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Effects of the form of glasses on the perception of wine flavors: A study in untrained subjects
Abstract
Many wine connoisseur claim that the glass shape has a direct impact on wine aroma. This hypothesis was investigated in healthy volunteers (85 m, 96 f; age 19-73 years); 89 subjects received red wine, 92 subjects white wine. Subjects compared three glasses with a white wine and three glasses with a red. Glasses were of different shape but of the same height and of comparable opening diameter. All glasses had elegant stems; two glasses of 'tulip' and 'beaker'-like shapes were used in sessions with red and white wines. Different bulbous glasses were used in either red or white wine sessions. Subjects were blinded whether they received one or more wines. Intensity, hedonic tone, and quality of the wines were rated repeatedly before and after drinking. Ratings of wine odors from different glasses were influenced by glass shape. Importantly, this appeared not to relate to the esthetic impression the glasses made. Thus, the present data indicate that the shape of glasses seems to influence the perception of wine odors.
... To date, far more research has been conducted on the perceptual and hedonic consequences of serving drinks in different cups and glasses than on the other elements of the tableware. Researchers have, for example, investigated the effect of varying the material, colour, and shape of the glass on the perceived aroma, taste, and flavour of wine (e.g., [33,34]; see [35] for a review). In one such study, Ross, Bohlscheid, and Weller [36] demonstrated that two red wines (a Syrah and a Pinot Noir) were more liked by a trained panel when tasted from a blue wine glass as compared to when served from a more traditional clear wine glass under normal whitelight illumination. ...
... In such laboratory based experiments in which the participant has no awareness of the particular glass, there appears to be no differences between the aromas of the wines served from, or stored in, different glasses. However, when a person has some awareness of the glass, either seeing the glass or, in the case of those experiments where participants have been blindfolded, holding it, the glass does appear to have an effect on their perception of the wine [35]. Thus, it would appear that the glass can affect the taste, flavour, and aroma of the wine, but only if the consumer has sufficient awareness of the physical properties of the glass. ...
... For instance, certain glass shapes will presumably release more organic molecules from wine than other glass shapes [38]. However, this review suggests that it is a drinker's (or taster's) awareness of the glass shape and size that appears to be crucial in order for the shape/size of the glass to affect the aroma and flavour of the wine [35]. Similarly, spoons made from different metals might taste different because they interact with foods (probably differently depending on the properties of the food item itself, and the material of the spoons, such as their pH or temperature). ...
Tools, interfaces, methods, and practices that can help bring about a healthy, socially inclusive, and sustainable food future.
Our contemporary concerns about food range from food security to agricultural sustainability to getting dinner on the table for family and friends. This book investigates food issues as they intersect with participatory Internet culture—blogs, wikis, online photo- and video-sharing platforms, and social networks—in efforts to bring about a healthy, socially inclusive, and sustainable food future. Focusing on our urban environments provisioned with digital and network capacities, and drawing on such “bottom-up” sociotechnical trends as DIY and open source, the chapters describe engagements with food and technology that engender (re-)creative interactions.
In the first section, “Eat,” contributors discuss technology-aided approaches to sustainable dining, including digital communication between farmers and urban consumers and a “telematic” dinner party at which guests are present electronically. The chapters in “Cook” describe, among other things, “smart” chopping boards that encourage mindful eating and a website that supports urban wild fruit foraging. Finally, “Grow” connects human-computer interaction with achieving a secure, safe, and ethical food supply, offering chapters on the use of interactive technologies in urban agriculture, efforts to trace the provenance of food with a “Fair Tracing” tool, and other projects.
Contributors
Joon Sang Baek, Pollie Barden, Eric P. S. Baumer, Eli Blevis, Nick Bryan-Kinns, Robert Comber, Jean Duruz, Katharina Frosch, Anne Galloway, Geri Gay, Jordan Geiger, Gijs Geleijnse, Nina Gros, Penny Hagen, Megan Halpern, Greg Hearn, Tad Hirsch, Jettie Hoonhout, Denise Kera, Vera Khovanskaya, Ann Light, Bernt Meerbeek, William Odom, Kenton O'Hara, Charles Spence, Mirjam Struppek, Esther Toet, Marc Tuters, Katharine S. Willis, David L. Wright, Grant Young
... Previous studies have found that consumer perception and acceptance of food or beverage samples change with environmental contexts, ranging from macro-level variables (e.g., geographical location, eating place, or climate) to micro-level variables (e.g., table setting, cutlery items, ambient lighting, or background sound) . Notably, as shown in Figure 1, previous studies have demonstrated variations in consumer perception or acceptance of food or beverage samples as functions of utensil factors, such as colors [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17], shapes [8,13,15,[18][19][20], sizes [8,17,21], surface textures [22][23][24], materials [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33], weights [8,11,34], and decorations [35][36][37]. For example, Tu et al. [16] demonstrated that food served on a red plate was perceived as spicier than that served on a white or green plate. ...
... Figure 1. Summary of previous studies regarding the effects of utensil variables on consume ception, acceptance, and behavior to food: colors [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17], shapes [8,13,15,[18][19][20], sizes [8,17,21 face textures [22][23][24], materials [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33], weights [8,11,34], and decorations [35][36][37]. The ima utensils was adapted with permission from ref. [42]. ...
... Three participants were excluded from the analysis as they did not complete the study, leaving a final sample of 68 participan Figure 1. Summary of previous studies regarding the effects of utensil variables on consumer perception, acceptance, and behavior to food: colors [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17], shapes [8,13,15,[18][19][20], sizes [8,17,21], surface textures [22][23][24], materials [25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33], weights [8,11,34], and decorations [35][36][37]. The image of utensils was adapted with permission from ref. [42]. ...
Sensory professionals are looking for alternative ways to conduct laboratory sensory testing, especially central location testing (CLT), during the COVID-19 pandemic. One way could be conducting CLTs at home (i.e., in-home testing). It is questionable whether food samples under in-home testing should be presented in uniform utensils, as it does so under laboratory sensory testing. This study aimed to determine whether utensil conditions could affect consumer perception and acceptance of food samples evaluated under in-home testing. Sixty-eight participants (40 females and 28 males) prepared chicken-flavored ramen noodle samples and evaluated them for attribute perception and acceptance, under two utensil conditions, using either their utensils (“Personal”) or uniform utensils provided (“Uniform”). Participants also rated their liking of forks/spoons, bowls, and eating environments, respectively, and attentiveness to sensory evaluation under each utensil condition. Results of the in-home testing showed that participants liked ramen noodle samples and their flavors under the “Personal” condition significantly more than under the “Uniform” condition. Ramen noodle samples evaluated under the “Uniform” condition were significantly higher in terms of saltiness than those evaluated under the “Personal” condition. Participants liked forks/spoons, bowls, and eating environments used under the “Personal” condition significantly more than those used under the “Uniform” condition. While overall likings of ramen noodle samples, evaluated under the “Personal” condition, significantly increased with an increase in hedonic ratings of forks/spoons or bowls, such significant correlations were not observed under the “Uniform” condition. In other words, providing uniform utensils (forks, spoons, and bowls) to participants in the in-home testing can reduce the influences of utensils on consumer likings of ramen noodle samples evaluated at home. In conclusion, this study suggests that sensory professionals should consider providing uniform utensils when they want to focus solely on consumer perception and acceptance of food samples by minimizing influences of environmental contexts, especially utensils, in the “in-home” testing.
... The findings in this study revealed an association between lemon and pepper odor with angular shapes, and between raspberry and vanilla smell with more rounded shapes. Hummel et al. [32] also demonstrated that the shape of the glass of wine can have a significant impact on the way tasters experience the smell of wine. In the latter study, the smell of wine was perceived as better, and more intense, when tasted in bulbous-shaped glasses [33][34][35]. ...
... Nevertheless, glassware can certainly have qualitative implications on the experience of wine consumers. In particular, a better appreciation of the wine's flavor, including more pleasant sensations triggered by a glass shape, may positively enhance the overall wine tasting experience (e.g., [32]; see [41,42], for an overview on sensation transference effects). In brief, when considering all of the senses as main sources of sensations while tasting wine, one should take into consideration the fact that consumers have the ability to transfer sensations and emotions across the senses. ...
... While drinking wine, touch tends to be mostly activated through glassware/packaging/container interactions, as well as via mouthfeel. Several studies concerning wine glassware-hence, relevant for this section-were already introduced previously (e.g., [32][33][34][35][58][59][60][61]68]). ...
The existing multisensory literature suggests that the combination of the different human senses in a controlled fashion during food/drink experiences can provide more enjoyment to consumers. The present research reviews recent literature relating multisensory perception with wine experiences, focusing on the interaction of the five basic senses (taste, smell, vision, touch, and sound). This is mostly being assessed from a perceptual and behavioral consumer perspective. Here, the authors report different ways in which such interactions across these senses can affect the way a wine is experienced, prior to, during, and even after tasting. The authors finish this literature review by providing some insights in the context of wine and food pairing, while also generally reflecting on potential future work. These insights may be inspirational for a diverse group of organizations working with wine. Based on such multisensory approaches, it may be possible to bring unforeseen sensations to the different wine experiences, while at the same time stressing particular sensory and/or emotional attributes.
... The shape of the packaging influences people's expectations concerning the product's functional, experiential and sensory (textural) attributes [91]. For example, the dimensional shape of a container in which food is presented influences specific taste sensations [141]. People can use dimensional aspects of the physical shape of a food product or container to estimate size [142][143][144][145] which in turn can affect preferences [145][146][147]. ...
... Bigger labels attract more attention [68,154] which can increase the chance that they are being bought. The results of Hummel et al. [141] suggest that people have more thoughts about wine when served in a bulbous glass suggesting that the dimensional package shape can affect cognitive reactions. Future research (FR 19) could look further into the effects of package size on attention, cognitive, affective and motivational reactions and how they can explain downstream effects on food perceptions, attitudes and behavioural outcomes. ...
... Special product or packaging shapes deviating from expectations or other packaging shapes (i.e., shape contrast) attract attention [54,141]. Folkes and Matta [141] showed that containers which attract attention, evoke more thoughts and are rated to contain more volume especially when people like the product within the container. ...
This review aims to tackle the challenge of understanding how visual design cues can affect behavioural outcomes in a food context. The review answers two key questions: (1) What are the effects of the most important visual design cues on behavioural outcomes and how can they be explained? (2) What are the research gaps in this area? We start from a comprehensive taxonomy of visual design cues delineating the most important visual design cues. Next, we evaluate the extant research based on a structured, narrative literature review on visual design cues in the food domain. We differentiate between object processed and spatially processed visual design cues in food choice contexts and show how they affect behavioural outcomes through a range of psychological processes (attention, affective-, cognitive-and motivational reactions, food perceptions and attitudes). We end with recommendations which take into account the current food store context, the state-of-art in measuring psychological processes and behavioural outcomes and the specific food-, person-and context-related moderators. This review offers guidance for research to untangle the complexity of the effect of visual design cues in a food choice context.
... It is widely known that flavor is a multisensory sensation comprised of sensations of taste, retronasal odor, and the oral somatosensory system [177]. Although previous studies have highlighted the influences of hand-feel touch cues on olfactory perception [178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185][186], this area of research remains understudied compared to the research area focusing on the effects of oral somatosensory cues on olfactory perception. Interestingly, research on the effects of touch cues on olfactory perception was spearheaded with studies related to wine tasting, possibly due to the common belief by wine connoisseurs that the shape of a wine glass could directly impact wine taste [180]. ...
... Although previous studies have highlighted the influences of hand-feel touch cues on olfactory perception [178][179][180][181][182][183][184][185][186], this area of research remains understudied compared to the research area focusing on the effects of oral somatosensory cues on olfactory perception. Interestingly, research on the effects of touch cues on olfactory perception was spearheaded with studies related to wine tasting, possibly due to the common belief by wine connoisseurs that the shape of a wine glass could directly impact wine taste [180]. One of the more-studied aspects of wine consumption experience is the cross-modal effects of wine-glass shape (as evaluated manually) on the contained wines [187]. ...
... One of the more-studied aspects of wine consumption experience is the cross-modal effects of wine-glass shape (as evaluated manually) on the contained wines [187]. Glass shapes and dimensions were found to influence the aroma perception of the wines served, whether or not the participants were blindfolded [178][179][180]182]. While it has been proposed that such an effect of glass shape on odor perception could be due to the differences in the amount of wine exposed to environmental air [180], Russell et al. [188] revealed that participants could detect no difference between aerated wine and fresh wine samples served in the whole variety of glass shapes, although wine glass shape affected the composition of chemical compounds responsible for bitterness and astringency perceptions resulting from wine exposure to environmental air. ...
There has been a great deal of research investigating intrinsic/extrinsic cues and their influences on consumer perception and purchasing decisions at points of sale, product usage, and consumption. Consumers create expectations toward a food product through sensory information extracted from its surface (intrinsic cues) or packaging (extrinsic cues) at retail stores. Packaging is one of the important extrinsic cues that can modulate consumer perception, liking, and decision making of a product. For example, handling a product packaging during consumption, even just touching the packaging while opening or holding it during consumption, may result in a consumer expectation of the package content. Although hand-feel touch cues are an integral part of the food consumption experience, as can be observed in such an instance, little has been known about their influences on consumer perception, acceptability, and purchase behavior of food products. This review therefore provided a better understanding about hand-feel touch cues and their influences in the context of food and beverage experience with a focus on (1) an overview of touch as a sensory modality, (2) factors influencing hand-feel perception, (3) influences of hand-feel touch cues on the perception of other sensory modalities, and (4) the effects of hand-feel touch cues on emotional responses and purchase behavior.
... Over the years, researchers have conducted a number of studies in order to assess the impact of the glassware on people's perception of wine, testing both experts and social drinkers (e.g., Cliff, 2001 [21]; see Spence, 2011 [1], for a review). However, while great care and attention has been paid by some individuals (and companies) to matching the glassware to the style of wine (or grape variety), it is still not entirely clear whether the discoveries in this field (e.g., changes in the shape of the drinking receptacle influencing perceived aroma in expert wine tasters, say; see Vilanova, Vidal, & Cortés, 2008 [22]) would necessarily extend to other people's (e.g., social drinkers) perception of other, often less complex, drinks, such as cola or perhaps even beer. ...
... These results therefore demonstrate that receptacle curvature is associated with fruitiness and flavour intensity even when the weight and flexibility of the drinking vessels have been fixed. It is interesting to note that much the same conclusion about 'fruitiness' was reached some years ago by Hummel et al. (2003) [21], but related specifically to aroma. Specifically, 181 people with a normal sense of smell, rated the fruitiness of the aroma of both red and white wines as significantly higher when they were served in a rounded (bulbous), rather than straight-sided, wine glass (see Figure 2B). ...
... These results therefore demonstrate that receptacle curvature is associated with fruitiness and flavour intensity even when the weight and flexibility of the drinking vessels have been fixed. It is interesting to note that much the same conclusion about 'fruitiness' was reached some years ago by Hummel et al. (2003) [21], but related specifically to aroma. Specifically, 181 people with a normal sense of smell, rated the fruitiness of the aroma of both red and white wines as significantly higher when they were served in a rounded (bulbous), rather than straight-sided, wine glass (see Figure 2B). ...
In this review, we summarize the latest evidence demonstrating that the shape and feel of the glassware (and other receptacles) that we drink from can influence our perception of the taste/flavour of the contents. Such results, traditionally obtained in the world of wine, have often been interpreted in terms of changes in physico-chemical properties (resulting from the retention, or release, of specific volatile aromatic molecules), or the differing ways in which the shape of the glassware funnels the flow of the liquid across the tongue. It is, however, not always clear that any such physico-chemical differences do, in fact, lead to perceptible differences. Others, meanwhile, have stressed the importance of cultural factors, and the perceived appropriateness, or congruency, of the receptacle to the drink, based on prior experience. Here, though, we argue that there is also a much more fundamental association at work between shape properties and taste/flavour. In particular, the suggestion is made that the shape properties of the drinking receptacle (e.g., whether it be more rounded or angular)—regardless of whether the receptacle is seen, felt, or both—can prime certain expectations in the mind of the drinker. And, based on the theory of crossmodal correspondence, this priming is thought to accentuate certain aspects of the tasting experience, likely as a result of a taster’s attention being focused on the attributes that have been subtly primed.
... In a study conducted by Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, and Hüttenbrink (2003), 200 untrained participants had a red wine (a Cabernet Sauvignon) and a white wine (a Chardonnay) to evaluate from one of four different glasses (see Fig. 14.2A). The glasses were all matched in terms of their opening diameter and height. ...
... Intriguingly, those wines that were presented in straight-sided glasses were also rated as having a sourer taste than those evaluated in any of the other glasses. However, some of the strongest support for the claim that the shape of the wine glass p0035 Figure 14.2 (A) Four wine glasses (straight-sided, v-shaped, and bulbous, small and large) used in Hummel et al. (2003). (B) The nine glasses used in Vilanova et al.'s (2008) study of the effect of glass shape on sweet wine. ...
... properties of the wine contained within, then the shape and/or size of the glass impacts their ratings of the contents (Cliff, 2001;Hummel et al., 2003;Russell et al., 2005;Vilanova et al., 2008). ...
When we drink, we nearly always come into direct contact with the receptacles—the glasses, cups, mugs, cans, and bottles—in which those drinks are contained. In this chapter, we assess the impact that the physical and sensory attributes of the receptacle on people’s perception of the contents. First, we review the latest evidence concerning how the shape of the receptacle influences people’s perception of the likely taste/flavor of a drink. It turns out that the drinking vessel can affect everything from a consumer’s hedonic response to a beverage through to how refreshing they find it. Second, we review the research demonstrating that the color, weight, and texture of the receptacle influences people’s perception of the contents, and introduce the notion of “sensation transference.” Third, we review those consumer studies that have attempted to assess how containers influence both people’s initial perception of volume, and their subsequent consumption, of beverages. Last, but by no means least, we point out the implications of the latest research findings for marketing, and highlight a number of potentially fruitful directions for future research. Taken together, the available evidence demonstrates that the vessels from which we drink (although being frequently neglected by the scientific research community) exert a far greater influence over our perception of the sensory and hedonic qualities of the contents, and on our consumption behaviors than is often realized.
... Hovde (1931) found that the identical net volume of a group of small glass containers influenced the customer's liking of the product. Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, and Hüttenbrink (2003) reported that ratings of wine odours from different glasses were influenced by the shape of the glass. ...
... These results are in accordance with previous studies that show that some incidental cues associated with a drink that a participant has to test influenced their perceived taste (Doorn, Wuillemin, & Spence, 2014;Hummel et al., 2003;Guéguen & Jacob, 2012;Hovde, 1931). However, in these later studies the form of the glasses in which the beverage was contained, or the colour of the container was the independent variable manipulated. ...
Some studies have shown that incidental cues, present in the immediate environment of an individual, affect an individual's behaviour and judgment. However, the effect of such incidental cues on food judgment has never been examined. In this study, participants were asked to taste a clementine juice contained in a bottle and to rate it on several factors (good taste, organic, quality, natural, and fresh). A dozen clementines were displayed on a table either with their leaves or without. Results showed that the fruit-juice was perceived more positively when clementines with their leaves were displayed on the table. The importance of natural cues associated with fruits in order to increase their interest in individuals was discussed.
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... It is reported that the shape and dimension of the glass mainly affect the overall intensity of the odor, while the glass color affects the consumer's expectations and perception of the wine (Labbe, Rytz, Strube, & Leloup, 2021;. A comparison of beaker, tulip, and bulbous glasses of the same height and similar diameter showed that odor intensity of the wine was highest in the bulbous glasses, and the wine contained within was rated more pleasant as well (Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Huttenbrink, 2003;Huttenbrink, Schmidt, Delwiche, & Hummel, 2001). The results reported by Vilanova, Vidal, and Cortes (2008) were identical to the abovementioned that the intensity and the quality of the aromas of six sweet wines from Galicia with the "bulbous" type of glass received the highest wine rating. ...
... That said, the results of research in this area are somewhat contradictory . It would appear that visual or physical contact with the wine glass may elicit specific expectations of flavors, thereby impacting people's evaluation of the contents in the glasses (Cliff, 2001;Hummel et al., 2003). Just as rounder shapes are typically associated with sweetness and/or smoother types of sensations (Campo, Reinoso-Carvalho, & Rosato, 2021;Hanson-Vaux, Crisinel, & Spence, 2013). ...
The enjoyment of the wine depends not only on the properties of wine itself, but also on the wine glasses. The present study was designed to investigate whether the glass volume or shape would influence aroma attributes of Cabernet Sauvignon dry red wine. Sensory evaluation was conducted with a 12‐member panel. Three‐alternative forced‐choice (3‐AFC) tests were chosen to determine whether any difference in odors could be perceived among samples in glasses of two shapes (Bordeaux and Burgundy glasses) or in glasses of three volumes (350, 500, and 650 mL). Also, 12 participants evaluated their experience of “intensity,” “elegance,” and “overall aroma quality”, as well as descriptive analysis of the wine aroma. The results showed the wine was perceived as being more intense and more elegant in the glass with a smaller cuppa height and a bigger ratio between the maximum and opening diameter. These findings further support the idea that tasters' perceptions of wine aroma are influenced by the shape and volume of wine glasses, which are in part closely related to the parameters of the glasses.
Practical Applications
Investigating the effects of two major red wine glasses, Bordeaux and Burgundy glasses, on the aroma attributes of Cabernet Sauvignon dry red wine is very useful to match the wine with the appropriate glasses. In order to highlight the intensity and elegance of the wine aroma, it is essential to choose a glass with a smaller cuppa height and a bigger ratio between the maximum and opening diameter, which is practical and instructive for wine practitioners, connoisseurs, sommeliers, enthusiasts, and consumers with higher olfactory sensitivity.
... In addition, studies have found that even professional wine or tea tasters will still be affected by the shape of the glass, including their perception of taste and aroma [32,33]. Hummel et al. [34] studied whether wine glasses of the same height and caliber, but with different shapes, directly affect the aroma and taste of wine. The study found that two-thirds of the subjects believed they had consumed more than one type of wine, which means that one-third believed they had consumed one type of wine. ...
... When one is drinking tea, if the height of the cup is not considered, the diameter of the cup (that is, the size of the cup) influences the strongness, sweetness, smoothness, richness, fragrance, and overall performance of the teacup. The interpretation of this solution agrees with Hummel et al.'s [34] study, suggesting that the shape of a wine glass may affect the perceived bouquet and taste of the wine. y2 = f (x1, x2, x3, x4) x2 *~x3 0.520 0.085 0.769 x1* x2 * x4 0.415 0.065 0. 838 y3 = f (x1, x2, x3, x4) x2 *~x3 0.516 0.095 0.787 x1 * x2 * x4 0.399 0.060 0. 832 y4 = f (x1, x2, x3, x4 The second solution is x1 * x2 * x4. ...
Most studies concerned with sustainable design issues focus on product design to change user behavior, increase the product lifespan, reduce energy waste, or employ the user experience to influence the behavior of other users. Rarely do they discuss how to design products that meet the real needs of consumers and reduce design waste and excessive consumption. Teaware designers and producers have invisibly created a considerable carbon footprint with regard to nonrenewable clay and energy waste due to excessive production. Therefore, this research uses visual and tactile research into the Chinese drinking cup to integrate user experience and the designer’s thinking and methods to ensure the sustainable value of the design and industry. This research uses experimental methods to collect and analyze the data with a fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fs/QCA). The research found that the visual, tactile, and sensory perceptions of general consumers and tea professionals have different influencing factors on the taste system. This research provides evidence that the size of the tea-drinking container and the thickness of the cup’s rim will affect the perception of the tea’s taste and smell. This research provides new thinking for the design of Chinese tea-drinking utensils. It could solve social problems and dilemmas through design and contribute to the sustainable development of the design.
... De ce fait, elle peut influer sur la perception sensorielle que le dégustateur a du vin. Des études ont ainsi montré une modification à la fois de l'intensité aromatique du vin, mais également du plaisir hédonique ressenti par le dégustateur et de son jugement sur la qualité du vin (Hummel et al ., 2003). ...
... Il a ainsi été montré qu'un verre INAO entrainait une plus grande perception des caractères fruités que des verres de vin rouge vendus dans le commerce (Hirson et al., 2012), mais également que la forme de l'ouverture du ballon du verre faisait fortement varier les notes perçues (Hummel et al., 2003). ...
L’expression aromatique fruitée des vins rouges a été le sujet de nombreuses études qui démontrent qu’au moins une composante de cette expression est le reflet d’interactions perceptives impliquant des esters. La synthèse de ces esters peut être affectée par la levure réalisant la fermentation alcoolique mais aussi par d’autres paramètres, plus technologiques, comme le niveau de maturité de la vendange. De plus, peu d’études ont été réalisé afin de valider le rôle physiologique tenu par les esters pour la levure.Dans le but de mettre en évidence plus précisément le rôle de ces facteurs dans la synthèse des esters, des souches de levures délétés des majeures estérases ont été construites, et testées en fermentation en milieu œnologique, dans des moûts de merlot et de tempranillo récoltés à deux maturités différentes. Ainsi, la concentration en chaque esters linéaires et substitués a pu être déterminée dans chaque modalité de vinification.L’étude des différents mutants de délétion, a permis, pour la première fois, de valider le rôle des principales estérases dans la synthèse des esters linéaires chez la levure mais aussi, la mise en évidence de deux gènes, non étudiés jusqu’alors en condition œnologique, sur la synthèse des esters substitués. L’analyse de l’expression génétique de la délétion des estérases chez la levure a permis aussi de valider que ces gènes permettent une véritable stabilité physiologique de la levure en conditions stressante.L’impact du degré de maturité de la vendange a été étudié à la fois chez les vins fermentés avec une levure standard commerciale mais aussi fermentés avec une levure délétée des 4 principales estérases. Une maturité avancée, des raisins de merlot seulement, entraine une baisse de 50% de la teneur en esters linéaire avec la levure standard, ce qui n’est plus observé avec la levure mutante. Cette diminution de la concentration en esters linéaire dans ces vins de merlot de maturité avancée, est bien corrélée à une diminution de leur perception fruitée. De plus, des reconstitutions aromatiques faites dans ces matrices, ont permis de valider l’implication totale des esters dans la perception de l’arôme fruité des vins rouges réalisés avec des matrices de maturité normale. En revanche en ce qui concerne les vins de merlot de maturité avancée, il existerait d’autres composés en plus des esters qui pourraient expliquer les différences sensorielles observées dans ces vins.Enfin, une approche de transcriptomique est mise en œuvre pour tâcher d’éclairer les facteurs à l’origine des modifications de production d’esters en fonction du niveau de maturité des raisins de merlot. Il en est sorti que l’effet maturité n’existe pas seul mais est bien combiné avec l’avancée de la fermentation alcoolique. L’effet global de la matrice qui peut expliquer les différences observées entre les vins de merlot.
... 11 The research clearly shows that if the taster does not know which wine glass they are evaluating a wine in/from, either because they have been blindfolded while the glassware is agitated under the taster's nose (Cliff, 2001;Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002) or because the glass in which the taster evaluates the wine is different from the glass in which the wine has been allowed to breathe (Russell, Zivanovic, Morris, Penfield, & Weiss, 2005), the glassware seems to make little difference to the taster's experience. However, as soon as the latter become aware of the nature of the glass from which they are tasting, the glassware can suddenly make a huge difference to the tasting experience (e.g., Fischer, 1996;Fischer & Loewe-Stanienda, 1999;Hummel et al., 2003;Venturi et al., 2014;Venturi et al., 2016;Vilanova, Vidal, & Cortes, 2008; see also Attwood, Scott-Samuel, Stothart, & Munafò, 2012;Manska, 2018). ...
... Instead, one might more fruitfully want to consider the crossmodal correspondences that are invoked by the shape of the glass itself (e.g., see Spence & Deroy, 2012, Spence & Deroy, 2013b, 2013c, 2013dVelasco, Woods, Marks, Cheok, & Spence, 2016), and the more semantic associations with the apparent quality of the glassware (Billing, Öström, & Lagerbielke, 2008). Here it is interesting to note that while a round (rather than straight-sided) glass has been shown to bring out the fruity and sweet notes in both wine (Hummel et al., 2003) and beer (Mirabito, Oliphant, Van Doorn, Watson, & Spence, 2017), simply coating the outside of a 3D-printed cup with round versus angular macrotextural features has a similar effect on the perceived sweetness of a drink (Van Rompay, Finger, Saakes, & Fenko, 2017; though see also Machiels, 2018). Notice how, in the latter case, the flow properties of the liquid in the glasses will have been indistinguishable. ...
Basic cognitive research can help to explain our response to wine, and the myriad factors that affect it. Wine is a complex, culture-laden, multisensory stimulus, and our perception/experience of its properties is influenced by everything from the packaging in which it is presented through the glassware in which it is served and evaluated. A growing body of experiential wine research now demonstrates that a number of contextual factors, including everything from the colour of the ambient lighting through to background music can exert a profound, and in some cases predictable, influence over the tasting experience. Sonic seasoning - that is, the matching of music or soundscapes with specific wines in order to accentuate or draw attention to certain qualities/attributes in the wine, such as sweetness, length, or body, also represents a rapidly growing area of empirical study. While such multisensory, experiential wine research undoubtedly has a number of practical applications, it also provides insights concerning multisensory perception that are relevant to basic scientists. Furthermore, the findings of the wine research are also often relevant to those marketers interested in understanding how the consumers' perception of any other food or beverage product can potentially be modified.
... Various marketing studies have also been carried out on the senses' influence on wine shopping and consumption experiences (e.g. Areni & Kim, 1993;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003;North, Hargreaves, & McKendrick, 1999). For example, Hummel et al. (2003) concluded that the shape of glasses influences consumers' perceptions of wine aromas. ...
... Areni & Kim, 1993;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003;North, Hargreaves, & McKendrick, 1999). For example, Hummel et al. (2003) concluded that the shape of glasses influences consumers' perceptions of wine aromas. Areni and Kim (1993) found that background classical music in wine stores influences shoppers to buy more expensive items. ...
This study sought to identify the main themes of sensory experiences of Douro wineries shared online by tourists. Douro is a demarcated wine region famous for Port, which is on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's World Heritage List. The research used 470 visitor reviews posted on the TripAdvisor website, which referred to experiences of the five regional wine brands that run wine hotels. Mixed content analyses extracted the main themes from the reviews, as well as identifying concepts associated with the five senses. The results include 12 main themes: wine, view, staff, room, hotel, food, restaurant, pool, service, Douro, delicious (food and wine) and comfort. Most concepts are linked with sight and taste, followed by hearing, with only a few reviews mentioning touch or smell. These findings have managerial implications for wine tourism, contributing to a better understanding of how sensory dimensions create memorable experiences for visitors. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Angular shapes are generally associated with bitter and sour or "sharp" tastes, while round shapes are more associated with sweet and rich tastes (Ngo, Misra, & Spence, 2011). Manipulation of the shape of the receptacle itself may influence how complex odors are perceived (Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003), and angular packaging has shown increased intensity of taste sensations (Becker, Van Rompay, Schifferstein, & Galetzka, 2011). Furthermore, it was demonstrated that when cola was presented in a cola glass, it was rated as sweeter, more intense and more pleasant than when presented in a water glass or bottle (Cavazana, Larsson, Hoffmann, Hummel, & Haehner, 2017). ...
... Chardonnay wine was chosen as the odor matrix on the basis of a relatively wide range of odor profiles existing within the category; also some key aroma-active compounds have been characterized. As well it has also been shown that changing the shape of a wine glass exerts a direct impact on the perception of wines (Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002;Hummel et al., 2003;Hüttenbrink, Schmidt, Delwiche, & Hummel, 2001), and leads to the hypothesis that certain wine aromas might be matched better to certain shapes/colors. The present research also sought to explore odor-color-shape crossmodal correspondences in a complex odor matrix, using both abstract stimuli and realistic visual stimuli (i.e., wine labels). ...
Crossmodal correspondence is of scientific and commercial interest in regard to the packaging of food and beverages. Research has shown that colors and shapes can be associated with certain aromas, but these interactions have been less extensively studied with authentic visual stimuli (i.e., packaging), or with complex food odors in a matrix. This study investigated odor-color-shape crossmodal interactions with complex odor stimuli (wine odors) and wine labels. The present research used projective mapping with 3D shapes and colors, along with a wine label matching study, to test whether chardonnay odors of different character (buttery, citrus, floral, smoky, and vegetable) were associated with certain colors and shapes. In the projective mapping experiment, most chardonnay odors were grouped similarly; however, the vegetable-forward wine was more associated with sharper shapes. In the label experiment, yellow labels tended to be better matched with all odors, except the vegetable-forward wine, which was matched equally to all colors. These findings indicate that, regardless of odor character, chardonnay is mostly associated with a yellow colored label. Interestingly, results also indicated that not all correspondences aligned with the most common color association of an odor character's (i.e., vegetative was not strictly associated with green, nor smoky with brown, etc.). Significant correlations were found between stimuli liking and matching scores, speaking to the role of hedonics in correspondences. Overall, the present research demonstrates evidence for odor-color-shape correspondences in complex odors and realistic visual stimuli, but not as strongly as in controlled environments and simplistic stimuli.
... Over the last few decades, an extensive body of research has assessed the influence of the shape of the wine glass on the perception of aroma and flavour in both experts and social drinkers. Serving the same wine in differently-shaped glassware has been shown to exert a significant influence on both sensory and hedonic ratings (Cliff, 2001;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003; see Spence, 2011, for a review). In fact, the claim that particular types of wine (or even varietals) should be matched by specific glass shapes has boosted the development of what is a highly-profitable industry. ...
... However, detailed investigations that could provide convincing evidence to support such an explanation are still missing. For instance, Hummel et al. (2003) tested four different shapes of wine glasses and found that acidity was rated as most intense in the intermediate opening diameter glassalso, all the glasses used had fine rims. This hypothesis cannot explain our results either. ...
The drinking experience depends on the multisensory integration of attributes of the drink itself as well as the characteristics of the drinking vessel, not to mention the environment in which the drink happens to be tasted. The receptacles from which we drink have been shown to affect the perception of the sensory and hedonic attributes of various different beverages (especially in the world of wine). The present study was designed to investigate whether the shape of the cup would also influence amateur and/or expert consumers’ perception of aroma, taste, and hedonic evaluation of specialty coffee. A large-sample experiment (involving 276 participants) was conducted in a specialty coffee event in Brazil. The participants were divided into three testing groups according to the shape of the cup in which the coffee was served (tulip, open, or split). Tasters evaluated their experience of the aroma, sweetness, acidity, and liking of the coffee. Multivariate analysis of variance was conducted in order to assess the effect of cup shape on sensory and hedonic ratings, and whether expertise modulated these ratings. Both amateurs and experts judged: (1) the aroma to be significantly stronger in the tulip cup, and (2) the sweetness and acidity to be significantly more intense in the split cup. Interestingly, the split cup received the lowest liking scores from the amateurs, but not from the experts. Taken together, these results demonstrate for the first time that the shape of the cup significantly affects the perception of the sensory attributes of specialty coffee, for both amateur and expert consumers. The implications of these results for the design of coffee cups that convey some functional and/or perceptual benefit as well as possible directions for future research are discussed.
... A large choice of drinking vessels is available for wine tasting and could be chosen according to the type of wine (red, white, sweet, sparkling…), the consumer's preference but also to the social and context factors within which the wine is drinked. It is clear from previous reports (Cliff, 2001;Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002;Hirson, Heymann, & Ebeler, 2012;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003) that a still wine (red or white) is perceived differently when served in glasses with different shapes. In most cases, the overall sensory impression of the wine was significantly influenced by the physical characteristics of the glass (correlated with the ratio of the maximum diameter to the opening diameter); whereas the intensity of certain olfactory and/or gustatory attributes appears to be independent of the physical characteristics of the glasses (Cliff, 2001;Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002;Hirson et al., 2012;Hummel et al., 2003). ...
... It is clear from previous reports (Cliff, 2001;Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002;Hirson, Heymann, & Ebeler, 2012;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003) that a still wine (red or white) is perceived differently when served in glasses with different shapes. In most cases, the overall sensory impression of the wine was significantly influenced by the physical characteristics of the glass (correlated with the ratio of the maximum diameter to the opening diameter); whereas the intensity of certain olfactory and/or gustatory attributes appears to be independent of the physical characteristics of the glasses (Cliff, 2001;Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002;Hirson et al., 2012;Hummel et al., 2003). It is also important to notice (as reported by Spence & Wan (2015)) that the sensory evaluation of these wines might have been sometimes influenced by the varying laboratory tasting-conditions. ...
During Champagne or sparkling wine tasting, gas-phase CO2 and volatile organic compounds invade the headspace above glasses, thus progressively modifying the chemical space perceived by the consumer. Gas-phase CO2 in excess can even cause a very unpleasant tingling sensation perturbing both ortho- and retronasal olfactory perception. Monitoring as accurately as possible the level of gas-phase CO2 above glasses is therefore a challenge of importance aimed at better understanding the close relationship between the release of CO2 and a collection of various tasting parameters. Here, the concentration of CO2 found in the headspace of champagne glasses served under multivariate conditions was accurately monitored, all along the 10 min following pouring, through a new combined approach by a CO2-Diode Laser Sensor and micro-gas chromatography. Our results show the strong impact of various tasting conditions (volume dispensed, intensity of effervescence, and glass shape) on the release of gas-phase CO2 above the champagne surface.
... Contextual influences on wine perception has received considerable attention (for a 72 review, see Spence, 2011). In particular, the size, shape, weight, and colour of the glass have been 73 proven to affect the perceived intensity and quality of a wine (e.g., Fischer & Loewe-Stanienda, 74 1999; Hummel et al., 2003;Vilanova et al., 2008). For example, the rated intensity of a wine's 75 odour was shown to increase as the ratio between the rim of the glass and its largest diameter 76 increased (Fischer & Loewe-Stanienda, 1999). ...
... For example, the rated intensity of a wine's 75 odour was shown to increase as the ratio between the rim of the glass and its largest diameter 76 increased (Fischer & Loewe-Stanienda, 1999). Furthermore, the bulbous shape of glasses, 77 compared to 'tulip' or 'beaker' glasses, seems to produce a higher intensity of wine odours which is 78 accompanied by an increased liking of the wine odour (Hummel et al., 2003). This is especially true 79 when participants can physically interact with the wine glass. ...
People’s smell and taste perception is affected by different features of the vessel in which the beverage is served. In this study we focused on the container’s shape and we investigated its impact on participants’ olfactory and tasting ratings regarding a popular beverage, i.e., cola. We tested 100 healthy participants who evaluated both cola and sparkling water. These two beverages were presented in three different containers: a cola glass, a water glass and a plastic bottle. The results showed the presence of multisensory interactions between the smell and taste of the drinks and the type of vessel in which they were presented. Cola was perceived as more pleasant and intense when served in a typical coca-cola glass as compared to when it was presented in an incongruent container (i.e., water glass or plastic bottle). These results further support the view that our perception is modulated by the shape of the container in which the liquid is presented, strongly influencing the consumer’s drinking experience.
... Over the last few decades, an extensive body of research has assessed the influence of the shape of the wine glass on the perception of aroma and flavour in both experts and social drinkers. Serving the same wine in differently-shaped glassware has been shown to exert a significant influence on both sensory and hedonic ratings (Cliff, 2001;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003; see Spence, 2011, for a review). In fact, the claim that particular types of wine (or even varietals) should be matched by specific glass shapes has boosted the development of what is a highly-profitable industry. ...
... However, detailed investigations that could provide convincing evidence to support such an explanation are still missing. For instance, Hummel et al. (2003) tested four different shapes of wine glasses and found that acidity was rated as most intense in the intermediate opening diameter glassalso, all the glasses used had fine rims. This hypothesis cannot explain our results either. ...
We report a study designed to investigate whether shape-taste crossmodal correspondences would influence consumers’ expectations concerning coffee. To that end, we conducted a cross-cultural online survey with respondents (N = 309) from China, Colombia, and the United Kingdom (UK). The participants had to rate eight coffee mugs on eight scales by arranging the mugs within a 1000 × 250 pixel box, placing each mug so that its horizontal position matched how strongly they thought the mug matched the scale presented. Amongst other findings, the results revealed that (1) the coffee was expected to be more aromatic from narrower diameter mugs, (2) the coffee associated with shorter mugs was expected to be both more bitter and more intense, and (3) the coffee was expected to be sweeter from wider diameter mugs. An interesting cross-cultural finding was that participants from the UK expected the mugs to be hotter than participants from either China or Colombia. These results add to a large and growing body of research highlighting the associations between visual information and a product’s likely (or expected) sensory qualities. These findings may be useful to those preparing coffee as they suggest that coffee should be presented in certain mugs in order to convey a message that is congruent with the consumer’s expectations.
... In still wine tasting, glass shape was clearly found to influence the perception of aromas (Delwiche & Pelchat, 2002;Hummel et al., 2003;Bai et al., 2023). More recently and more broadly, the reviews by Spence & Wan (2015) and Spence & Van Doorne (2017) highlighted how much the drinking receptacle influence the taste/flavor perception of a beverage (including its shape, color, and material properties, for example). ...
... In still wine tasting, glass shape was clearly found to influence the perception of aromas (Delwiche and Pelchat, 2002;Hummel et al., 2003). More broadly, the review by Spence and Wan (2015) highlighted how much the sensory perception of a beverage is influenced by the vessel from which it is tasted (including its shape, colour, and material properties, for example). ...
Champagne wines are complex hydroalcoholic mixtures supersaturated with dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2). During tasting, while serving the champagne in a glass and for the few minutes that follow, the headspace of the glass is progressively invaded by many chemical species, including gas–phase CO2 (likely to disrupt the perception of the wine’s bouquet beyond a certain threshold). Real-time monitoring of gas–phase CO2 was performed through tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy along a multipoint network in the headspace of two champagne glasses showing distinct shapes and volume capacities (namely, the standard 21 cL INAO glass and the brand new 45 cL ŒnoXpert glass, designed by the Union of French Oenologists as a universal glass for the tasting of still and sparkling wines). From the start of the pouring stage and during the several minutes following, a kind of glass type-dependent CO2 footprint was revealed in the headspace of glasses, which was discussed based on the glass geometry and headspace volume. For an identical volume of champagne dispensed in both glasses, the headspace of ŒnoXpert was found to retain gaseous CO2 more efficiently over time than INAO glass does. Therefore, and extrapolating to aromatic compounds, the chemical space of the ŒnoXpert glass should be better preserved throughout the tasting than that of the INAO glass. Moreover, by reducing the volume of champagne served in the glass, the time-dependent CO2 footprint is significantly reduced in the glass headspace, thus reducing the risk of carbon dioxide burn during tasting.
... In this paper, we consider that the number of wine tourism activities can be an indicator of the wine tourism experience (Mitchell, Hall, & McIntosh, 2009). This indicator has been used by different authors who report about the impact of past experiences on attitude, due to the fact that they are the main sources of emotions (Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003;Organ, Koenig-Lewis, Palmer, & Probert, 2015). For example, the work of Anastasopoulos (1992) investigated the attitude of Greek tourists who had visited Turkey several times, his findings showed that the more travel experience the traveller had, the more negative their attitude towards the tourist destination was. ...
The international promotion of wine routes is leading to a growing demand for wine tourism activities. More and more tourists are choosing wine tourism as an option when planning their trips. Although the data are encouraging, little is known about the effect that these tourist activities have on wine consumers. This paper shows the effect of the wine tourism experience on a group of consumers. Through an analysis of variance, the results show that by increasing the wine tourism experience, consumers improve their attitudes towards wine, their evaluation of extrinsic and intrinsic attributes and their loyalty towards different wines. In addition, seg-mentation according to the level of wine tourism experience can help wine marketers to understand their potential audience and market orientation.
... Variation of wine serving conditions can influence the sensorial impression of wine. For example, shape of wine glasses [1] and wine serving temperature are among the factors that affect the perception of wine attributes. Extensive empirical experience suggests drinking red wines at room temperature or slightly cooler, between 18 • C and 22 • C. The exceptions are light fruity red wines, which require a somewhat lower serving temperature of 15 • C. A suitable serving temperature for white wines is between 8 • C and 12 • C, while for many rosé wines it is expected about 15 • C [2]. ...
Adjusting the wine temperature is a routine procedure before opening a wine bottle. In many situations wine requires quick cooling, which occasionally raises disturbing questions among consumers and wine professionals. In particular, there are certain concerns that too rapid cooling of wine for some reasons may negatively affect its sensory characteristics and compromise the wine evaluation. To scientifically confirm of disprove this myth, we conducted a sensory analysis of six wines, cooled slowly in a refrigerator and quickly in an ice–water–salt mixture. Two sparkling wines, two white, and two red still wines with different aroma profiles were included in the research. Results of the triangle tests and 3-AFC tests demonstrated no perceivable differences between the quickly and slowly cooled wine samples. These outcomes may be useful for scientists, who perform wine sensory evaluations, as well as wine producers, experts, and the foodservice industry in general.
... Numerous studies have documented that receptacles can influence consumers' perception of the drinks (for reviews, see Spence, 2011;. For instance, the shape of the receptacle used to serve the drinks has been demonstrated to influence the perceived aroma/odour of the wine (Cliff, 2001;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003;Vilanova, Vidal, & Cortés, 2008), as well as the perceived and expected taste of coffee (Carvalho & Spence, 2018;Van Doorn et al., 2017; see Spence & Carvalho, 2019, for a recent review), and the actual taste of beer (Mirabito, Oliphant, Van Doorn, Watson, & Spence, 2017) or soda (Cavazzana, Larsson, Hoffmann, Hummel, & Haehner, 2017). Importantly, consumers like alcoholic drinks, soda, or hot tea more (Raudenbush, Meyer, Eppich, Corley, & Petterson, 2002;Schifferstein, 2009;Wan, Zhou, Woods, & Spence, 2015) when presented in receptacles that are considered congruent (or appropriate) to the drinks. ...
Two studies were conducted in order to investigate the influence of teaware on consumers’ subjective ratings of, and taste expectations concerning, one of the world’s most popular beverages, namely tea. In Study 1, 100 Chinese participants and 100 participants from the USA viewed online photographs of Chinese brand and British brand green tea presented in either Chinese or British tea sets. The participants then rated their feelings about, taste expectations concerning, and willingness-to-pay for, each cup of tea. In Study 2, 65 Chinese participants also viewed these photos with either a high or low price label for each cup of tea. The results of both studies consistently revealed that the teaware influenced Chinese participants’ bitterness and astringency ratings concerning their tea expectations; whereas no such effects were found for the USA participants. Moreover, the teaware also influenced Chinese participants’ pleasantness ratings of tea when no price information was provided, but not when price information was presented. Collectively, these findings highlight the influence of the visual appearance of the receptacle on the subjective ratings of, and taste expectations concerning, tea. These results also compare the influence of product-extrinsic and contextual cues on consumers’ taste expectations.
... The role of the glass on the aromatic perception has resulted in numerous publications. 1,2,3 Most authors have focused on the impact of the glass shapes to evaluate the perception of flavors in flat wines. 4,5,6 As expected, the shape of the glass influences the perception of the wine although the discrepancies are quite limited. ...
This study is based on the findings that a glass of sparkling wine that releases its dissolved CO 2 too quickly will see the effervescence and aromas carried by the bubble disappear prematurely. Thus, a thorough knowledge of the processes related to the release of gaseous CO 2 is fundamental for the consumer as well as the oenologist or the glassmaker. In this study, the contribution of the glass shape on the gradual release of dissolved carbon dioxide was assessed during the first ten minutes following the pouring process. Measurements carried out on 4 glasses showed that for the same quantity of wine and under identical tasting conditions, the dissolved CO 2 concentration evolved differently from one glass shape to another. The results showed that in the first 10 minutes after the pouring process, INAO glass loses 34% of its initial dissolved CO 2 concentration compared to 58% for the flute “effervescent”. Ultimately, these results demonstrate the existence of a close link between the glass shape and the amount of dissolved CO 2 which is the main parameter in the tasting of sparkling wine. The link between the amount of dissolved gas, the glass shape and the release of aromas from the wine is a huge challenge which will be the subject of future studies.
... Taken together, results demonstrate that the shape of the cup significantly affects the perception of the sensory attributes of specialty coffee, in both amateur and expert consumers. Such results are consistent with a small but growing body of research suggesting that the shape of the receptacle can influence the perception of a range of beverages beyond the world of wine (e.g., Cavazzana, Larsson, Hoffmann, Hummel, & Haehner, 2017;Mirabito, Oliphant, Van Doorn, Watson, & Spence, 2017;Van Rompay, Finger, Saakes, & Fenko, 2017; and see Cliff, 2001;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003;Venturi et al., 2016, on the shape of the wine glass). That said, it should be noted that simply changing the shape of the drinking receptacle does not always change the taste/flavour of a drink (see Machiels, 2018, for one such recent partial null result). ...
This review summarizes the latest evidence concerning the impact of the colour, shape, texture, weight, and other material properties of the drinking receptacle on the perception of coffee. The colour of the cup, for instance, has been shown to prime notions of sweetness (e.g., pink cup) or acidity (e.g., yellow or green cup) that may carry over to influence the tasting experience. Meanwhile, the shape and surface feel of the drinking vessel have also been shown to exert a profound influence over the perceived aroma/taste of coffee. Given that the various sensory attributes of the drinking vessel can exert such a striking influence over the drinking experience, the challenge, moving forward, is to optimize the design of the receptacle in order to enhance the multisensory tasting experience for the consumer. Given that different styles/varieties of specialty coffee have different dominant/desirable qualities (e.g., acidity/sweetness), in the future, the design of coffee cups may need to be customized for different coffee drinking experiences (e.g., origin or roast), much as seen in the world of fine wine (with different glasses for different grape varieties).
... 38 Le verre a également son importance dans la perception, notamment du fait de sa forme qui va générer des différences dans la composition de l'espace de tête et entraîner des perceptions qualitatives différentes. Il a ainsi été montré qu'un verre INAO entrainait une plus grande perception des caractères fruités que des verres de vin rouge vendus dans le commerce (Hirson et al., 2012), mais également que la forme de l'ouverture du ballon du verre faisait fortement varier les notes perçues (Hummel et al., 2003). L'agitation du verre entraîne elle aussi une modification de l'espace de tête (Russell et al., 2005). ...
L’expression aromatique fruitée des vins rouges a été le sujet de nombreuses études qui démontrent qu’au moins une composante de cette expression est le reflet d’interactions perceptives impliquant des esters. La plupart des travaux concernant les interactions perceptives jusqu’à ce jour se sont avérés descriptifs, très peu ayant cherché à déterminer leurs origines. Dans ce but, un outil analytique a été développé afin d’apprécier les changements de volatilité d’esters représentatifs de l’arôme fruité des vins rouges. Ainsi, les coefficients de partage de 9 esters ont pu être déterminés aussi bien dans une solution hydroalcoolique que dans un vin rouge désaromatisé. L’application de cet outil analytique aux interactions perceptives préalablement mises en évidence a permis d'observer des changements de volatilité des esters lors de leur mise en mélange avec d'autres composés volatils en solution. Ces changements de volatilité, synonymes de potentiels effets pré-sensoriels, vont dans le même sens que ceux observés lors de l’analyse sensorielle. L’utilisation d’un verre de dégustation possédant deux compartiments a permis de mettre en lumière le fait que certaines modifications sensorielles pouvaient être expliquées, pour partie au moins, par des effets pré-sensoriels. L'impact olfactif de 5 alcools supérieurs ainsi que de 15 composés issus du bois de chêne a pu être démontré grâce à de nombreuses reconstitutions aromatiques, et leur rôle de masquage de l’arôme fruité des vins rouges a pu être souligné. Le calcul des coefficients de partage des esters a permis de montrer que des changements de volatilité ont lieu au sein de la solution. Ces modifications peuvent être corrélées aux résultats obtenus lors de l’analyse sensorielle. Ainsi, il est possible d’expliquer, en partie, les effets de masquage de l’arôme fruité observés grâce aux seuils de détection et aux profils sensoriels, du fait de la diminution de la présence d’esters dans l’espace de tête venant stimuler le dégustateur. Globalement, nos travaux ont permis de mettre en évidence que la mise en mélange en solution de composés volatils pouvait se traduire par la modification de la volatilité des constituants du mélange et que certaines de ces interactions pré-sensorielles pouvaient conditionner l'expression aromatique fruitée due aux esters.
... From a practical point of view, these findings suggest that the mixing and oxygenation may be optimized with an appropriate choice of shaking diameter (d) and rotation speed (rpm). In this view, the glass shape parameters ( Figure S1) can play a key role as they may influence the perceived volume of wine [8], and the perception of wine odors [9][10][11], and color [12][13][14], and therefore the consumer's preference [15,16] as well. Moreover, with time, the glass shape affects the change of headspace chemical composition of wine poured inside, and the D ratio (i.e., maximum diameter divided by opening diameter) seems to be the most important parameter relating glass shape to headspace composition [17]. ...
The different shapes and sizes of wine glass are claimed to balance the different wine aromas in the headspace, enhancing the olfactory perception and providing an adequate level of oxygenation. Although the measurement of dissolved oxygen in winemaking has recently received much focus, the role of oxygen in wine tasting needs to be further disclosed. This preliminary study aims to explore, for the first time, the effect of swirling glasses of different shapes and sizes on the oxygen content of wine. Experimental trials were designed to simulate real wine tasting conditions. The O2 content after glass swirling was affected to a considerable extent by both the type of wine and the glass shape. A lack of correlation between the shape parameters of five glasses and the O2 content in wine was found which suggests that the nonequilibrium condition can occur during wine tasting. The International Standard Organisation (ISO) glass—considered to be optimal for the wine tasting—allowed less wine oxygenation than any other glass shapes; and the apparent superiority of the ISO glass is tentatively attributed to the more stable oxygen content with time; i.e., less variability in oxygen content than any other glass shape.
... The physical properties of the package may have a direct effect on the way its contents are perceived. For instance, the migration of compounds from packaging material may produce off-flavours in the food (Halek and Levinson 1988), and a container's shape has an effect on flavour release (Hummel et al. 2003;Spence and Wan 2015), which affects consumption directly from the package. ...
... When someone sets about drinking a wine, (s)he has different glasses to choose: the options are linked to the material, shape and appearance (2). Since the choice of a particular type of vessel could affect how the wine is perceived during consumption, many researchers have investigated the effect of different glass materials, colours and shapes on the perceived aroma, taste and flavour of wines (6)(7)(8)(9)(10)(11)(12)(13). For what concerns the perception of aroma, taste and flavour of wines served from differently shaped and sized glasses, the results of the available researches are contradictory. ...
An experimental research was developed to individuate the possible correlations occurring among the evaporation rates of different wines (full-bodied red, rosé and white) and the geometrical parameters or their mathematical combinations of six different glasses. The results clearly evidenced the possibility to relate the evaporation rate of a wine with some dimensionless parameters deriving from the linear combination of the geometrical characteristics of the glasses. Moreover, it was possible to individuate a mathematical model relating the evaporation rates with the dimensionless parameters which could be usefully utilized to design new glasses able to enhance the evaporation rates of wines. This may enable consumers to fully perceive the "bouquet" of a wine, which represents a key component of its organoleptic qualities.
... Glass shape ("beaker", "tulip" vs "bulbous") was found to influence the hedonic ratings given by untrained panelists to white and red wine aroma, but no such effect was apparent when visual and tactile cues were removed. 26,27 In contrast, a recent study found glass shape ...
The relative proportion of water and ethanol present in alcoholic beverages can significantly influence our perception of wine sensory attributes. This study therefore investigated changes in wine ethanol concentration due to evaporation from wine glasses. The ethanol content of commercial wines exposed to ambient conditions whilst in wine glasses was monitored over time. No change in wine ethanol content was observed where glasses were covered with plastic lids, but where glasses were not covered, evaporation had a significant impact on wine ethanol content, with losses from 0.9 to 1.9% alcohol by volume observed for wines that received direct exposure to airflow for 2 hours. Evaporation also resulted in decreases in the concentration of some fermentation volatiles (determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) and a perceptible change in wine aroma. The shape and volume of wine glasses was found to influence evaporation of ethanol. Ethanol evaporated more quickly from wine in certain glasses, which was likely due to increased wine glass opening diameter. The ethanol concentration of wine was found to decrease significantly over time as a consequence of evaporation. The rate of ethanol loss was strongly influenced by exposure to airflow (i.e. from the laboratory air-conditioning unit), together with glass shape and volume. This is the first study to demonstrate the significant potential for ethanol evaporation from wine in wine glasses. Research findings have important implications for the technical evaluation of wine sensory properties; in particular, informal sensory trials and wine show judging, where the use of covers on wine glasses is not standard practice.
... When we drink, we nearly always come into direct contact with the receptacles—the glasses, cups, mugs, cans, and bottles—in which those drinks are contained and/or served. In chapter " Assessing the Influence of the Drinking Receptacle on the Perception of the Contents, " the evidence concerning how the shape of the receptacle influences people's perception of the likely taste/flavor of a drink is reviewed (Cliff, 2001; Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003; Russell, Zivanovic, Morris, Penfield, & Weiss, 2005). It turns out that the drinking vessel can affect everything from a consumer's hedonic response to a beverage through to how refreshing they find it. ...
Multisensory Flavor Perception: From Fundamental Neuroscience Through to the Marketplace provides state-of-the-art coverage of the latest insights from the rapidly-expanding world of multisensory flavor research. The book highlights the various types of crossmodal interactions, such as sound and taste, and vision and taste, showing their impact on sensory and hedonic perception, along with their consumption in the context of food and drink. The chapters in this edited volume review the existing literature, also explaining the underlying neural and psychological mechanisms which lead to crossmodal perception of flavor. The book brings together research which has not been presented before, making it the first book in the market to cover the literature of multisensory flavor perception by incorporating the latest in psychophysics and neuroscience. Authored by top academics and world leaders in the field Takes readers on a journey from the neurological underpinnings of multisensory flavor perception, then presenting insights that can be used by food companies to create better flavor sensations for consumers Offers a wide perspective on multisensory flavor perception, an area of rapidly expanding knowledge.
... However, the physical properties of the package can also have a direct effect on sensory perception. For instance, the shape of a container might affect flavor release (Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Huttenbrink, 2003;Spence & Wan, 2015) and the migration of compounds from the packaging material into the food may produce off-flavors (Janssens, Diekema, Reitsma, & Linssen, 1995). In addition, the shape and size of a container (Raghubir & Krishna, 1999;Wansink, 1996;Wansink & Van Ittersum, 2003) and the magnitude of the opening in the container (Farleigh, Shepherd, & Wharf, 1990;Greenfield, Maples, & Wills, 1983;Greenfield, Smith, & Wills, 1984) affect the amount that is consumed. ...
The perception of sensory information constitutes the starting point for how a product is experienced: from the cognitive associations and meanings it evokes, whether it is pleasing or not, through to the emotional responses it may activate, and any actions it triggers. Food products are unique in that our interactions with them may involve all of the senses. Experiences with food products are inherently dynamic, implying that modalities may play different roles in various stages of user–product interactions.
... Following on from this observation, one might wonder if a change in the feel of a container would also affect people's evaluation of the product within. Everyday experience certainly suggests that this might be the case: Think of how different it feels to drink wine from a plastic cup as opposed to from a wine glass (see McCarthy, 2006; see also Hummel et al., 2003;Wansink & van Ittersum, 2005). Looking again at the innovative conceptual drinks packaging highlighted in Figure 1, one might ask whether fruit drinks might not taste "fruitier" when served in containers whose texture matched the identity of the drink within. ...
... The shape of the glass seems to influence the perception of wine flavours [49], both for its alleged influence on the stratification and segregation of evaporated aromas and for its effect on the motion of the swirled wine. Hence it is not surprising that a large amount of shapes aiming at increasing the volatilization of aromas has been produced. ...
... Since the choice for a particular type of vessel could affect how the drink, and so on the wine, is perceived during consumption, many researchers have investigated the effect of varying the material, color and shape of the glass on the perceived aroma, taste and flavor of wine (Cliff, 2001;Delwiche e Pelchat, 2002;Hummel et al., 2003;Russel et al. 2005;Venturi et al., 2009;Shifferstein, 2009;Hirson et al., 2012). According to the more traditional physiological/chemical interpretation, different glass-shapes release different amount of volatile organic compounds from the wine's surface (Spence et al., 2012), therefore the glass shape may lend to a difference in flavor perception through changes in exposure areas (Delwiche and Pelchat, 2002) and the phenomena of evaporation, surface tension and capillarity could potentially be very different in different glasses (Peynaud, 2004, Vilanova and Vidal, 2008, Liger-Belair et al., 2012. ...
The FBS model describes theoretically the design process of a product. Only few papers present real industrial case studies, which are generally finalized to illustrate theoretical concepts. The aim of this paper is to show a methodology and its testing on the design of new tasting glasses, based both on the FBS model and on experimental analysis. This is an interesting theme in the food design area. Indeed a tasting glass is the interface used to convey wine characteristics to human senses (sight, taste and smell). The glass influence on the evolution of sensory perception of wine is not fully understood and rarely evaluated. The analysis is composed of: (i) an experimental activity to understand the evolution of sensory profiles of a well-structured red wine maintained in different types of glasses through expert testers, (ii) the selection of one of the most important function carried on by the product, and therefore the study of the related behaviours, (iii) the identification of the correlation between the behaviours and the design parameters of the glass. Finally a method and tools to extract and measure the geometrical feature of the glass are presented.
... Importantly, the shape of the glass has also been shown to influence how people rate the smell and/or taste/flavour of wine (see Spence, 2011, for a review). For instance, many studies have demonstrated that if one can see and/or physically interact with a wine glass, the glass's size, shape, weight, and colour can all influence the rating of the taste and/or flavour of its contents (e.g., Fischer & Loewe-Stanienda, 1999;Hummel, Delwiche, Schmidt, & Hüttenbrink, 2003;Vilanova, Vidal, & Cortés, 2008). However, the influence of the glassware on the consumer's perception of the contents appears to be more psychological than necessarily chemical/ physical in origin (Spence, 2011;. ...
... Glass shape, and especially its open aperture, is therefore also suspected to play an important role as concerns the kinetics of CO 2 and flavor release during champagne tasting. From the taster's point of view, the perception of wine flavors was indeed found to be influenced by glass shape [11,12]. From the consumer point of view, the role of effervescence is indeed essential in champagne, sparkling wines, beers, and to a great extent, in any other carbonated beverage [13][14][15]. ...
Purpose
– Very recently, driven by glassmakers and champagne houses, attention has been paid to the way to control effervescence and bubble nucleation. It was demonstrated that ascending bubbles act like many swirling motion generators in champagne glasses. It is the reason why a numerical modeling of flow dynamics induced by the effervescence in a glass of champagne has been carried out for the first time using the finite volume method by Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The paper aims to discuss these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
– In order to define source terms for flow regime and to reproduce accurately the nucleation process at the origin of effervescence, specific subroutines for the gaseous phase have been added to the main numerical model. These subroutines allow the modeling of bubbles behavior based on semi-empirical formulas relating to bubble diameter and velocity or mass transfer evolutions.
Findings
– Details and development of the steps of modeling are presented in this paper, showing a good agreement between the results obtained by CFD simulations in a reference case of those from laser tomography and Particle Image Velocimetry experiments, validating the present model.
Originality/value
– A numerical modeling of flow dynamics induced by the effervescence in a glass of champagne has been carried out for the first time using the finite volume method by CFD.
Wine sensory analysis is primarily aimed as determining if one or more wines are statistically distinguishable, to what degree, and for what reasons. Ideally these data can assist grape growers and winemakers in producing better wines, more suited to the tastes of their consumers. To do so, tasters are used as substitute analytical instruments. Thus, much effort is spent training and selection taste panels, since any one individual is likely to be consistently adequate in all situations. Equally, it is critical that tasting be conducted under conditions that exclude as much as possible contextual and psychological influences from biasing perception. Although the tasting conditions appropriate for experimental analysis are divorced from those under which consumers taste wines, the purpose of sensory analysis is not directly related to wine appreciation or commercial ranking. Sensory analysis is aimed at understanding the origins of wine quality—features useful to wine producers.
Purpose
This paper is aimed at examining and critically analyzing systematical literature on wine and cross-modality between the five senses. In particular, the researchers want to highlight the role of multisensory analysis on wine marketing and consumer behavior studies.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper is based on a systematic review of literature conducted on peer-reviewed journals.
Findings
Results highlight how multisensory analysis of wine is a growing topic insomuch that research on this kind of topic is exploded in the last years. Nevertheless, wine and cross-modality is more analyzed on food science journals than in marketing ones.
Originality/value
The paper examines a field of research moderately explored in order to shed light to the current status of scientific studies and to propose new research questions to develop.
Consommateurs éclairés, attentifs aux objets exclusifs de la dégustation, comme professionnels du monde du vin, de la gastronomie et de l’œnotourisme attendent du verre à vin une polyvalence accrue. Disposer d’un verre par couleur, cépage ou appellation est révolu car en décalage avec nos modes de vie et nos circonstances de consommation et souvent incompatible avec les contraintes économiques ou organisationnelles que connaissent les professionnels de la filière.
Néanmoins, le verre continue de véhiculer une image qualitative et reste un vecteur incontournable pour permettre aux vins d’exprimer leurs caractéristiques sensorielles, principalement visuelles et olfactives. Plusieurs paramètres géométriques du verre comme ses diamètres d’ouverture et d’épaule (la section la plus large du verre), la forme et la hauteur de son calice, son volume, peuvent influencer la nature et l’intensité des sensations perçues par le dégustateur, à propos de vins tranquilles comme de vins effervescents [1 ; 2]. L’impact de la forme du verre, prise ici au sens large, sur les ressentis qu’ont des dégustateurs de vins, est au cœur de cette étude inédite qui conjugue argumentaire scientifique, arts de la table, gastronomie et développement économique d’une jeune société, Sydonios, qui s’est lancée le défi de proposer une nouvelle marque de verres dans un environnement pourtant concurrentiel et qui compte assoir sa crédibilité sur la démarche scientifique mise au service de cette nouvelle offre. Sept prototypes ont été dessinés et conçus sur dires d’experts en référence aux principaux critères géométriques évoqués précédemment puis testés par évaluation sensorielle. Leur conception s’est fondée non seulement sur l’esthétique mais également sur le ratio entre le diamètre maximum et le diamètre d’ouverture [3 ; 4]. Ces verres soufflés bouche, 100 % cristal sans plomb, voulus fins et légers, élaborés dans la plus pure tradition des maîtres verriers, ont vocation à se positionner sur le segment pré-luxe. Ils sont destinés à mettre en valeur les vins de propriétés, qu’ils soient dégustés sur site ou présents à la carte de bars à vins et de restaurants étoilés, en France et dans le Monde.
L’objectif de l’étude était de faire émerger des adéquations entre designs de verre et typologies de vin. Six vins, codés de 1 à 6, de profils très différents (un vin rouge riche et charpenté, un vin rouge sur la finesse, un vin blanc aromatique, un vin blanc moelleux, un vin rosé et un vin effervescent) ont été dégustés dans chacun des sept verres, codés de A à G, selon un plan d’expérience global établi sur des permutations lettres x chiffres pour écarter les effets d’ordre et de report. 71 professionnels de la filière viti-vinicole française ont participé à des séances d’évaluation sensorielle qui se sont déroulées sur quatre sites (Paris, Bordeaux, Champagne, Sancerre). Il était demandé aux dégustateurs d’évaluer la précision et l’adéquation du nez par rapport à la bouche. Les vins servis dans les sept verres (60 ml par verre), étaient présentés aléatoirement l’un après l’autre pour permettre à chaque dégustateur de positionner les verres sur une échelle linéaire non structurée propre à chaque vin. Un ensemble de 2 982 mesures, converties ensuite en notes comprises entre 0 et 10 ou en rangs, ont permis d’évaluer statistiquement les effets verre, vin, dégustateur, site de dégustation, le tout avec interactions. Il s’avère que deux verres se sont distingués significativement des cinq autres, l’un adapté au vin rouge riche et charpenté (baptisé R. 1,3), l’autre plus universel (baptisé R. 1,4).
L’objectif était donc atteint : resserrer la gamme autour d’une sélection étayée scientifiquement et segmenter l’offre. Fort de ce résultat, le temps du développement économique et commercial du porteur de projet a sonné. L’enjeu de la campagne de communication est désormais d’intégrer habilement les ressorts scientifiques de l’étude pour capter l’attention des professionnels, des prescripteurs et des réseaux de distribution comme relais de croissance et de visibilité.
Fruits d’un processus scientifique intégré au service d’un jeune acteur économique au carrefour entre gastronomie, arts de la table et œnotourisme, deux verres Sydonios sont aujourd’hui réalité. Ils marient performance œnologique, élégance et finesse. Dans cette présentation, l’accent sera mis sur la démarche scientifique développée et sur ses retombées au bénéfice de ce nouvel acteur de la filière.
The principal goal of the previous chapters has been to discuss the means by which quality wine is produced. This chapter discusses the origins of how that quality is detected and assessed. For a better appreciation of the subtleties of wine, how the various visual, gustatory, and olfactory attributes of wine are detected is examined. This also includes a discussion of how the neuronal impulses activated are transmitted, modified, and integrated into our conscious perceptions. The importance of experience and environmental factors in the generation of odor memory patterns is highlighted, and its relevance to fair and honest wine assessment is emphasized. This is followed by an exploration of: the optimal physical and psychological conditions for wine assessment; the various means of data collection and analysis; assessor training and evaluation; wine language; and a detailed wine-tasting technique.
To explore how contextual information streams are processed and prioritized during consumer studies, we manipulated the congruency of visual, auditory and olfactory cues using immersive technologies and assessed the impact on context recall, evaluation time, and preference and liking for cold brewed coffee. Each consumer (n = 50) was exposed to two identical control conditions, a visually incongruent condition, an auditory incongruent condition, an olfactory incongruent condition, and an all-incongruent condition. The control condition simulated a coffeehouse environment complete with the sights, sounds and smells commonly experienced in that venue. A laboratory setting, construction noise, and laundry detergent represented the individual incongruent visual, auditory, and aroma streams, respectively. Results revealed that olfactory information had a lesser priority than visual or auditory information in the simulated environments when assessed by subject's ability to recall encountered information streams. Panelists also spent more time evaluating coffees in the first presented control condition compared to the incongruent conditions or the repeated control condition. Finally, although the averaged combined liking score for subjects' least to most preferred coffees was significantly lowered in the all-incongruent condition compared to the control condition, this decrease was not substantial. Understanding how the saliency of contextual information influences consumer behavior and attention can inform immersive testing methodologies.
This chapter considers the evolution of discrete time-intensity (DTI) among the broader class of time-intensity (TI) methods, looking at DTI applications across multiple product categories and the difficult trade-offs faced when making decisions about method selection and the impact of test protocols, technical considerations and consequences. A variation of time-intensity (TI) scaling, discrete TI (DTI) involves rating of single or multiple sensory attributes at discrete points in time. The chapter covers a few case studies that highlight applied use of the DTI method. Measurement of product quality, establishment of product specifications, shelf life and consumer acceptance throughout consumption are some of the most common uses for DTI methods. Fresh, refrigerated, canned, frozen and shelf-stable bakery and beverage foods are candidates for investigation in DTI studies, where it is applicable for examining aspects of storage, preparation and consumption.
Wine sensory analysis is primarily aimed at determining if one or more wines are statistically distinguishable, to what degree, and for what reasons. Ideally these data can assist grape growers and winemakers in producing better wines, more suited to the tastes of their consumers. To do so, tasters are used as substitute analytical instruments. Thus, much effort is spent training and selecting taste panels, since any one individual is unlikely to be consistently adequate in all situations. Equally, it is critical that tasting be conducted under conditions that exclude as much as possible contextual and psychological influences from biasing perception. Although the tasting conditions appropriate for experimental analysis are divorced from those under which consumers taste wines, the purpose of sensory analysis is not directly related to wine appreciation or commercial ranking. Sensory analysis is aimed at understanding the origins of wine quality, features useful to wine producers.
As the choice of the drinkware could deeply affect consumer perception during beverage consumption, an experimental research was carried out by expert testers to investigate the evolution of chemical–physical and sensory profiles of a typical rosé wine maintained in different types of glasses. The aim of this research was to select some parameters to well correlate beverage sensory properties with glass characteristics which can be used for drinkware design. The different sensorial profiles, obtained as a function of the geometric characteristics of glasses, were compared with one another. In order to find any significant parameter useful to represent the time evolution of the wine inside each vessel, the wine poured in all glasses was also characterized at different times from a chemical and physical point of view. As the design parameters are now guided more by aesthetic reasons rather than by functional ones, this new ‘integrated approach’, deriving from the merging of chemical, physical and sensorial data, can be used to design the optimum vessel for the enjoyment of the consumer during assessing sessions. This innovative procedure could be easily adapted for every beverage such as fruit juices, sparkling wines or beer.
It is known that visual, auditory, and tactile modalities affect the experiences of eating and drinking. One such example is the 'glug' sound and vibration from a Japanese sake bottle when pouring liquid. Previous studies have modeled the wave of the vibration by summation of two decaying sinusoidal waves with different frequencies; we examined the validity of this model by subjective evaluation. Furthermore, to enrich expression of various types of liquid, we included two new properties of liquid: the viscosity and the residual amount of liquid, both based on recorded data.
A simple glass of champagne or sparkling wine may seem like the acme of frivolity to most of people, but in fact it may rather be considered as a fantastic playground for any fluid physicist or physicochemist. In this tutorial review, some recent investigations on ascending bubble driven flow patterns found in various champagne glasses, and their impact on gaseous carbon dioxide and ethanol release under standard tasting conditions, are reported. Ascending bubble driven flow patterns found in the bulk of various glasses were evidenced, through laser tomography techniques, which illustrate the fine interplay between ascending bubbles and the fluid around. Moreover, spontaneous and self-organised two-dimensional convective cells were also evidenced at the air/champagne interface. In addition, the simultaneous monitoring of gaseous CO2 and ethanol in the headspace of both a flute and coupe filled with champagne was reported, depending on whether or not the glass shows effervescence. Both gaseous CO2 and ethanol were found to be enhanced by the presence of ascending bubbles, thus confirming the close link between ascending bubbles, ascending bubble driven flow patterns, and the release of gaseous CO2 and volatile organic compounds.
The relationship between glass shape and chemical composition of the glass headspace and the relationship between glass shape and sensory characteristics were investigated for a Gerwurztraminer wine in five glass shapes (white wine glass. Bordeaux red wine glass, red wine glass. INAO wine tasting glass, and Erlenmeyer glass) over three equilibration times (0, 5, and 10 minutes). The headspace composition above a wineglass was found to vary significantly with glass shape, equilibration time, and the interaction between glass shape and equilibration time. Glass shape parameters were better correlated with headspace chemical composition at longer equilibration times compared to shorter times. Aroma sensory descriptor intensities were found to vary significantly for glass shapes at different equilibration times. Despite these significant effects, no correlations between shape parameters (such as capacity, height, opening diameter, maximum diameter, D ratio, and fill volume) and aroma sensory descriptor intensities were found. Glass shape had little influence on aroma intensity at zero minutes of equilibration but had more impact at 5 and 10 minutes of equilibration. The Bordeaux and INAO glasses enhanced fruitiness and total aroma intensity at longer equilibration times, while the red wine glass enhanced the hot, ethanol character. We have observed both sensory and chemical evidence that a wine in a glass does indeed qualitatively and quantitatively change, or "open up," over a 10-min period.
Olfaction involves a dual sensory process for perceiving odors orthonasally (through the nostrils) and retronasally (through the mouth). This investigation entailed developing a measure of sensitivity to an odor delivered in an orally sampled food (orange flavoring in a sucrose-sweetened gelatin) and examining sensitivity in the elderly. In experiment 1, olfactory flavor sensitivity was 49 times lower in elderly (n = 21) than in young (n = 28) subjects. In experiment 2, with 73 elderly women, higher olfactory flavor sensitivity correlated significantly with higher orthonasal perception (Connecticut Chemosensory Clinical Research Center test). Some women, however, exhibited low olfactory flavor sensitivity despite high orthonasal perception; none had high olfactory flavor sensitivity and low orthonasal perception. Those who wore complete or palatal covering dentures had lower olfactory flavor sensitivity than those who were dentate or wore dentures that did not cover the palate. Through multiple regression analysis, orthonasal perception and denture status were found to be independent contributors to predicting olfactory flavor sensitivity. In summary, elderly subjects showed depressed olfactory flavor sensitivity (i.e. retronasal sensitivity) that related to poor orthonasal olfactory perception and denture characteristic. Thus, while good orthonasal olfaction may be necessary for good olfactory flavor sensitivity, it is not sufficient. Other factors, some associated with oral conditions, may impede release and retronasal transport of odors from the mouth to the olfactory receptors.
Selective adaptation has been used to evaluate receptor specificity in olfaction on the assumption that exposure to 1 stimulus will inhibit or cross-adapt the olfactory system to similar stimuli. It is theoretically possible that a stimulus could also facilitate or enhance the sensitivity to another stimulus, although this has not been demonstrated. Evidence for such facilitation in odor detection measured as a change in the human neonate's respiration is shown. It is hypothesized that facilitation may be explained in terms of the solubility of the odorants. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The functional anatomy of perceptual and semantic processings for odors was studied using positron emission tomography (PET). The first experiment was a pretest in which 71 normal subjects were asked to rate 185 odorants in terms of intensity, familiarity, hedonicity, and comestibility and to name the odorants. This pretest was necessary to select the most appropriate stimuli for the different cognitive tasks of the second experiment. The second one was a PET experiment in which 15 normal subjects were scanned using the water bolus method to measure regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) during the performance in three conditions. In the first (perceptual) condition, subjects were asked to judge whether an odor was familiar or not. In the second (semantic) condition, subjects had to decide whether an odor corresponded to a comestible item or not. In the third (detection) condition, subjects had to judge whether the perceived stimulus was made of an odor or was just air. It was hypothetized that the three tasks were hierarchically organized from a superficial detection level to a deep semantic level. Odorants were presented with an air-flow olfactometer, which allowed the stimulations to be synchronized with breathing. Subtraction of activation images obtained between familiarity and control judgments revealed that familiarity judgments were mainly associated with the activity of the right orbito-frontal area, the subcallosal gyrus, the left inferior frontal gyrus, the left superior frontal gyrus, and the anterior cingulate (Brodmann's areas 11, 25, 47, 9, and 32, respectively). The comestibility minus familiarity comparison showed that comestibility judgments selectively activated the primary visual areas. In contrast, a decrease in rCBF was observed in these same visual areas for familiarity judgments and in the orbito-frontal area for comestibility judgments. These results suggest that orbito-frontal and visual regions interact in odor processing in a complementary way, depending on the task requirements.
Olfaction involves a dual sensory process for perceiving odors orthonasally (through the nostrils) and retronasally (through the mouth). This investigation entailed developing a measure of sensitivity to an odor delivered in an orally sampled food (orange flavoring in a sucrose-sweetened gelatin) and examining sensitivity in the elderly. In experiment 1, olfactory flavor sensitivity was 49 times lower in elderly (n = 21) than in young (n = 28) subjects. In experiment 2, with 73 elderly women, higher olfactory flavor sensitivity correlated significantly with higher orthonasal perception (Connecticut Chemosensory Clinical Research Center test). Some women, however, exhibited low olfactory flavor sensitivity despite high orthonasal perception; none had high olfactory flavor sensitivity and low orthonasal perception. Those who wore complete or palatal covering dentures had lower olfactory flavor sensitivity than those who were dentate or wore dentures that did not cover the palate. Through multiple regression analysis, orthonasal perception and denture status were found to be independent contributors to predicting olfactory flavor sensitivity. In summary, elderly subjects showed depressed olfactory flavor sensitivity (i.e. retronasal sensitivity) that related to poor orthonasal olfactory perception and denture characteristic. Thus, while good orthonasal olfaction may be necessary for good olfactory flavor sensitivity, it is not sufficient. Other factors, some associated with oral conditions, may impede release and retronasal transport of odors from the mouth to the olfactory receptors.
Using representative members of each of three homologous series of chemicals—ketones, acetates and alcohols—we measured nasal
pungency thresholds in anosmics via two stimulus-delivery systems. The first system consists of the fairly commonly used 270
ml, plastic ‘squeeze bottles’. The second system consists of 1900 ml, glass vessels with Teflon tubing and nose-pieces. Although
bulkier and more susceptible to mechanical breakage, the glass vessels possess advantages that can allow them to provide ‘environmentally
realistic’ chemosensory thresholds, i.e. thresholds closer in absolute values to those that might be obtained under whole-body
exposures. Such advantages include a larger volume of the vapor-source to accommodate whole sniffs, and a tight nose–nose-piece
connection to avoid stimulus dilution. The outcome revealed that, for every chemical, the glass vessels provided nasal pungency
thresholds significantly lower than those provided by the squeeze bottles. The difference amounted, on average, to a factor
of 4.6, though the relative potency of the compounds remained the same under both systems. Additionally, when tested with
the highest homologues used here, namely, octyl acetate and 1-octanol, anosmics using the glass vessels had little or no difficulty
achieving the criterion for threshold whereas they did have difficulty when using the squeeze bottles. See full article at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/1j54h0mb
"Sniffin' Sticks" is a test of nasal chemosensory performance that is based on penlike odor-dispensing devices. It is comprised of three tests of olfactory function: tests for odor threshold, discrimination and identification. Previous work has already established its test-retest reliability and validity in comparison to established measures of olfactory sensitivity. The results of this test are presented as a composite TDI score--i.e., the sum of results obtained for threshold, discrimination and identification measures. The present multicenter investigation aimed at providing normative values in relation to different age groups. To this end, 966 patients were investigated in 11 centers. An additional study tried to establish values for the identification of anosmic patients, with 70 anosmics investigated in five specialized centers where the presence of anosmia was confirmed by means of olfactory evoked potentials. For healthy subjects, the TDI score at the 10th percentile was 24.5 in subjects younger than 15 years, 30.3 for ages from 16 to 35 years, 28.8 for ages from 36 to 55 years and 27.5 for subjects older than 55 years. While these data can be used to estimate individual olfactory abilities in relation to a subject's age, hyposmia was defined as the 10th percentile score of 16- to 35-year-old subjects. Our latter study revealed that none of 70 anosmics reached a TDI score higher than 15. This score of 15 is regarded as the cut-off value for functional anosmia. These results provide the basis for the routine clinical evaluation of patients with olfactory disorders using "Sniffin' Sticks."
The hedonic tone (pleasantness-unpleasantness) of an air pollution odor depends on its character and influences how annoying the odor may be. In the context of air pollution, both unpleasant and pleasant odors may become objectionable, while this is less likely for hedonically neutral odors. A profile of an odor consists of a list of odor descriptors and ratings of the applicabilities of each of the descriptors to the odor being characterized. The working hypothesis was that each of the descriptors can be assigned its own hedonic connotation (tone) from very pleasant, through neutral, to the very unpleasant. The hedonic tones of the descriptors could then be combined with the descriptor applicability percentages over the entire profile, producing a profile-derived hedonic index. The data that were used were profiles of odors and the hedonic ratings of the same odors made directly upon smelling these odors, obtained independently of the study.
When Fechner (1860/1966) introduced the new transdisciplinary research program of “Psychophysik”,his goal was to present a scientific method of studying the relations between body and mind, or, to put it more precisely, between the physical and phenomenal worlds. The key idea underlying Fechner’s psychophysics was that body and mind are just different reflections of the same reality. From an external, objective viewpoint we speak of processes in the brain (i.e., of bodily processes). Considering the same processes from an internalized, subjective viewpoint, we can speak of processes of the mind. In suggesting that processes of the brain are directly reflected in processes of the mind, Fechner anticipated one of the main goals of modern neuroscience, which is to establish correlations between neuronal (objective) and perceptual (subjective) events.
Differences in the physical shape of glasses could potentially influence proportions of aromatic compounds trapped in the headspace of a wine glass, altering the perception of a wine. Blindfolded, naïve subjects assessed the aroma of a California Cabernet Sauvignon presented in 4 different glasses. Two of these were from a speciality line of crystal wine glasses, one designed for Chardonnay, the other for Bordeaux/Cabernet Sauvignon. A restaurant‐style wine glass and a leaded crystal goblet were the remaining vessels used. The nonexpert judges assessed wine aroma for total intensity, fruitiness, vinegariness, oakiness, and mustiness, as well as liking.
The only significant difference found in the aroma intensity ratings was for the Bordeaux glass, which was rated as having a significantly lower total intensity than the other three glasses. However, several significant correlations were found between the attribute intensity ratings and physical characteristics of the glasses. This suggests that the glass does have a limited, but subtle, impact upon the olfactory experience of wines.
Achieving objective and quantitative measurement of experimental pain in human volunteers and establishing the impact of drugs remains a difficult task. This problem may be overcome by employing a method which allows the simultaneous measurement of pain ratings elicited by standardized stimulation of the nasal mucosa by carbon dioxide, together with pain-related chemo-somatosensory evoked potentials (CSSEP) and vigilance. We assessed the effect of pentazocine and acetylsalicylic acid on these parameters in 14 human volunteers and related the effects to the pharmacokinetic parameters of the drugs measured at the same time. Pentazocine was found to reduce the pain ratings as well as the amplitudes of the pain-related evoked potentials and to increase their latencies. Vigilance (measured by EEG power spectra and performance of a tracking task) was also significantly reduced. These effects were observed during the distribution phase and the first period of the terminal elimination phase of the drug. Acetylsalicylic acid had no significant effects on pain ratings, but reduced the amplitudes of the event-related potentials when compared to placebo controls. At the same time a slight, but significant, effect on vigilance (reduced performance of the tracking task) was observed. These effects could not be related to the presence of unmetabolized acetylsalicylic acid in the plasma. They appeared at later times when only salicylic acid was left. It is concluded that chemical stimuli of sufficient intensity produce pain which may be suppressed by opioid analgesics such as pentazocine. The effect of acetylsalicylic acid on this experimental pain did not reach significance for all measured parameters under the experimental conditions chosen. The changes in vigilance and in the amplitudes of pain-related chemo-somatosensory evoked potentials indicated as yet unknown CNS-effects of this non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
Inaug.-Diss.--Leipzig. Vita. "Sonderdruck aus: Wundt, Philosophische Studien. Bd. XVII, Hft. 4."
This study reports an investigation of smokers and non-smokers performed in order to determine differences in the olfactory
perception of the stereoisomers of nicotine; 38 subjects participated (20 smokers, 18 non-smokers). The investigated parameters
were: hedonic ratings and intensity estimates, discrimination between enantiomers, estimates of detection thresholds and the
odorous quality of nicotine enantiomers. Subjects were able to discriminate between the two stereoisomers of nicotine. Whereas
both groups reported the R(+) isomere to cause an unpleasant sensation, the S(−) isomere was perceived as pleasant by smokers,
but not by non-smokers. The differences in the hedonic ratings of S(−) nicotine between smokers and non-smokers might be due
to the smokers' experience of the pharmacological action of S(−) nicotine, which is the main isomere in cigarette smoke.
In a paired-associate paradigm using odors as stimuli and pictures for multiple-choice responses, the first of two associations to an odor was retained far better than the second over a 2-week period. The persistence of first-learned associations may be responsible for the long lasting nature of odor memories. Subjects reported constructing mediational schemes for mnemonic devices to link the odors and pictures. Latencies for a task of naming odors indicated that although naming odors is difficult, labels could be generated sufficiently fast that they could be employed as mediators in the paired-associate task. A third task investigated the phenomenon of knowing that an odor was familiar but being unable to name it. Subjects in this tip-of-the-nose state were questioned about the odor quality and the name of the odor and were given hints about the name. These subjects were found to have information available about the odor quality but none for the name as found in the tip-of-the-tongue state. However, as in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, hints given to the subjects in the tip-of-the-nose state often led to the correct name.
Current odor emission control regulations specify a syringe dilution technique to determine odor concentration level of exhaust stack emissions. This procedure in practice is cumbersome, slow, and subject to improvisations. Further, there is no satisfactory provision to check reliability of positive-negative responses of panel. An approach is desired where the diluted odor sample is presented to the panel for discrimination from samples of non-odorous air and results can be related to statistically significant confidence levels.An olfactometer based upon forced-choice triangle statistical design was designed and constructed. One diluted odor sample and two non-odorous air blanks are presented dynamically at each dilution level. Each panelist is required to judge which of three ports is odorous and to signal a choice. The three ports are arranged in a circular symmetrical pattern to achieve a double-blind sample presentation since neither panelists nor panel leader know the correct choice until after the judgment is made. Dynamically diluted stimuli are presented at constant flow in ascending concentration order, increasing by a factor of 3 per step. Three odor dilution steps are available on a continuous basis during the evaluation. Evaluation of one sample is routinely completed by a panel of 9 within less than 15 minutes. Statistical data compilation is achieved by ranking procedures to obtain the average panel odor threshold for each sample. Testing of rendering plant odor emissions resulted in a satisfactory correlation between the dynamic olfactometer and syringe dilution methods.
Achieving objective and quantitative measurement of experimental pain in human volunteers and establishing the impact of drugs remains a difficult task. This problem may be overcome by employing a method which allows the simultaneous measurement of pain ratings elicited by standardized stimulation of the nasal mucosa by carbon dioxide, together with pain-related chemo-somatosensory evoked potentials (CSSEP) and vigilance. We assessed the effect of pentazocine and acetylsalicylic acid on these parameters in 14 human volunteers and related the effects to the pharmacokinetic parameters of the drugs measured at the same time. Pentazocine was found to reduce the pain ratings as well as the amplitudes of the pain-related evoked potentials and to increase their latencies. Vigilance (measured by EEG power spectra and performance of a tracking task) was also significantly reduced. These effects were observed during the distribution phase and the first period of the terminal elimination phase of the drug. Acetylsalicylic acid had no significant effects on pain ratings, but reduced the amplitudes of the event-related potentials when compared to placebo controls. At the same time a slight, but significant, effect on vigilance (reduced performance of the tracking task) was observed. These effects could not be related to the presence of unmetabolized acetylsalicylic acid in the plasma. They appeared at later times when only salicylic acid was left. It is concluded that chemical stimuli of sufficient intensity produce pain which may be suppressed by opioid analgesics such as pentazocine. The effect of acetylsalicylic acid on this experimental pain did not reach significance for all measured parameters under the experimental conditions chosen. The changes in vigilance and in the amplitudes of pain-related chemo-somatosensory evoked potentials indicated as yet unknown CNS-effects of this non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.
The effect of expectation on the accuracy of odor judgments was studied in two ways intended to simulate factors in real life. First, the relative frequency of the presentation of the odorant versus a nonodorous substance was varied. In addition, the appearance of the substances was manipulated by coloring some of them and not coloring others. The main finding is that both of these variables affect the subjects' tendency to make the error of reporting the perception of an odor when no odorant has in fact been presented. This tendency persisted even though the subjects were given immediate information ‘feedback’ about the accuracy of each judgment. It seems to reflect a strong and apparently unconscious response bias. The results are discussed in light of contemporary psychophysical detection theory.
Time-related measurements pose some challenges to psychophysics and to applied sensory testing methods including control of psychological biases which have been found in single-point scaling. This research examined enhancement of ratings when response alternatives were limited in time-intensity scaling tasks using repeated category ratings. Panelists rated a pseudo-beverage containing sweetener and flavor and one with sweetener only over a 90-s period. The aromatic flavor caused an increase in sweetness intensity and especially so when the panelists were limited to sweetness responses only. The odor-induced enhancement of sweetness was smaller when panelists were given both flavor and sweetness response options than when the panelists were given only a sweetness scale. Prior use of both scales in a previous experimental session did not lessen the halo-dumping enhancement effect. In one study, sweetness ratings of sucrose alone were depressed when the additional scale for flavoring was provided, perhaps due to inappropriate partitioning of responses.
The pain relieving properties of imipramine (100 mg orally), tramadol (150 mg orally), and anpirtoline (60 mg orally) were compared in 16 healthy subjects in a cross-over, double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled study. Anpirtoline exhibits analgesia which is possibly mediated via serotoninergic pathways, whereas tramadol exerts its effects at opioid receptors. The pain-relieving effect of the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine may involve both serotoninergic and opioid mechanisms. Chemo-somatosensory event-related potentials (CSSERP) were recorded after painful stimulation of the nasal mucosa with carbon dioxide. Subjects rated the perceived intensity of the stimuli by means of a visual analogue scale. In addition, acoustically evoked responses were recorded, the spontaneous EEG was analyzed in the frequency domain, the subjects' vigilance was assessed in a tracking task, and side effects of the drugs were monitored. Anpirtoline and tramadol produced a decrease of both CSSERP amplitudes and subjective estimates of pain, the effects of the former compound being greater. In contrast, after administration of imipramine no change of CSSERP amplitudes could be detected, whereas the subjective estimate of pain intensity decreased significantly. This was accompanied by a significant decrease of arousal indicating that pain relief produced by acute administration of imipramine was primarily related to its sedation action. The analgesic properties of anpirtoline were demonstrated in man. Tramadol was characterized as a week opioid analgesic. In contrast, imipramine appeared to produce its pain-relieving effects predominantly by non-specific actions. It is hypothesized that different analgesics may change ERP sources in a drug-specific manner.
The present study was designed to investigate whether there is a consistent response in ongoing EEG due to repetitive olfactory
stimulation. Two odors of different hedonic quality were presented bilaterally to five male subjects at suprathreshold levels.
A room-air blank served as the control stimulus. Each odor was presented six times to each subject in each of three sessions.
Electrocortical activity, heart rate, skin conductance and breathing cycle were recorded continuously. EEG variables assessed
were difference scores of absolute power in the frequency bands theta, alpha1, alpha2 and beta1 at eight locations. Phenylethyl
alcohol was rated pleasant, while valeric acid was judged unpleasant. Within 8 s after stimulus release, valeric acid increased
alpha2 power, whereas phenylethyl alcohol did not. No further frequency bands were affected by olfactory stimulation. These
findings suggest that smelling an unpleasant odor leads to a cortical deactivation. Chem. Senses 20: 505–515, 1995.
Subjects were trained to identify by assigned number common substances presented as vapor phase stimuli via an orthonasal or a retronasal route. Following training, odorant identification learning was evaluated by measuring ability to correctly identify to a criterion. Those who met the criterion were then tested first with the stimuli presented to the nares that differed in location from the nares used in training, and second to the nares that corresponded in location to the nares used in training. It was found that, under conditions of natural retronasal breathing, orthonasally trained subjects made correct identifications on ~ 80% of the trials upon retronasal testing, but for the following orthonasal testing identifications were significantly more frequent, approaching 100% correct. After subsequent retronasal training, the same subjects' orthonasal identifications remained significantly higher, although identifications improved to ~ 92% correct on retronasal trials. Other subjects were instructed in a breathing technique designed to enhance retronasal stimulation. After orthonasal training, retronasal testing of these subjects still gave significantly fewer correct identifications than orthonasal testing, notwithstanding the modified retronasal breathing, but after subsequent retronasal training correct identifications by these subjects no longer differed significantly between orthonasal and retronasal testing. Efficacy of modified retronasal breathing was confirmed in two subsequent experiments. The observed substantial positive transfers between retronasal and orthonasal odorant identification training and testing loci demonstrate that these odorant pathways do not subserve completely independent olfactory systems, while the less accurate identifications via the retronasal route, unless instruction in retronasal breathing was given, suggest a difference in the efficiency with which odorants are normally delivered to the olfactory mucosa.
'Sniffin' Sticks' is a new test of nasal chemosensory performance based on pen-like odor dispensing devices. It comprises three tests of olfactory function, namely tests for odor threshold (n-butanol, testing by means of a single staircase), odor discrimination (16 pairs of odorants, triple forced choice) and odor identification (16 common odorants, multiple forced choice from four verbal items per test odorant). After extensive preliminary investigations the tests were applied to a group of 104 healthy volunteers (52 female, 52 male, mean age 49.5 years, range 18-84 years) in order to establish test-retest reliability and to compare them with an established measure of olfactory performance (the Connecticut Chemosensory Clinical Research Center Test, CCCRC). Performance decreased with increasing age of the subjects (P < 0.001). Coefficients of correlation between sessions 1 and 2 were 0.61 for thresholds, 0.54 for discrimination and 0.73 for identification. Butanol thresholds as obtained with the CCCRC increased as a function of age; this relation to the subjects' age was not found for the CCCRC odor identification task. The test-retest reliability for CCCRC thresholds was 0.36, for odor identification it was 0.60. It is concluded that 'Sniffin' Sticks' may be suited for the routine clinical assessment of olfactory performance.
Results of this study demonstrated that a new olfactory test, the "Sniffin' Sticks," can be used to distinguish hyposmic patients with chronic sinusitis (n = 63) from control subjects. Dirhinic testing yielded improved olfactory sensitivity compared with monorhinic testing. However, dirhinic results were not significantly different from results obtained for the best nostril.
Studies investigating fine details of gustatory coding in the domain of each basic taste quality have been completed for sweet, salt, and sour stimuli. In the present experiment, we used chemicals that humans describe as predominantly bitter. We recorded the activity of 50 taste neurons in insular cortex of two cynomolgus macaques. Stimuli were water, fruit juice, glucose, NaCl, HCl, and 16 bitter solutions. In a multidimensional taste space the 16 bitter stimuli formed a coherent cluster composed of three main subgroups: (1) QHCl, phenylalanine, theophylline, caffeine, propyl-thiouracil (PROP), and phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), all of which humans describe as rather purely bitter, (2) MgCl2, CaCl2, NH4Cl, and arginine, which humans describe as salty-bitter, and (3) urea, cysteine, and vitamin B1, which are described as sour-bitter. Vitamin B2, histidine and nicotine were in the center of the bitter cluster. Human descriptions of taste qualities conformed well to the presumed quality of each stimulus as inferred from its position in the multidimensional space (MDS), reinforcing the use of the macaque as a neural model for human gustation.
Lateralized vs. bilateral measurement of olfactory thresholds: comparison of two methods
- Soiffer
Soiffer, A., Doty, R. L., & Hummel, T. (1998). Lateralized vs. bilateral measurement of olfactory thresholds: comparison of two methods. Chemical Senses, 22, 799.