunus africana ) are used to treat benign prostatic hyperplasia. This study examined the effects of commercial bark harvest on population dynamics in the Kilum-Ijim Forest Preserve on Mount Oku, Cameroon and on traditional uses. P. africana is valued for its timber and as fuel although its greatest value is as a traditional medicine for human and animal ailments. Harvest has depleted the resource and has eroded traditional forest protection practices. I constructed matrix models to examine the effects of bark harvest on population structure and on population dynamics in harvested and unharvested populations. Harvesting simulations examined the effect on the population growth rate (λ) with differing levels of mortality of harvest-sized and large trees and differing harvest frequencies. Size class frequencies for the entire forest decreased in a reverse j-shaped curve, indicating adequate recruitment in the absence of harvest. Individual plots showed differences from the overall forest data, suggesting effects of natural and man-made perturbations, particularly due to bark harvest. One plot (harvested in the 1980s) showed a temporal difference in λ and fluctuated around one, due to alternating high and low fruiting years; other unharvested plots showed smaller temporal differences. Harvested plots (harvested illegally in 1997) had values of λ less than one and showed small temporal differences. The control plot also showed λ less than one, due to poor recruitment in the closed canopy forest. The value of λ for the combined data was 0.9931 suggesting a slightly declining population. The elasticity matrix for the combined data indicated the population growth rate was most sensitive to the survival of the large reproductive trees (42.5% of the elasticity). In perturbation analyses, reducing the survival of the large trees caused the largest reductions in λ. Simulations involving harvesting frequency indicated λ returns to pre-harvest conditions if trees are re-harvested after 10-15 years, but only if the large trees are left unharvested. Management scenarios suggest harvest can be sustainable if seedlings and small saplings are planted in the forest and actively managed, although large-scale plantations may be the only feasible option to meet market demand.
Editado en 1994 bajo el título: Herbs of choice de Varro E. Tyler Incluye biliografía e índice
To report the results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to evaluate Azuprostat, a beta-sitosterol, in patients with symptoms of outlet obstruction caused by benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
A randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted to assess the efficacy and safety of 130 mg free beta-sitosterol (phytosterol) daily, using the international prostate symptom score (IPSS) as the primary outcome variable. In total, 177 patients with BPH were recruited for 6 months of treatment in 13 study centres. In addition to the relative difference in the IPSS, changes in quality of life, peak urinary flow rate (Qmax) and post-void residual urinary volume (PVR) were recorded. The drug used in the trial consisted of a chemically defined extract of phytosterols, derived for example from species of Pinus, Picea or Hypoxis, with beta-sitosterol as the main component.
There were significant (P < 0.01) improvements over placebo in those treated with beta-sitosterol; the mean difference in the IPSS between placebo and beta-sitosterol, adjusted for the initial values, was 5.4 and in the quality-of-life index was 0.9. There were also significant improvements in the secondary outcome variables, with an increase in Qmax (4.5 mL/s) and decrease in PVR (33.5 mL) in favour of beta-sitosterol when adjusted for the changes after placebo.
These results show that beta-sitosterol is an effective option in the treatment of BPH.
Pygeum africanum extract is available as Tadenan in many countries, including those in central and eastern Europe, for the treatment of mild to moderate BPH. Its efficacy and acceptability have been demonstrated in numerous open and placebo-controlled studies in large populations. The present open three-centre efficacy and safety study was conducted according to common protocol at urology clinics in the Czech and Slovak Republics and in Poland, in order to confirm the therapeutic profile of Pygeum africanum in conditions of daily practice, using International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) and flowmetry assessments. Men aged 50-75 years and in compliance with the selection criteria (including IPSS > or = 12, quality of life (QoL) score > or = 3, and maximum urinary flow < or = 15 ml/s) were first examined then recalled after two weeks during which no treatment was provided (washout and check of stability). If still compliant, they were entered at this point into a two-month period of treatment with Pygeum africanum extract 50 mg twice daily. There followed a further one-month period without treatment, the objective being to evaluate the persistence of any effects observed during the previous two months of Pygeum africanum administration. The primary efficacy parameter investigated was IPSS; the other efficacy parameters were QoL, nocturnal frequency, maximum urinary flow, average urinary flow, post-voiding residual volume and prostatic volume, after one and two months of Pygeum africanum treatment and one month after stopping treatment. A total of 85 patients were evenly distributed between the three centres and completed the entire study. At inclusion their mean IPSS was 16.17, QoL was 3.60 and nocturia was 2.6 times per night. The changes in subjective scores, IPSS and QoL after the two-month treatment period were highly statistically significant with mean improvements of 40% and 31%, respectively. Nocturnal frequency was reduced by 32% and the mean reduction was again highly statistically significant. Mean maximum urinary flow, average urinary flow and urine volume were also statistically significantly improved, but the modest improvement in post-voiding volume did not reach statistical significance. The improvements, which exceeded those observed with placebo in earlier studies, were maintained after one month without treatment indicating an interesting persistence of clinically useful activity. Prostatic volume and quality of sexual life remained unchanged throughout. No treatment-related adverse effects were observed. In conclusion, under conditions of daily practice, Pygeum africanum extract induces significant improvement in IPSS and uroflowmetry parameters. These positive effects are accompanied by a very satisfactory safety profile with the overall result of a substantial improvement in QoL.
To conduct a systematic review and, where possible, quantitative meta-analysis of the existing evidence regarding the therapeutic efficacy and safety of the saw palmetto plant extract, Serenoa repens, in men with symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
Studies were identified through the search of MEDLINE (1966-1997), EMBASE, Phytodok, the Cochrane Library, bibliographies of identified trials and review articles, and contact with relevant authors and drug companies.
Randomized trials were included if participants had symptomatic BPH, the intervention was a preparation of S repens alone or in combination with other phytotherapeutic agents, a control group received placebo or other pharmacological therapies for BPH, and the treatment duration was at least 30 days.
Two investigators for each article (T.J.W., A.I., G.S., and R.M.) independently extracted key data on design features, subject characteristics, therapy allocation, and outcomes of the studies.
A total of 18 randomized controlled trials involving 2939 men met inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Many studies did not report results in a method that permitted meta-analysis. Treatment allocation concealment was adequate in 9 studies; 16 were double-blinded. The mean study duration was 9 weeks (range, 4-48 weeks). As compared with men receiving placebo, men treated with S repens had decreased urinary tract symptom scores (weighted mean difference [WMD], -1.41 points [scale range, 0-19] [95% confidence interval (CI), -2.52 to -0.30] [n = 1 study]), nocturia (WMD, -0.76 times per evening [95% CI, -1.22 to -0.32] [n = 10 studies]), and improvement in self-rating of urinary tract symptoms; risk ratio for improvement (1.72 [95% CI, 1.21-2.44] [n = 6 studies]), and peak urine flow (WMD, 1.93 mL/s [95% CI, 0.72-3.14] [n = 8 studies]). Compared with men receiving finasteride, men treated with S repens had similar improvements in urinary tract symptom scores (WMD, 0.37 International Prostate Symptom Score points [scale range, 0-35] [95% CI, -0.45 to 1.19] [n = 2 studies]) and peak urine flow (WMD, -0.74 mL/s [95% CI, -1.66 to 0.18] [n = 2 studies]). Adverse effects due to S repens were mild and infrequent; erectile dysfunction was more frequent with finasteride (4.9%) than with S repens (1.1%; P<.001). Withdrawal rates in men assigned to placebo, S repens, or finasteride were 7%, 9%, and 11%, respectively.
The existing literature on S repens for treatment of BPH is limited in terms of the short duration of studies and variability in study design, use of phytotherapeutic preparations, and reports of outcomes. However, the evidence suggests that S repens improves urologic symptoms and flow measures. Compared with finasteride, S repens produces similar improvement in urinary tract symptoms and urinary flow and was associated with fewer adverse treatment events. Further research is needed using standardized preparations of S repens to determine its long-term effectiveness and ability to prevent BPH complications.
To conduct a systematic review and quantitative meta-analysis of the therapeutic efficacy and tolerability of Pygeum africanum in men with symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Studies were identified through the search of Medline (1966 to 2000), Embase, Phytodok, the Cochrane Library, bibliographies of identified trials and review articles, and contact with relevant authors and drug companies. Randomized trials were included if participants had symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia, the intervention was a preparation of P. africanum alone or in combination with other phytotherapeutic agents, a control group received placebo or other pharmacologic therapies for benign prostatic hyperplasia, and treatment duration was at least 30 days. Two investigators independently extracted key data on design features, subject characteristics, and therapy allocation.
A total of 18 randomized controlled trials involving 1,562 men met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Many studies did not report results in a method that permitted meta-analysis. Only 1 of the studies reported a method of treatment allocation concealment, although 17 were double-blinded. The mean study duration was 64 days (range 30 to 122). Compared with placebo in 6 studies, P. africanum provided a moderately large improvement in the combined outcome of urologic symptoms and flow measures as assessed by an effect size defined by the difference of the mean change for each outcome divided by the pooled standard deviation for each outcome (-0.8 SD [95% confidence interval (CI): -1.4 to -0.3]). Summary estimates of individual outcomes were also improved by P. africanum. Men were more than twice as likely to report an improvement in overall symptoms (risk ratio = 2.1, 95% CI: 1.40 to 3.1). Nocturia was reduced by 19% and residual urine volume by 24%; peak urine flow was increased by 23%. Adverse effects due to P. africanum were mild and similar to placebo. The overall dropout rate was 12% and was similar for P. africanum (13%), placebo (11%), and other controls (8%; P = 0.4 versus placebo and P = 0.5 versus other controls).
The literature on P. africanum for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia is limited by the short duration of studies and the variability in study design, the use of phytotherapeutic preparations, and the types of reported outcomes. However, the evidence suggests that P. africanum modestly, but significantly, improves urologic symptoms and flow measures. Further research is needed using standardized preparations of P. africanum to determine its long-term effectiveness and ability to prevent complications associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Guérisseurs et plants medicinales de la région des crètes
- M Baerts
- J Lehmann
Baerts, M., Lehmann, J., 1989. Guérisseurs et plants medicinales de la région des crètes Zaire-Nil au Burundi. Musee Roy. de l’Afrique Centrale Tervuren, Belguque. Annals Sciences Économiques 18