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Comparison of injuries in sows housed in gestation stalls versus group pens with electronic sow feeders
Abstract
To compare the location and severity of injuries in pregnant sows housed in individual gestation stalls with that in pregnant sows housed in dynamic groups in pens with electronic sow feeders.
Prospective study.
100 pregnant sows of parity 1 to 3 and various body weights.
Fifty sows each were randomly allotted to gestation stalls or group pens with electronic sow feeders. Injuries were scored on the basis of location, number, and depth of wounds. Injury scores for sows in both housing systems were compared during a period of 90 days. The influence of factors such as duration of stay in the housing system, parity, and body weight on sow injuries was also examined.
Injury scores were higher in group pens with electronic sow feeders. As body weight increased, injury scores decreased for sows housed in group pens with electronic sow feeders and increased for sows housed in gestation stalls. There was a significant negative association between second parity and total injury scores.
Modifications in housing system design and management procedures are needed to reduce injuries in pregnant sows.
... Monitoring injuries is a useful method of assessing well-being in sows [1]. For sows housed in stalls increased body weight has been shown to increase injuries, but for group housed sows an increase in body weight may decrease injury frequency [1]. ...
... Monitoring injuries is a useful method of assessing well-being in sows [1]. For sows housed in stalls increased body weight has been shown to increase injuries, but for group housed sows an increase in body weight may decrease injury frequency [1]. Sow injuries to the feet, vulva and shoulders have been reported in multiple studies [1]- [6], thus identifying strategies to minimize injuries is an important aspect of enhancing sow well-being. ...
... For sows housed in stalls increased body weight has been shown to increase injuries, but for group housed sows an increase in body weight may decrease injury frequency [1]. Sow injuries to the feet, vulva and shoulders have been reported in multiple studies [1]- [6], thus identifying strategies to minimize injuries is an important aspect of enhancing sow well-being. ...
The objective was to determine the association between foot, leg, vulva and shoulder lesions with body condition and reproduction in group housed sows. Whiteline sows (n = 887) were measured before farrowing and at weaning at a commercial farm in eastern North Carolina. Foot and leg abnormalities included cracked hooves, toe length differences, overgrown hooves and loco-motion. Vulva lesions were scored no lesion or lesion present. Shoulder le-sions were scored no lesion, abrasion or open wound. Sow body condition measures included the Knauer sow caliper (CS), body weight (WT), visual body condition score (BCS), backfat (BF) and longissimus muscle area (LMA). Sow production traits included number born alive, litter birth weight, number weaned, litter weaning weight, piglet survival (number weaned ÷ (total number born + net transfer)), wean-to-conception interval and average daily lactation feed intake. Data were analyzed in SAS using PROC GLM for continuous traits and PROC GLIMMIX for categorical traits. Vulva lesions were recorded on 17.6% of sows at farrowing and 0% at weaning. No shoulder lesions, abrasions and open wounds were recorded on 100%, 0% and 0%, respectively, of sows at farrowing and 73%, 21% and 6%, respectively, at weaning. Foot and leg abnormalities were not associated with body condition or reproduction. Vulva lesions at farrowing were associated with lower CS, WT, BCS and BF at farrowing, and reduced piglet survival (4.3%). Lower CS at farrowing was associated with increased shoulder abrasions and open wounds at weaning. Backfat and BCS at farrowing had curvilinear associations with shoulder lesions at weaning, a BF of 39 mm and a BCS of 4.2 minimizing le-sions. Results suggest vulva and shoulder lesions were associated with thinner sows at farrowing and vulva lesions at farrowing were associated with lower piglet survival.
... Gestation stalls were banned in the European Union in January 2013. Although loose housing offers more freedom of movement and space, studies indicate that aggression and injury can be serious problems in these systems (Broom et al., 1995;Anil et al., 2003). These issues contribute to the problem of claw lesions (Spoolder et al., 2009) and lameness in loose-housed sows (Kroneman et al., 1993b). ...
... In agreement with many studies, loose-housed sows had greater body lesion scores than stall-housed sows on the day of transfer to the farrowing crates (Gjein and Larssen, 1995;Anil et al., 2003;Harris et al., 2006). This was expected as it reflected the aggression that the loosehoused sows were exposed to at each remixing. ...
... 10 d postpartum rowing crate was similar for all sows regardless of their gestation accommodation but, in accordance with Anil et al. (2003), the risk was higher in heavier sows. Most of the body lesions recorded during lactation were superficial scratches caused by the crate fixtures and fittings. ...
This study evaluated the influence of housing system during gestation and floor type during lactation on the welfare and lying-down behavior of lactating sows. Multiparous sows (n = 85) were housed either in individual gestation stalls (n = 42) or loose (n = 43) in a single dynamic group with 2 electronic sow feeders moved to farrowing crates on either slatted steel (n = 48) or cast-iron (n = 37) flooring. Lameness (0 = normal to 5 = severely lame) was scored on transfer to the farrowing crate (-5 d). Limb and body lesions were recorded on -5 d, 24 h after entering the farrowing crate (-4 d), 10 d postpartum, and prior to weaning. Claw lesions were recorded on -5 d and prior to weaning, whereas all behavioral observations were made on -5, -4, and 10 d. Median (Me) scores were calculated for claw, body and limb lesions, and classified as either less than or equal to the Me or greater than the Me lesion scores. Sows were classified as non-lame (≤ 1) or lame (≥ 2). Loose-housed sows had an increased (P < 0.01) risk of lameness, a reduced (P < 0.05) risk for claw lesions, particularly white line damage, horizontal wall cracks, and dewclaw injuries, and a reduced (P < 0.05) risk for calluses and bursitis on the limbs compared to stall-housed sows. Sows housed on cast-iron floors during lactation had a reduced (P < 0.01) risk for heel overgrowth and erosion and heel-sole cracks compared with sows on slatted steel floors. There was no (P > 0.05) association between flooring type during lactation and body lesion score. On -4 d, loose-housed sows had a shorter latency to lie-down (P < 0.01), spent more time inactive (P < 0.05) and shifted weight between the limbs more often (P = 0.05) while standing compared with stall-housed sows. Lame sows had a shorter (P < 0.01) latency to lie-down compared to non-lame sows on -5 and -4 d. In conclusion, there was an increased risk of lameness in sows housed loose compared to those housed in gestation stalls on transfer to the farrowing crate. Claw health deteriorated in the farrowing crate regardless of gestation housing or floor type but the deterioration in claw health was increased on slatted steel compared to on cast-iron.
... Others have shown no differences in reproduction measures between sows housed in stalls or groups (Gjein and Larssen, 1995;Harris et al., 2006). Greater skin lesion scores have been found among sows kept in pens during gestation than those in stalls (Turner et al., 2000;Anil et al., 2003;Karlen et al., 2006). ...
... Body lesion scores were consistently greater in sows kept in pens regardless of floor space compared with those sows kept in stalls. Others have reported similar results (Gjein and Larssen, 1995;Anil et al., 2003;Karlen et al., 2006). The greatest lesion scores, regardless of body region, were found in sows that gestated in pens at 1.4 m 2 . ...
... Lesions are notoriously difficult to qualify (degree of severity) and therefore, simple quantitative counts are most often used. Compared with sows in groups, confined sows have been shown to have either more skin lesions (Gloor, 1988; Boyle et al., 2002; Anil et al., 2005), similar amounts (Hulbert and McGlone 2006) or fewer lesions (Gjein and Larsson, 1995; Backus et al., 1997; Anil et al., 2003; Harris et al., 2006, Estienne et al., 2006 Karlen et al., 2007). These discrepancies are due to a number of factors. ...
... The incidence is higher in confined sows (Gloor, 1988; Stamer and Ernst, 1992 ; Gjein and Larsson, 1995a; Nielsen et al., 2004). Sows with poor body condition score () and large, heavy sows (Anil et al., 2003) are more likely to have increased injury scores in confinement systems, due to decreased fat cushioning over pressure points such as the shoulder and hip and perhaps being forced to lean against parts of the stall. The total injury score of stalled sows would appear to increase over gestation (Anil et al., 2006) as body mass increases. ...
... Lesions are notoriously difficult to qualify (degree of severity) and therefore, simple quantitative counts are most often used. Compared with sows in groups, confined sows have been shown to have either more skin lesions (Gloor, 1988; Boyle et al., 2002; Anil et al., 2005), similar amounts (Hulbert and McGlone 2006) or fewer lesions (Gjein and Larsson, 1995; Backus et al., 1997; Anil et al., 2003; Harris et al., 2006, Estienne et al., 2006 Karlen et al., 2007). These discrepancies are due to a number of factors. ...
... The incidence is higher in confined sows (Gloor, 1988; Stamer and Ernst, 1992 ; Gjein and Larsson, 1995a; Nielsen et al., 2004). Sows with poor body condition score () and large, heavy sows (Anil et al., 2003) are more likely to have increased injury scores in confinement systems, due to decreased fat cushioning over pressure points such as the shoulder and hip and perhaps being forced to lean against parts of the stall. The total injury score of stalled sows would appear to increase over gestation (Anil et al., 2006) as body mass increases. ...
At any one time, a female breeding herd comprises both dry sows and farrowing/ lactating sows. The term 'dry sow' encompasses all gestating sows, sows awaiting service and barren sows within the herd. There is a great diversity of dry sow housing systems currently in use. Over the last few decades, sow housing has generally seen a move from somewhat extensive systems towards intensive systems, although this trend is reversing within Western Europe and a reversal is also beginning to show emergence in the pig industries of other developed countries, such as the U.S.A., Canada and Australia. Until this recent reverse, the major factor behind sow housing design was that of economics of production. Since World War II, there have been steady reductions in the number of individual pig producers, but increases in the size of herds. The trend away form extensive systems with small herd numbers towards larger intensive units was initially fuelled by price incentives in the late 1940s, when the production of cheap, plentiful food to meet post-war demand was often supported by governments. The intensification accelerated in the 1950s as new system-based technology was applied. The cyclical, profit-loss nature of the pig industry also accelerated the decline of the small producer. It made eco-nomic sense to increase herd size, increase stocking densities and decrease labor costs by mechanising where possible. The ultimate developments, in terms of gestation housing, were those of stalls and tethers. Keeping the sows in permanent confinement gave the farmer a number of advantages over less intensive systems. For example: 1) Stocking density. A larger number of sows could be housed in a given area compared with loose housing systems 2) Cost effectiveness. Housing sows on concrete with incorporation of a mechanized slurry handling system reduced both straw and labor costs
... Although the legislation will improve the welfare of sows, new challenges in regard to mortality are prone to arise. Sows housed in group-housed systems have been found to suffer from more injuries such as wounds and vulva bites than sows housed in individual gestation stalls (Anil et al., 2003), due to aggressive interactions that occur among sows when fighting for feed or when establishing a new sow hierarchy (Anil et al., 2003;Scott et al., 2009). Such injuries and wounds may ultimately result in sudden death or euthanasia. ...
... Although the legislation will improve the welfare of sows, new challenges in regard to mortality are prone to arise. Sows housed in group-housed systems have been found to suffer from more injuries such as wounds and vulva bites than sows housed in individual gestation stalls (Anil et al., 2003), due to aggressive interactions that occur among sows when fighting for feed or when establishing a new sow hierarchy (Anil et al., 2003;Scott et al., 2009). Such injuries and wounds may ultimately result in sudden death or euthanasia. ...
... Others have shown no differences in reproduction measures between sows housed in stalls or groups (Gjein and Larssen, 1995;Harris et al., 2006). Greater skin lesion scores have been found among sows kept in pens during gestation than those in stalls (Turner et al., 2000;Anil et al., 2003;Karlen et al., 2006). ...
... Body lesion scores were consistently greater in sows kept in pens regardless of floor space compared with those sows kept in stalls. Others have reported similar results (Gjein and Larssen, 1995;Anil et al., 2003;Karlen et al., 2006). The greatest lesion scores, regardless of body region, were found in sows that gestated in pens at 1.4 m 2 . ...
Different floor space allowances for dry, pregnant sows in pens were evaluated to determine the impacts of space on sow performance, productivity, and body lesions during 2 consecutive farrowings. Treatment groups of 5 sows/pen were assigned to 1.4, 2.3, or 3.3 m(2) of floor space/sow or of 5 sows in individual stalls (1.34 m(2)). The experiment consisted of 6 replications (blocks 1 to 6), and within each block measurements were recorded for 2 consecutive pregnancies and farrowings. A total of 152 sows were measured at 1 farrowing, and 65 of those sows were measured at the successive farrowing (n = 217 records). Performance traits were BCS, BW, backfat (BF), days until rebred, and proportion culled. Litter traits were number of piglets born alive, male:female ratio, and proportions of stillborn, mummified, or dead piglets after birth. Litter performance measures were mean piglet BW and gain and litter BW. Lesion scores were assessed for several body regions. There were treatment and parity effects and interactions for several traits. An interaction of space treatment and parity occurred for sow mean BW, d-110 BW, BF, litter size, and litter and piglet BW and gain, with most effects in parity 2, 3, and 4 sows. Space affected sow mean (P < 0.001) and d-110 BW (P < 0.05) and mean BF and adjusted BF (P < 0.001); sows in pens at </=2.3 m(2) of space had greater (P < 0.05) BW and BF depth, and primiparous sows had less (P < 0.05) BW than greater parity sows. Few differences were found for litter traits, except for litter size, litter weaning BW, and pig BW gain. Sows in pens at 3.3 m(2) had the largest (P < 0.05) litters. Weaning BW was greater (P < 0.05) for litters born to sows that gestated in stalls. Sow BCS and lesion score were affected by floor space (P < 0.001) and parity (P < 0.01); BCS was reduced in sows in pens at 1.4 m(2), and their lesion score was consistently greater (P < 0.05) than that of other space allowances. Primiparous sows often had the least (P < 0.05) lesion scores. For sows in pens, linear and quadratic responses were detected for many of the traits assessed. As floor space increased, BW and BF increased (P < 0.01), but as space decreased, lesion scores increased. Although the effects of gestation system were found and lesion scores often were greater as space decreased, differences in productivity traits were unremarkable with respect to sow welfare or performance compared with industry norms.
... The type of sow housing during the gestation period may also influence the occurrence of teat lesions. Anil et al. (47) found numerically more teat lesions (not statistically significant) in sows housed in group pens with electronic sow feeders (40-60 sows per group) compared to housing individually in stalls. This may be partly due to the freedom of movement and the possibility of coming across sharp edges, being stepped or laid upon while resting in the surroundings for the grouphoused sows. ...
Introduction
Piglet facial and sow teat lesions are the main reported reasons why pig producers routinely practice teeth resection. This is a painful procedure performed on piglets, where their needle teeth are clipped or ground to resect the pointed tip. The practice raises welfare concerns. In contrast to other procedures, such as tail docking, we know little about the risk factors for these two types of lesions.
Methods
We employed two methods to answer these questions: (1) reviewing the literature to identify potential risk factors, and (2) surveying pig production stakeholders worldwide to identify the occurrence of these lesions and the strategies used in practice that enable pig producers to manage or prevent these lesions while avoiding teeth resection. For the literature review, we used Google Scholar to include peer-reviewed publications and gray literature. We distributed the survey using convenience sampling and documented information on the current situation regarding teeth resection, including the methods, frequencies, and reasons for resecting piglets' teeth, the occurrence of piglet facial and sow teat lesions, and measures used to prevent and control these lesions.
Results
The literature review identified six major risk factors for both lesions, including the presence or absence of teeth resection, housing system, litter size, piglet management, environmental enrichment, milk production and other piglet management practices. However, most studies focused on the effects of the first two factors with very few studies investigating the other risk factors. There were 75 responses to the survey from 17 countries. The survey showed that half of the respondents practiced teeth resection with many recognizing that facial and teat lesions are the main reasons behind this practice. However, many producers used other interventions rather than teeth resection to prevent these lesions. These interventions focused on improving milk production of the sow, managing large litters, and providing environmental enrichment.
Discussion
More research is needed to validate these interventions and more science-based advice is needed to bridge the gap between research and practice to help more producers further understand the cause of piglet facial and sow teat lesions to transition toward the cessation of routine teeth resection.
... In the European Union (EU), the implementation of new legislation dated 2013 implicates loose-housing of pregnant sows, i.e. group housing in shared boxes. Such housing system increases the risk of deaths because of potential injuries that are more likely than in the system, where sows are kept in individual boxes (Anil et al., 2003;Scott et al., 2009). Numerous authors reported age, poor body condition and stomach ulcers as factors associated with increased risk of death (Koketsu, 2000;Engblom et al., 2007;Sasaki and Koketsu, 2008). ...
Sow mortality is a great challenge in intensive pig production worldwide. The aim of this study was to forensically examine the reason of sow death for a two-year period on two farms with intensive pig keeping, based on available data. In sows with a greater number of farrowings (over VII) greater number of deaths was found. Seasonality has an impact on sow mortality, in the summer period a larger number of sow death was found. Poor sow condition that usually occurs in the second half of lactation and after weaning, are the predisposition to the factors that lead to the sow death. On both examined farms in more than 60% of dead sows Clostridium spp. and Escherichia coli were isolated. In order to reduce the mortality of sows more attention should be paid to the older sows with a larger number of farrowings, provide better conditions in summer, cooling, and pay more attention to sows during the period from farrowing to the next insemination, respectively.
... shoulder, body (back, side, rear, and udder), tail, and vulva were recorded and a score of 1-3 was ascribed for lesions, as described by Anil et al. (2003): 0 (no injury); 1 (< 5 superficial wounds and no deep wound); 2 (5-10 superficial wounds and/or < 3 deep wounds), and 3 (> 10 superficial wounds and/or > 3 deep wounds). ...
... Due to both legislative and market driven initiatives, swine farmers in nine US states, the entire EU, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa have been asked to transition their gestating sows from individual stalls to group pens (EU Council Directive 2001/88/EC; Weaver & Morris, 2004;Schulz and Tonsor, 2015). The maintenance of gestating animals in pens can be difficult due to the multifaceted considerations of pen size, group composition, feeding system, and individual health care and nutrition requirements ( Bench et al., 2013a, b). group housing of gestating sows may result in increased fighting while the hierarchy is established ( Broom et al., 1995), and can thus lead to minor or serious injuries ( Anil et al., 2003Anil et al., , 2005Hodgkiss et al., 1998), loss of productivity ( McGlone et al., 2004), and may decrease sow longevity ( Anil et al., 2005). These issues create economic losses for the producer and welfare concerns for the sows. ...
There are approximately 977 million domestic swine (Sus scrofa domesticus) that live on farms across the world. Knowledge of individual variation in behavior, morphology and productivity has been the basis for artificial selection of this domestic species for thousands of years. Determining personality traits among group living swine may help to identify certain individuals that possess an increased ability to cope with, or a heightened sensitivity to, environmental and/or social stress. There have been approximately 48 studies that investigated behavioral variation in commercial swine. The majority of these studies have been limited to animals aged seven months or younger. Experimental trials are the predominant method of measuring behavioral differences among swine and include such methods as physical restraint, open field tests, human approach tests, novel object tests, and feeding competitions. Previous research on swine personality has reported the existence of multiple traits such as aggressive, exploratory or fearful, as well as dichotomous coping styles (e.g., proactive vs. reactive). Despite excellent work on themes such as environmental influences and trait development, scholars examining personality in swine have not yet fully explored proximate and ultimate explanations of swine personality traits. Considerable effort has gone into identifying personality traits and coping styles in swine in order to evaluate the relationship between behavior, health, and production (e.g., mothering skills, weight gain, lean meat percentage). Knowledge of individual personality traits among domestic swine may help the pork industry to adjust husbandry practices and housing conditions, which are currently under transition due to market-driven welfare concerns.
... The ban on gestation crates came into force in January 2013. While this system, with gestation pens or pens with electronic sow feeders, is undoubtedly more appropriate to the animal's needs than individual housing in gestation crates, aggressive encounters and injuries frequently occur in social housing (e.g., [143,144]) and welfare might be at risk. There is thus an urgent need to develop social housing systems in which aggressive encounters are reduced to a minimum (such as, for example, the comfort class concept for pigs: [145]). ...
A number of mutilating procedures, such as dehorning in cattle and goats and beak trimming in laying hens, are common in farm animal husbandry systems in an attempt to prevent or solve problems, such as injuries from horns or feather pecking. These procedures and other practices, such as early maternal separation, overcrowding, and barren housing conditions, raise concerns about animal welfare. Efforts to ensure or improve animal welfare involve adapting the animal to its environment, i.e., by selective breeding (e.g., by selecting “robust” animals) adapting the environment to the animal (e.g., by developing social housing systems in which aggressive encounters are reduced to a minimum), or both. We propose adapting the environment to the animals by improving management practices and housing conditions, and by abandoning mutilating procedures. This approach requires the active involvement of all stakeholders: veterinarians and animal scientists, the industrial farming sector, the food processing and supply chain, and consumers of animal-derived products. Although scientific evidence about the welfare effects of current practices in farming such as mutilating procedures, management practices, and housing conditions is steadily growing, the gain in knowledge needs a boost through more scientific research. Considering the huge number of animals whose welfare is affected, all possible effort must be made to improve their welfare as quickly as possible in order to ban welfare-compromising procedures and practices as soon as possible.
... Group housing of gestating sows has been mandatory in all member states of the European Union since 2013. 1 Although the change in sow housing was primarily driven by welfare concerns (Appleby, 2005), group housing may also present welfare issues, including injuries caused by post-mixing aggression and a higher prevalence of lameness (Gjein and Larssen, 1995a;Anil et al., 2003;Estienne et al., 2006;Chapinal et al., 2010). Lameness occurs in 8-27% of group housed sows (Bonde et al., 2004;Heinonen et al., 2006;KilBride et al., 2009;Pluym et al., 2011;Cador et al., 2014), although the number of lame sows can change throughout the reproductive cycle (Pluym et al., 2013) and during the period of group housing (Kroneman et al., 1993;Gjein and Larssen, 1995b;Calderón Díaz et al., 2013;Knox et al., 2014). ...
Lameness in sows is an important welfare issue that is affected by housing conditions and is thought to be influenced by hierarchical fights within the first days after mixing sows in groups. A longitudinal study in 15 randomly selected herds was performed to investigate the incidence of sow lameness and possible risk factors within the first days of group housing. Each herd was visited just before and again 3-5 days after the sows were moved to group housing. The floor characteristics and dimensions of the group housing facilities were assessed. Locomotion ability, body condition, skin lesions and degree of faecal soiling were recorded for all sows. Additional information on housing and management was obtained using a questionnaire. Amongst the 810 sows included in the study, the mean lameness incidence was 13.1% (95% confidence interval 10.9-15.6%). Following binomial logistic regression analysis, sows with >10% of the body covered with faeces had an increased risk for development of lameness (odds ratio, OR = 2.33, P = 0.001). An increase in space allowance from 1.7 m(2) to 3.0 m(2) (OR = 0.40, P = 0.03) and of herd size from 144 to 750 sows per herd (OR = 0.71, P = 0.02) decreased the risk of development of lameness. Neither the degree of aggression, indicated by skin lesions, nor the floor characteristics influenced the development of lameness. These results indicate that sows can benefit from a larger floor area. (C) 2016 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
... In this same study, back injuries were related to gestation stall width, and the amount of time required for the sow to get up and lie down increases as sow size increases in relation to sow stall length. Additionally, Anil et al. [206] reported that injury scores were higher in group pens with electronic sow feeders. However, as body weight increased, injury scores decreased for sows housed in the group pens. ...
... Even after the dominance hierarchy is established, grouped sows will continue to fight if they are overstocked, have to compete for access to feed, or are stressed by a perpetual feeling of hunger. 15,16 Previously, fighting was controlled by the use of individual stalls for pregnant sows. However, the European Union (EU) Directive 2001/88/EC, implemented since January 2013 in all 25 member states, requires that sows and gilts be kept in groups during a period starting 4 weeks after service and until 1 week before the expected time of farrowing. ...
Objectives: To characterize foot lesions, estimate their frequency and severity, and investigate their association with parity and lameness in three Greek farrow-to-finish swine herds. Materials and methods: The studied sows, which had been individually stalled during previous gestations, were examined for foot lesions upon entry into the lactation facilities. Lesions scored included heel hyperkeratinization, erosions or cracks, and toe and dew claw overgrowths. When exiting the farrowing facilities, the sows were observed while walking along an alley and their degree of lameness was scored. Results: The proportion of sows with at least one lesion on any foot was very high and similar among herds, with 121 of 125 (96.8%), 123 of 125 (98.4%), and 377 of 386 (97.7%) sows affected in herds A, B, and C, respectively. The most frequent lesions were those located on the heel, and overgrown toes and dew claws. For these sites, lesion severity increased with sow parity. The concurrent presence of lesions on more than one foot site, on the same or different feet or both, had a multiplicative effect on the likelihood of lameness. Implications: Under the conditions in the herds participating in this study, sow foot lesions are extremely common, with older sows more likely than younger sows to have lesions on the heel and overgrown toes and dew claws. The degree of lameness may be affected by a causal interface among foot lesions.
... The accident cull class has an IL2C of 122.86 7 7.3 days, this very high standard error is due to the low number of incidences (1%) and the wide distribution of occurrence along the trajectory. Small peaks are seen at week 2,13, 18 and 19, the increase in occurrence of culling within the accident cull class around week 2 could be because sows are grouped during that time and social interactions is the leading cause in accidents and trauma (Anil et al., 2003). Other peaks are supposedly random events with acute death or accidents. ...
... In this same study, back injuries were related to gestation stall width, and the amount of time required for the sow to get up and lie down increases as sow size increases in relation to sow stall length. Additionally, Anil et al. [206] reported that injury scores were higher in group pens with electronic sow feeders. However, as body weight increased, injury scores decreased for sows housed in the group pens. ...
Poor sow longevity in commercial breeding herds can lead to economic inefficiency and animal welfare concerns. Reproducing females are the most valuable animals in the herd and it is estimated that 40 to 50% of sows are culled before their third or fourth parity, a time at which initial replacement costs have not been met. The reasons for culling sows and the rate of removal may be influenced by many factors including housing, genotype, management, disease, nutrition and market trends. Regardless of the cause, poor longevity results in larger replacement rates and, consequently, larger gilt pools which translates into higher production cost. Gilts are less productive than sows; their offspring have greater mortality, reduced growth rate, and poorer feed efficiency in the nursery and grow-finish phases of production. Additionally, there is a disease risk when new animals are introduced into the breeding herd. An improvement in longevity can result in decreased replacement costs and production cost and a greater proportion of mature sows in a herd that have reached their maximum productivity.
... It also makes the research in this area difficult to consolidate, due to the variation in the group housing systems used. It is important to note that each housing system has its limitations (Anil et al., 2003). ...
... The housing system for sows during gestation has attracted considerable attention in terms of sow welfare in recent years. Although from 1 January 2013, EU legislation only permits stall housing of sows for 4 weeks post-service in the belief that it is beneficial to the pigs' welfare (Anil et al., 2003), the performance of group-housed sows and their offspring is still debated (Bates et al., 2003;Anil et al., 2006b;Chapinal et al., 2010). Definitive assessment of pregnant sow welfare is difficult because of its multidimensional nature. ...
To compare the behaviour of sows and the physiological indices of their offspring in stall and group-housing systems, 28 sows were randomly distributed into two systems with 16 sows in stalls, and the other 12 sows were divided into three groups with four sows per pen. The area per sow in stalls and groups was 1.2 and 2.5 m2, respectively. Back fat depth of the sow was measured. Salivary cortisol concentration of the sows, colostrum composition and piglets' serum biochemical indicators were evaluated. The behaviour of the sows, including agonistic behaviour, non-agonistic social behaviour, stereotypical behaviour and other behaviours at weeks 2, 9 and 14 of pregnancy were analysed. The results showed no differences in the back fat depth of sows. Colostrum protein, triglyceride, triiodothyronine, thyroxine and prolactin concentrations in the whey also demonstrated no significant differences between the two housing systems. Salivary cortisol concentration was significantly higher in the sows housed in groups than the sows in stalls. The concentrations of serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol were significantly higher in the offspring of sows housed in groups (P=0.006 and 0.005, respectively). The GLM procedure for repeated measures analysis showed the frequency of drinking, and non-agonistic social behaviour was significantly higher in the sows housed in groups than the sows in stalls; yet the frequency of agonistic and sham chewing demonstrated the opposite direction. The duration of standing was significantly longer in the sows housed in groups, but the sitting and stereotypical behaviour duration were significantly shorter compared with the sows in stalls. These results indicated that group housing has no obvious influence on the colostrum composition of sows; however, it was better for sows to express their non-agonistic social behaviour and reduce the frequency of agonistic behaviour and stereotypical behaviour. Meanwhile, group housing during gestation significantly increased serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol of offspring.
... Similarly, in ESF group housing, more injuries were reported when less space (2.25 versus 3.0 m 2 /sow) was provided (Remience et al., 2008). In general, injuries have been negatively correlated with bodyweight in group housed sows (Anil et al., 2003Anil et al., , 2005 Bhend and Onan, 2003). Harris et al. (2006) found more injuries (e.g. ...
Group sow housing can be a complex system and facilities come in many forms. At present, there is a lack of research adequately comparing all of the different options available for the group housing of gestating sows. The aim of this review is to assess current research findings and highlight further areas of research that are required to provide producers with information about which group systems best promote sow welfare and productivity. Specifically, the objective of the review was not to compare the use of gestation stalls versus group sow housing, but to take an in-depth look at group sow housing systems which utilize individual feeding methods (protected and unprotected) and to conduct a research needs assessment with particular attention regarding sow welfare. Generally, aggression at mixing and competition for feeder entry are the primary welfare challenges in ESF-fed sows. Increasing group size in an ESF system has different implications than in a system with feeding stalls. Low ranking sows were found to be at a disadvantage in both static and dynamic groups, especially in an ESF system, as these sows received more aggression and injuries, while also exhibiting poorer productivity compared with high-ranking sows. A review of the scientific literature reveals a need for direct comparisons of individual feeder types with consideration for interactions between group size, composition, space allowance and enrichment materials in group housed sows.
... In this same study, back injuries were related to gestation stall width, and the amount of time required for the sow to get up and lie down increases as sow size increases in relation to sow stall length. Additionally, Anil et al. (2003) reported that injury scores were higher in group pens with electronic sow feeders. However, as body weight increased, injury scores decreased for sows housed in the group pens. ...
... Different types of group housing are possible, e.g., free access stalls, pens with electronic sow feeders, trickle feeding, floor feeding and individual feed stalls. Despite the advantages for animal welfare (Lynch et al., 2000;Anil et al., 2003) group housing may also have disadvantages such as higher hierarchical interactions and even aggression between sows, as well as more leg and claw disorders (Kroneman et al., 1993a;Gjein and Larssen, 1995a,b). Yet, studies in which different types of group housing have been compared with regard to lameness and claw health are missing from the literature. ...
Claw lesions and lameness in sows are an important welfare concern as well as a cause of considerable economic loss. Tese problems are more common in group housing than in individual housing systems. Given that group housing for gestating sows will become mandatory in the EU from 2013 onwards, the aim of the present study was: (1) to determine the prevalence of lameness and claw lesions in sows housed in groups during gestation, and (2) to analyze whether the type of group housing system and sow-related factors were associated with lameness and claw lesions. Eight Belgian pig herds with group housing of gestating sows were selected. Four herds used pens with electronic sow feeders (dynamic groups), the other four herds kept their sows in free access stalls (static groups). All sows were visually examined for lameness at the end of gestation. Claw lesions were scored after parturition. Information about feed, housing conditions and culling (strategy) was collected, as well as information about parity and breed. Of all 421 assessed sows, on average 9.7% (min. 2.4%, max. 23.1%) were lame. Almost 99% of the sows had one or more claw lesion with overgrowth of heel horn (93%) and cracks in the wall (52%) as the most prevalent lesions. Neither for lameness nor claw lesions was signifcant differences found between the two types of group housing. Lameness decreased while the mean claw lesion score increased with ageing. These results suggest that lameness can be caused by reasons other than claw lesions, especially in older sows. Although no difference was found between the two types of group housing, a huge variation between herds was observed. Moreover, as the prevalence of lameness and claw lesions in group housing is quite high and group housing will become mandatory in 2013, further investigation on risk factors of locomotor disorders in sows is necessary.
... Sows housed in groups are found to suffer more from injuries than sows housed in individual gestation stalls. This is due to aggressive interactions that occur among sows when fighting for feed or when establishing a new sow hierarchy (Anil et al., 2003). All sows were housed in group-housing systems, and a major part of the sows were clinically examined 4 to 6 weeks after insemination. ...
Sows suffering from clinical signs of disease (e.g. lameness, wounds and shoulder ulcers) are often involuntarily culled, affecting the farmer's economy and the welfare of the animals. In order to investigate the interrelationships between clinical signs of individual pregnant group-housed sows, we performed an explanatory factor analysis to identify factors describing the patterns of variation of clinical signs. Moreover, we investigated how these emerging factors affected the probability of a sow to be either (i) euthanized, (ii) suddenly dead, (iii) sent to slaughter due to clinical signs of disease such as claw lesions or wounds or (iv) involuntarily culled (representing a pool of sows that were either euthanized, dead or sent to slaughter due to disease). Data from 2.989 pregnant sows in group-housing systems from 33 sow herds were included in the study. A thorough clinical examination was performed for each sow by using a protocol including 16 different clinical signs. Farmers recorded all cullings and deaths and the reasons for these actions in a 3-month period after the clinical examination. Among the observed sows, 4.2% were involuntarily culled during the 3-month period. From the explanatory factor analysis, we identified three factors describing the underlying structure of the 16 clinical variables. We interpreted the factors as 'pressure marks', 'wounds' and 'lameness' Logistic analyses were performed to investigate the effect of the three factors and the parity number of each sow on the four outcomes: (i) euthanized, (ii) suddenly dead, (iii) sent to slaughter due to clinical signs of disease and (iv) involuntarily culled. The analyses showed that 'lameness' significantly increased the risk of sows to be involuntarily culled (P = 0.016) or sent to slaughter due to clinical signs of disease (P = 0.026). Lameness is generally considered to be an important welfare problem in sows, which could explain the increased risk seen in this study. By contrast, 'pressure marks' and 'wounds' did not have any significant effect on the four outcomes (P > 0.05).
... Injury score -Injuries in all sows were assessed after the saliva collection from the focal sows 1 d before the move to a pen, the day after mixing, and 2 wk after mixing. The injuries were scored according to a pattern previously used (9): the frequency and severity of wounds in different body locations were scored (0 -none; 1 -mild; 2 -obvious; 3 -severe) and the scores added together to yield a total injury score (TIS). The same person did the scoring throughout the experiment. ...
Pregnant sows were housed in dynamic, twice-mixed, and static groups of different sizes in pens with electronic sow feeders (ESFs) to study the effect of group size and structure on sow welfare and performance. The total injury score (TIS) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the dynamic group than in the other groups in general and 2 wk after mixing. The salivary cortisol concentrations were similar in the 3 groups. The frequency of queuing was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the twice-mixed group and the frequency of nonagonistic social interactions significantly lower (P < 0.05) in the dynamic group. The total number of aggressive acts was positively and significantly correlated (P < 0.05) with the frequency and duration of queuing in all the groups. Farrowing performance and longevity did not differ between the groups. The higher TIS and lower number of nonagonistic social interactions indicated that welfare was compromised in the dynamic group as compared with the other groups.
Animal production safety is closely related to the welfare of animals raised for food production and aims to maintain high animal health standards by protecting them. This chapter aims to introduce current European and National legislation on animal welfare in swine farming, starting from the foundation and maintenance of the five freedoms that condition animal welfare, general requirements regarding environmental and microclimatic parameters and the human–animal relationship. In particular, the criteria and schemes for evaluating welfare from stable to transport to animal slaughter will be discussed. Consideration will be given to the various factors affecting animal welfare, in particular: the type of housing and roosting areas, the space available and the density of animals in the barn, transport conditions, stunning and slaughtering methods, castration of males, tail-cutting, feed quality and housing cooling systems. Precision farming techniques will be explained to support farmers in understanding and identifying animal behaviour, e.g., disease diagnosis, assistance in calving areas, improving breeding conditions and reducing sickness factors.
Intensification and complexity of pig production systems may require different strategies for animal welfare improvement. We aimed to identify welfare issues of gestation sows and areas for improvement by comparing four production systems, including the smallholder pen-based system (SPS: 26 farms), smallholder stall-based system (SSS:14 farms), semi-intensive stall-based system (SES: 15 farms), and intensive stall-based system (ISS: 10 farms). Ten significant animal-based measures in the Welfare Quality® protocol were used for welfare assessment at the individual level. Stall-housed sows in SES and ISS faced more welfare problems where sows presented a higher prevalence of poor body condition (P < 0.001), wounds on body (P = 0.003), fear of humans (P < 0.001), and stereotypies (P < 0.001) than pen-housed sows in the SPS. Sows in the SPS presented the highest prevalence of panting (P < 0.001). Welfare improvement should be focused on minimizing the adverse effects of hot weather on sows in the SPS and SSS and redesigning a more welfare-friendly housing system that prevents sows from the risk of wounds on body and enables them to perform motivated behaviors in the SES and ISS.
This study was conducted on 40 households raising these chickens in two communes of
Hang Kia and Pa Co. A sample of 200 adult chickens was phenotypically characterized based on the feather colors and the sharp of comb. The H’Mong broilers (50 chickens/herd, 25 male and 25 female) were fed on a 12-weeks period to evaluate growth performance and ten were used for carcass quality assessment. The result shows that the plumage colors are mainly 22% yellow, 22% black, 31% grey, few white-feathered chickens and no reddish-brown plumage in hen. Hens of this breed reached sexual maturity at about 24,5 weeks of age with 1.29 kg body weight. Each hens laid 5.08 broods/year, 13.9 eggs/brood and 70.67 eggs/hen/year, with the average of 39.58 g/egg.
The weight of 12 week-old broiler was 1,170 g. The carcass yield was 71.53%, while thigh meat and breast meat accounted for 19.24% and 16.06%, respectively.
This study aimed to investigate the factors affecting boar claw lesions and lameness. A total of 1299 boars were examined for claw lesions and lameness, including 788 boars reared in individual pens with solid concreted floor (IPS) and 511 boars raised in individual stalls with slatted floor (ISS). Flooring type showed significant impacts on all claw lesion types (P < 0.01). Except for swelling ankle, boar age had significant effects on all other claw lesion types (P < 0.01). In addition, only heel overgrowth and erosion, cracked wall horizontal, heel-sole crack, dew claws, and toes were significantly related to boar breeds (P < 0.05). Furthermore, IPS lame boars had higher prevalence of lameness in the hind limb (P < 0.05), whereas in ISS lame boars, there were no significant differences in prevalence of lameness between the fore and hind limbs (P > 0.05). Boar lameness was moderately correlated with swelling ankle (Φ = 0.5571). In conclusion, claw lesions can be influenced by flooring type, boar age and breed, and could serve as a predictor for boar lameness.
Feed withdrawal and transport commonly occur together in pigs. Objectives of this study were to determine if these preslaughter stressors, feed withdrawal and transportation, affect the levels of , stress hormone concentrations, and immune functions in infected market pigs. A 2 × 2 factorial analysis of a randomized complete block design with feed withdrawal and transport as fixed effects was used. Sixty market-weight pigs were individually inoculated with serovar Typhimurium. The experiment was replicated 3 times (blocking factor) with 20 pigs per replicate. Three days after inoculation, the pigs were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 treatments (5 pigs per treatment in each/replicate), including 1) control (Control; or no stress), 2) feed withdrawal for 12 h (FW), 3) transportation for 2 h (T), and 4) feed withdrawal for 12 h followed by transportation for 2 h (FWT). Feed withdrawal by itself or followed by transportation caused an increase of levels in ileal contents ( < 0.05), whereas only FWT caused an increase of levels in cecal contents ( < 0.05). Rectal contents (feces) consistently contained very low levels of , with no difference among treatments ( > 0.10). Cortisol increased in pigs from all 3 stress treatments ( < 0.001), with T and FWT pigs having greater concentrations than Control pigs ( < 0.05), although total white blood cell counts were lower for FWT pigs compared with Controls ( > 0.03). Each granulocyte percentage (neutrophil, eosinophils, and basophils) increased ( < 0.05) following transport but was attenuated ( > 0.05) by feed withdrawal with transport. Lymphocytes were suppressed ( < 0.05) by all stressors, and the greatest suppression occurred when pigs were transported (T and FWT). However, monocytes were suppressed ( < 0.05) compared with Controls only by FWT. Expression of IL-1 (produced by monocytes/macrophages) from the spleen cells increased ( < 0.05) with FW compared with Controls, whereas its receptor antagonist was suppressed by FWT ( < 0.05). It is concluded that some typical preslaughter practices, such as feed withdrawal and transportation, lead to greater intestinal levels and gut-associated lymphoid tissue markers of inflammation in market pigs and, consequently, to an increased food safety risk.
This study was conducted to investigate the effects of gestating sows housed in groups with electronic sow feeding (ESF) system over three consecutive parities. A total of 83 pregnant gilts [Yorkshire × Landrace] were housed into ST: gilts housed in individual stalls, and ESF: gilts housed in groups with ESF system on the basis of body weight (BW) and backfat thickness (BFT) in a completely randomized design. Rice hulls were used as bedding material on the group housing floor. The same commercial gestating diet was provided daily at 2.0 kg, 2.2 kg and 2.4 kg/day in the first, second and third parity, respectively, in both treatments. All sows introduced farrowing crates five days before expected farrowing. BW and BFT of the sows were measured at d 35, and 110 of gestation as well as at 12 h and d 21 postpartum. Parturition time was recorded during farrowing. Reproductive performance, including total born, stillborn, mummy, born alive, mortality, weaning pigs as well as litter and piglet weight were recorded. Scratch incidence and locomotion scores in sows were assessed at d 36, 70, and 110, respectively. Ten sows in each treatment were randomly selected for blood sampling. Serum samples were analyzed for cortisol and oxytocin levels. In the gestation period, ESF tended to increase BW gain in the second parity (P=0.08), and consistently showed significance during the third parity (P<0.01), resulting in higher BW at d 110 (P=0.10, P<0.03 in parities 2 and 3, respectively). Similarly, BFT gain tended to be higher in ESF than ST (P=0.08, P= 0.10 in parity 1 and 2, respectively). Estimated body fat contents changes are also higher in ESF regardless of the parities (P<0.01, P<0.02, P=0.10 in parities 1, 2, and 3, respectively). However, there were no significant differences on sow BW and BFT changes during lactation. There was a tendency of shorten duration of farrowing in the ESF treatment (P=0.07, P=0.09, and P=0.10 in parities 1, 2, and 3, respectively). In reproductive performances, higher piglet stillborn in ST was observed (P=0.06, P=0.07 in parities 2 and 3, respectively). In endocrinal analysis, ST higher serum cortisol was observed at d 110 of gestation (P<0.01 in parity 1), whereas no detectable difference was observed in the serum oxytocin level. Higher incidence of body scratch was scored in ESF treatment in early gestation in all parities (P<0.01). Likewise, ESF treatment were observed higher locomotor disorders in the middle and late gestation periods (P=0.07). In conclusion, our results suggested that the Group housing with ESF system showed higher growth performance and survival rate of piglets. However, more incidences of body scratch and higher locomotion disorder scores observed in the ESF sows was due to the combination of persistent fighting around the ESF machines and inadequate bedding materials. Consequently, it is necessary to consider an adequate space divider or barrier for gestating sows to avoid aggression in the group housing with ESF system.
Increased public concern about farm animal welfare is driving both legislative initiatives and market forces to change how sows are housed and managed. This study investigated the use and preference for enrichment items at a 5600 sows commercial sow farm in eastern USA. Gestating sows were housed in static, pre-implantation groups of approximately 75 sows per pen and fed via a single electronic sow feeding station. Each pen contained one of three enrichment objects (OBJ): hanging rope, hanging rubber sticks, and a fixed wood block. Behavioral data was collected from 18 pens during the course of this study on days 1, 3, 5 and 14 (DAY) that sows were in the pen, and at specific times on each day (TIME). For daytime activity, data was collected on-site in three 2-hour blocks between 0800-1000, 1100-1300 and 1400-1600 for each pen and for nighttime data was collected on Day 1 in three 1-hour blocks between 2200-2300, 0000-0100 and 0200-0300. Behaviors recorded included proportion of observation time animals interacted with the object, proportion of animals in pen that interacted with the object, and posture (up/down) of each animal in the pen. Lesion scores were recorded prior to mixing and two weeks post-mixing as a proxy for social aggression. The median proportion of observation time that the sows were in contact with the rope (62.4%) was significantly greater than (P < 0.01) the median proportion observed in the rubber pens (31.5%) and significantly greater than (P < 0.01) the median proportion observed in the woodblock pens (24.3%). Mixed design ANOVAs indicated a significant interaction of OBJ and DAY (P < 0.01) and OBJ and TIME (P < 0.01) on the proportion of observation time that the sows were in contact with the enrichment objects. Post-hoc analyses using Bonferroni correction showed that on each observation day and time period, the proportion of observation time that the sows were in contact with the enrichment was significantly greater (P < 0.01) in rope pens than rubber or woodblock pens. These results indicate that sows can exhibit clear preferences for enrichment type, with the sows interacting with the rope significantly more often throughout the study, at each sampling hour. However, there were no significant differences in lesion severity or sow activity between the three enrichment types, suggesting that common behavioral patterns including the establishment of social hierarchy took precedence over the pursuit of available enrichment. Additional studies are needed to understand how preferences for enrichment objects could be utilized to potentially impact sow productivity and welfare.
Korean pig farms face challenges from the free trade environment. Pig farmers need to cut meat cost to compete with inexpensive meat imported from advanced countries. Application of ICT convergence can give the farmers a chance to improve their competitiveness. This study aimed to introduce an ICT convergence integrated management information system and benefits that can be obtained from the combination of different category data such as environment data, control data, production data and external data provided from integrated system. There are four analysis examples, namely:.(1) the use of farm environment monitoring data and production data; (2) ICT based feeding system data and production data; (3)the use of ICT based sorter data and exterior data of meat quality grade, and (4) the use of market price data collected from an exterior database and farm marketing data. This study also recommends research topics that have not been studied yet based from the existing literature.
Regardless of age, mixing of pigs requires the establishment of a social hierarchy determined by aggressive interactions. The common method to sort piglets after weaning by weight and to mix them to new groups can lead to violent rank order fighting followed by injuries, general stress and reduced weight gain. Therefore, an optimal management is essential in this sensitive period. That raises, among others, the question of the right grouping strategy. However, in our own investigations, the influence of grouping strategy was limited. During an observation period of 72 hours, there were no differences in the number of aggressive interactions or in the lesion score between homogeneous and heterogeneous weight groups, between a combination of piglets from two or six origin litters, or between single sex groups related to a group size of twelve piglets. Only a comparison between groups of 6, 12, and 24 piglets revealed less aggressive interactions in groups of 6. Known measures to reduce aggressive behaviour after mixing usually lead only to a postponement of aggressive behaviour. Therefore, the objective of a further study was to develop a completely new approach to control aggressive interactions in weaned piglets. The system is based on the use of an electronic feeder giving tasty food after a special sound. The animals are trained as suckling piglets to react to that sound, and the learned behavioural responses can be used to interrupt undesired aggressive interactions. The results show that the behaviour of piglets after weaning can be influenced using the electronic feeder. From all aggressive interactions between two previously trained piglets in a resident-intruder test, 84 % could be stopped by activating the electronic feeder. Piglets were effectively distracted from aggressive behaviour by activation of the feeder. Thus, a behavioural response learned by suckling piglets could be used to reduce aggressive behaviour in later production stages and to enhance animal welfare.
Factors that have been shown to impact the welfare of group-housed sows are discussed in this review. Floor space allowance markedly affects sow welfare. In addition to quantity of floor space, the quality of space is important: spatial separation between sows can be provided with visual or physical barriers and stalls. Whereas 1.4 m/sow is insufficient, further research is required to examine space effects in the range of 1.8 to 2.4 m/sow in more detail. The period immediately after mixing has the most pronounced effects on aggression and stress, and therefore, well-designed mixing pens offer the opportunity to reduce aggression, injury, and stress while allowing the social hierarchy to quickly form. Because hunger is likely to lead to competition for feed or access to feeding areas, strategies to reduce hunger between meals through higher feeding levels, dietary fiber, or foraging substrate should be examined. However, feeding systems, such as full-body feeding stalls, can also affect aggression and stress by providing protection at feeding, but deriving conclusions on this topic is difficult because research directly comparing floor feeding, feeding stalls, and electronic sow feeder systems has not been conducted. Familiar sows engage in less aggression, so mixing sows that have been housed together in the previous gestation may reduce aggression. Although there is evidence in other species that early experience may affect social skills later in life, there are few studies on the effects of early "socialization" on aggressive behavior of adult sows. Genetic selection has the potential to reduce aggression, and therefore, continued research on the opportunity to genetically select against aggressiveness and its broader implications is required. Most research to date has examined mixing sows after insemination and knowledge on grouping after weaning is limited.
The average daily gain (ADG; kg d-1), pen efficiency (PE; kg ADG m-2 floor space) and welfare indicators (injury levels, salivary cortisol concentrations and behaviour) of grower-finisher pigs were evaluated in groups of 19 barrows, at four levels of floor space allowances calculated mathematically (area = k × BW0.667) using a constant k, (with values 0.027, 0.031, 0.034, and 0.037) for a mean final market weight of 116 kg and in two levels of group weight composition (uniform and varying weights - based on uniformity and variation of body weights of pigs within a pen at the beginning of the experiment). The corresponding space allowances (m2pig~') at the market weight of 116 kg were 0.64 (SA0.64), 0.74 (SA0.74), 0.81 (SA0.81), and 0.88 (SA0.88). The data were analyzed using repeated measure ANOVAs and independent sample T tests. The pigs in SA0.64 had a lower ADG (0.859 ± 0.017), spent a lower proportion of time lying in preferred areas (55.22 ± 1.644) and had higher total injury scores (4.581 ± 0.139) and higher number of aggressions (1.94 ± 0.286) (P < 0.05 for all) than those in SA0.88 (0.936 ± 0.020; 61.02 ± 1.203; 3.858 ± 0.208; 1.08 ± 0.212, respectively) and SA0.81 (0.916 ± 0.019; 59.77 ± 1. 417; 3.855 ± 0.112; 1.24 ± 0.238, respectively). Pigs in SA0.64 had higher (P < 0.05) overall PE (1.344 kg ADG m-2 floor space) than those in SA0.88 (1.063 ± 0.023) SA0.81 (1.131 ± 0.024) and SA0.74 (1.224 ± 0.029) allowance treatments. Pigs in the varying weight group spent a higher (P < 0.05) proportion of time lying in preferred areas (59.73 ± 0.942) than the uniform weight group (57.08 ± 1.078). Pigs in SA0.74 and SA0.64 spent lower proportion of time (P < 0.05) lying isolated (2.76 ± 0.441 and 2.18 ± 0.372, respectively) than pigs in SA0.81 (4.52 ± 0.467). The uniform weight group exhibited more (P < 0.05) exploratory behaviour (8.83 ± 0.448) than the varying weight group (7.25 ± 0.356). On fully slatted floors, space allotted considering the final market weight of barrows corresponding to k values of 0.037 and 0.034 were better (P < 0.05) than 0.027 in terms of growth rate and welfare indicators.
In pig production, mixing of piglets after weaning is a common management practice often leading to severe fighting aimed at establishing a social hierarchy. The intention of our study was to investigate whether social rank of piglets obtained by fighting within 3 days after weaning and mixing was affected by origin litter. We studied a total of 15 groups containing 180 piglets originating from 30 litters in two different experimental parts on two conventional pig farms. Each group was composed of six piglets each from two different litters, thus one group consisted of a total of 12 animals. Agonistic behaviour was analysed continuously during 72 h after weaning. Sociometric measures determining the linearity of the established social hierarchy as well as an individual rank index were calculated. Piglets were weighed the day before weaning and at the beginning of the fattening period. Piglets in groups of 12 established semi-linear hierarchies allowing the assignment of individual piglets to definite rank positions. There was a clear relationship between origin litter and dominance status. In almost all groups, littermates (LM) originating from one litter obtained higher rank indices than their non-littermates (non-LM) originating from the other litter within the same group (p < 0.05). High ranking animals tended to perform more attacks than lower ranking piglets and fought more, especially against non-littermates. There were no differences in daily weight gain between piglets of different rank positions or different litters during the entire rearing period. Our results indicate the existence of a litter-associated dominance when mixing piglets from two different litters after weaning, without any influence on daily weight gain, provided that piglets are fed ad libitum with a close animal feeding:place ratio (1.5:1).
Lameness in sows is an important welfare concern as well as a cause of considerable economic loss. In general, lameness in sows is evaluated by visual scoring of the gait. However, visual assessment is a subjective technique with low reproducibility. Therefore, the need arises for more accurate and objective methods to enable correct detection. A detection system, based on force stance variables derived from force plate analysis and visual stance variables derived from image processing was developed: SowSIS (sow stance information system). The transportable device and computer software was tested in a practical environment and was positively evaluated for its practical use and precise measurements. A preliminary study of the force stance variables was performed by comparing measurements of sound sows and sows with lameness in their hind leg. All lame sows were reluctant to bear weight on their lame leg which resulted in a lower weight exerted by the lame hind leg compared to the other legs. This shift in weight was mainly compensated by putting more weight on the contralateral sound hind leg. Sows showed more but shorter kicks (i.e. lifting leg of the ground) with their lame leg compared to the other legs. The results indicated that the developed system SowSIS has very promising potential to support future objective research in lameness in sows. (c) 2013 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Objective: To assess welfare status of 25 pregnant sows housed in gestation stalls, in terms of cortisol concentrations, behavior responses, and injury scores. Materials and methods: Data were collected on gestation days 5, 56, and 108. Time-lapse video recording for 24-hour periods was used to observe behavior at each data point. Salivary cortisol concentrations were assessed using radioimmunoassay. Injuries were scored individually and added to provide a total injury score (TIS). Results: Cortisol concentrations were lower on gestation day 56 than on other days, and TIS was higher on day 108 than on days 5 and 56 (P < .05). Time spent lying was highest on day 108 (P < .05). Sows spent more time on exploration and active behavior on day 56 than on days 5 and 108 (P < .05). Time for the transition from sitting to lying was higher on day 108 than on day 56 (P < .05). Frequencies of overall postural change and of standing or sitting to lying and lying to sitting were highest on day 5 (P < .05). Frequency of lying to standing was higher on day 5 than on day 108 (P < .05). Body weight was negatively correlated with time spent on exploration and active behavior and standing, and positively correlated with time spent lying (P <.05). Implications: Welfare of sows in gestation stalls appears to be more compromised during early and late stages of gestation. Providing larger sows with larger stalls might improve welfare.
Poor sow longevity in commercial pork production systems can lead to economic inefficiency and animal well being concerns. The quest by commercial pork producers to provide consumers with lean pork and improve production efficiency through increasing kilograms of lean sold per sow per year and decreasing the amount of feed that it takes to produce a kilogram of pork is likely to have led to the decrease in productive lifetime of breeding herd females in most commercial pig herds. The emphasis on these traits has resulted in a decreased emphasis on maintaining productivity throughout a sow's lifetime. Improving sow longevity would improve a pork producer's profitability by reducing replacement gilt expenses and associated development, isolation, and acclimation costs. We report here a summary of sow longevity and culling studies to date. These studies focus on the economics of sow longevity and the reasons sows are removed from the breeding herd, as well as genetic, nutritional, gilt development, and other factors that contribute to sow longevity. These studies clearly point out that sow longevity is a complex trait with many factors that can contribute to a sow having a long and productive life in a commercial breeding herd. This review shows that additional research is needed with modern commercial maternal lines that will investigate everything from identifying individual genes to management, gilt development, nutrition, and a whole host of factors that contribute to improved sow longevity. Identifying factors that influence the longevity of modern maternal lines along with genetic improvement of the trait could assist many commercial pork producers in becoming more efficient.
Changes in physical body size during gestation were monitored using 529 sets of sow measurements. All sows were from the same herd and production system with a range in parity from 1 to 8. Sows were individually weighed, P2 backfat thickness was determined by ultrasound and morphometric measurements of body size were taken five times during gestation: day 0 (at service), day 25, day 50, day 80 and day 110. The morphometric measurements included sow height (from floor to last rib at the midline, from floor to ventral surface and from floor to hip), heart girth, depth of last rib, length (from snout to tail and from anterior scapula to tail) and width (at ham, at last rib and at shoulder). Regression analyses were used to model the relationship between day of gestation or parity number and morphometric measurements of body size. Regression equations were also developed to estimate sow weight from physical measurements, day of gestation and parity. As expected, sow dimensions, in general, increased as pregnancy progressed and also with increasing parity number. The relationships between day of gestation and body dimensions were described by linear and quadratic regression models, which had a range of adjusted R2 values up to 0.99. Similar relationships to parity number had a range of R2 values between 0.51 and 0.96. Sow depth, which can be used as an estimate of the width of the sow when lying, equalled the maximum width of the gestation stall (650 mm) at day 103 of gestation. However, by day 40 of gestation, predicted mean sow depth (570 mm) equalled the width at the rear of the crate. The implication of this is that after day 40 of gestation, the average sow was too wide for the rear of the crate when lying in a recumbent position. On day 110 of gestation, 95% of the mean sow body depths would be accommodated in stalls that were 674 mm wide; however, the range in body sizes with increasing parity number suggests the use of more than one stall width would be appropriate. Sow weight could be estimated with an adjusted R2 value of 0.81 and with a residual standard deviation (r.s.d.) of 16.5 kg using heart girth alone, or more accurately using a model with parity, day of gestation, P2 backfat depth and heart girth as the parameters (R2 = 0.89, r.s.d. 12.4 kg).
As Webster has stated, we have real opportunities to provide incremental improvements to a whole range of welfare factors. We need a disciplined approach that takes into account the skills of farmers, veterinarians, and the whole range of other specialists involved in animal agriculture. Improvement is best based on a model of discovery, transparency, and dialogue. Combative models impede discovery and dialogue, and the animals are the most likely to suffer when we create such a scenario. Veterinarians have a real opportunity to aid swine farms in identifying opportunities and allowing for a transparent portrayal of activities on the farm.
To compare well-being, performance, and longevity of gestating sows housed in stalls or in pens with an electronic sow feeder (ESF).
382 pregnant sows of parities 1 through 6.
Sows were housed in separate stalls (n = 176) or group pens (206) with an ESF. Well-being of sows was assessed at various time points in terms of injuries, salivary cortisol concentration, and behavior in a novel arena or to a novel object. Farrowing performance and longevity of sows were also assessed.
Total injury scores (TIS) of sows in pens were significantly higher at initial introduction and mixing. In stall-housed sows, TIS was significantly higher during late gestation. The TIS and cortisol concentration were significantly lower in stall-housed sows, compared with values for sows in pens. As parity increased, the likelihood of higher median TIS decreased significantly in pen-housed sows and increased significantly in stall-housed sows. The TIS of sows in pens was negatively correlated with body weight and backfat thickness, whereas these correlations were positive in stall-housed sows. Farrowing performance and results for novel arena or objects did not differ. Proportion of sows removed was significantly higher for pens than for stalls; lameness was the major reason for removal for both systems.
Stalls impose space restrictions for larger sows, resulting in injuries during late gestation. Interventions are needed to minimize aggression during initial introduction and mixing and at the ESF in pens to reduce severe injuries or lameness of gestating sows.
To determine the association between limb conformation scores in gilts and retention through the second parity.
961 gilts.
Gilts were monitored for 1 year. Baseline data recorded were conformation scores for the forelimbs and hind limbs and backfat thickness. Primary outcome was time to removal from a herd, and the secondary outcome was time to removal as a result of lameness.
662 of 961 (68.89%) females remained in herds through the second parity, whereas 299 (31.11%) were removed before the second parity. Survival time for females on the basis of conformation scores for the forelimbs and hind limbs differed significantly for total sow removals and removals as a result of lameness. Females with poor conformation scores for the hind limbs had an increased risk of being removed, compared with risk for females with better conformation scores. Risk of removal specifically as a result of lameness increased as conformation score for the hind limbs became poorer. Proportion of the total population that was removed and could be attributed to undesirable limb conformation was 16.13% for forelimbs and 12.90% for hind limbs.
Females with undesirable conformation were removed earlier than females with desirable conformation. This was particularly true for females with low conformation scores for the hind limbs. Selection of gilts on the basis of limb conformation may result in reduced attrition of females and improved performance of herds over time.
Twelve sows in good quality unstrawed stalls, three groups of five sows in strawed pens with individual feeding stalls and sows in a 38-sow group in a strawed yard with an electronic sow feeder were compared during the first four parities. They originated from the same source, were about 9 months of age and in the 7th week of their first pregnancy at the start of the experiment and were kept in adjacent rooms in a building, cared for by the same staff and given the same diets at a rate of 2·2 kg/day per animal. No new animals were added to the groups or stalls during the study and animals returned to the same condition after periods in farrowing and service accommodation. Using a wide range of welfare indicators, it was clear that stall-housed sows had more problems than group-housed sows and that tliese problems were worse in the fourth than in the first pregnancy. By the fourth pregnancy, stall-housed sows spent proportionately 0·14 of time showing activities which were clearly stereotypies and much time on activities which were sometimes stereotyped, i.e. ‘drinking’ and rooting or chewing at pen fittings making a total of proportionately 0·50 of time. Comparable figures for group-housed sows were much lower (0·037 and 0·081 in total). Stall-housed sows were also more aggressive than group-housed by the fourth pregnancy and their body weights were lower. There were no differences using physiological or immunological tests or measures of reproductive output. When the two group-housing systems were compared, sows in the electronic feeder system showed more fighting, especially soon after initial mixing, but fewer total agonistic interactions than sows in groups of five during the first pregnancy. Oral stereotypies were slightly higher in small groups, perhaps because of smaller pen space, than in larger groups but much lower than in stalls. By the fourth pregnancy there were few differences between sows in small and large groups and all seemed to have adapted well to the conditions. Evaluation of welfare in different housing systems requires use of a wide range of measures and of long-term studies.
Confinement has been shown to affect bone strenth in poultry but this weakness has not been documented in other species housed in confinement. The objectives of this experiment were to compare muscle weight and bone strength in non-pregnant sows, of similar age and parity, housed throughout eight or nine pregnancies in two different dry sow systems: (1) individually in stalls and (2) communally in a large group. Following slaughter, the left thoracic and pelvic limbs were dissected and 14 locomotor muscles removed and weighed. A proportional muscle weight was then calculated by dividing individual muscle weight (g) by total body weight (kg). Where there were significant differences, stall-housed sows had lower absolute and proportional muscle weights than group-housed sows. The left humerus and femur were also removed. The bones were broken by a three-point bend test using an Instron Universal Tester. Both bones from stall-housed sows had breaking strengths that were about two-thirds those of group-housed sows. The results indicate that confinement of sows, with a consequent lack of exercise, results in reduction of muscle weight and considerable reduction of bone strength.
The incidence of injuries to pregnant sows kept in dynamic groups in a commercial herd was recorded over a period of 18 months. The sows were maintained in a solid-floored building with a straw-bedded lying area allowing 1.7 m2 per sow and fed by means of electronic feeders. Injuries on 12 possible areas of the body were assessed every week, and graded on the scale of 0 to 3 (maximum body score 36). The lesion scores sustained by the sows were very low, with a maximum of 19 and a median of 4. Lesions of the greatest severity constituted only 0.16 per cent of all the recorded injuries. The injuries were not distributed uniformly over the body, most being on the shoulders, flanks and hindquarters, with very few on the head or in the vulval region. The total injury score was related to parity, with sows in parities one, two and three sustaining more injuries than sows in later parities, and it was also related negatively to bodyweight. More agonistic interactions were observed between sows in the lying area and in the vicinity of the feeders than in the dunging area.
The extent to which the size of the gestation stall, relative to the size of the sow, affects the normal basic postural behavioural needs of sows like standing, sitting and lying was assessed using 25 sows randomly selected from four farms. The postural behaviour of the animals was recorded using a time-lapse video recorder. The relationships of duration of postures, time taken for various postural changes and frequency of postural changes with stall measurements in relation to sow measurements were analysed. Negative correlations (P<0.01) were found between stall length relative to sow length and the duration of time for which the sows were standing. The relationships between the duration of postures and stall width relative to animal breadth were not different (P>0.05). The time taken to change from a standing to lying posture was negatively correlated (P<0.05) with stall length relative to animal length. Similar correlations (P<0.05) were noted between stall width relative animal breadth and the duration of postural change from standing to sitting and from sitting to standing. Stall width relative to animal breadth was negatively related to the frequency of postural change from standing to sitting (P<0.05). The results suggested that the freedom of movement of pregnant sows in stalls could be improved by a little increase in the space allowance within the stall.
The aggressive vice of vulva biting represents a real danger for the concept of group housing of pregnant sows. As it is primarily induced by the sows queuing up at the entrance to the computercontrolled feeding station, efforts were made to reduce the relative importance of this station. Also, the predictability of the feeding systems was improved. Among the entire group of 40 crossbred sows, the forming of subgroups of 10 animals was stimulated.The preliminary results of these actions were a considerable decrease in the incidence of damaged vulvae and a substantially lower number of sows waiting at the feeding station. These observations could not yet be confirmed statistically, but seem sufficiently promising to be published.
Seventy-eight Large-White×Landrace mixed parity sows were weaned from farrowing crates into groups of six and mixed into straw-bedded service pens with individual feeding stalls. Groups were transferred to similar gestation pens after 4 weeks where they remained until farrowing. In experiment 1 (n=24) lesion scores on days 1 (prior to mixing) 3, 7, 28, 56 and 84 were 0; 9.5; 6.5; 4.0; 5.0 and 6.0, respectively. Scores on day 3 were significantly higher than all other days (p
The effects of enrichment and floor type on the behaviour and welfare of cubicle loose-housed dry sows were investigated in a 2x2 factorial design with four replicates. Sixty-four dry sows were housed in groups of four in pens containing a communal exercise area and four feeding stalls. Pens were either enriched (using spent mushroom compost on suspended wood and wire flat racks) or barren (containing either a solid or part-slatted floor). Enrichment reduced aggressive behaviour, injuries, nosing the ground and lying with eyes open and led to an increase in lying with eyes closed. Floor type had no overall significant effect on sow behaviour. Presentation of spent mushroom compost on suspended racks was found to be a cheap and practical form of enrichment. Incorporation of this system into the design of cubicle loose housing could reduce many of the problems associated with this type of housing and improve the welfare of the sows.
Housing soivs in large groups is increasing in popularity but some group-housing systems may compromise subsequent reproductive performance. An experiment was designed to test this hypothesis using multiparous sows weaned at 21 ±2 days. Two treatments were studied: a stable group of 12 sows and a dynamic group of 18 sows. Both treatments had similar space allowances in the lying area (1·24 m2 per sow). Sows were allocated to treatment within 1 week of service and remained on treatment until after day 40 of pregnancy. Each stable treatment group remained unchanged, whereas sows were replaced weekly in the dynamic treatment. Sows were fed using a single electronic feeder for each pen. All sows were treated similarly for the rest of pregnancy. Eighty and 120 sows from the stable and dynamic treatments respectively completed pregnancy. Five second parity sows from the dynamic treatment were removed having suffered from aggression. The farrowing rate was 0·78 and 0·85 for stable and dynamic treatment sows respectively. The stable treatment sows had larger litters and a higher proportion of litters having 10 or more total piglets born (P < 0·01). The stable treatment showed a significantly heavier (P < 0·05) litter weight for total pigs born (16·9 v. 14.6 (s.e.d. 0·57) kg per litter). The parities were uneven so the data must be treated with caution. However, the results indicate that the present advice, that soivs should be housed in stable groups for the first 4 weeks of pregnancy, should remain unchanged.
Indicators of stress, behaviour in the pen, and lesions of the integument were used as indicators of sow well-being in a comparison of group housing with electronic sow feeding [GH] and confinement in gestation crates [C] in experiment 1, which included 2 × 4 groups of 20–25 sows. Effects of earlier experience with a gestation system on the indicators of stress was investigated in experiment 2, which included 2 × 3 groups of 20–25 sows. Reaction in a novelty test and reactivity in plasma Cortisol to the procedure of blood sampling were used as indicators of stress. Behaviour in the pen as well as lesions of the integument revealed that both gestation systems were suboptimal in some manner. However, following acclimatization for 1–2 weeks, young GH sows experienced less stress than young C sows as measured by reduced fear in the novelty test. In experiment 2 this interpretation was further supported by lower reactivity in plasma Cortisol. It was concluded that sow well-being was higher for the majority of the gestation period in young group-housed animals. Thus, in spite of the inadequate feeding method, well-being of sows may be improved in group housing systems with electronic sow feeding if the system is well functioning with low levels of aggression and vulva bites. One of the major determinants of vulva biting is suggested to be the mechanism of gate control.
A survey has been carried out to determine if welfare relevant differences could be found between the various systems of individual housing (stalls and tethering by neck collar, neck harness and shoulder girth) for dry sows. The pattern of lesions on the integument has been used as an indicator for well-being. The set up of this way of assessing well-being, called the Ekesbo Method, has been described briefly. Except for neck collar tethering, the sows did not show major differences in lesion level. Neck collar tethering is therefore strongly discouraged. The other systems are, to a large extent, comparable. Yet a number of system dependent differences do occur. Initial adaptation to tethering can be a problem. Also, when the size of the system is not in good harmony with the body size, the number of lesions increased. Shoulder girth, especially in combination with fixing to the partition, slightly hampered the sows when getting up. Also floor design had an influence on the lesion pattern. Poor quality slats induced an increase in the number of lesions. Between full concrete floors and good quality slats no difference could be demonstrated. The Ekesbo Method seems to be a useful way to assess well-being in different environments.
To determine whether there is a relationship between sow injuries and size of gestation stalls relative to sow size.
Prospective study.
267 pregnant sows.
Sows were randomly selected from 4 swine farms. Sow and stall measurements were obtained, and injuries were scored on the basis of location, number, and depth. Ratios of stall length to sow length and stall width to sow height were calculated.
High injury scores were associated with low ratios of stall length to sow length and stall width to sow height.
A small increase in stall dimensions could reduce injuries and improve well-being of sows considerably.
Selection of a sow group housing system for Prairie Swine Centre at Elstow. Available at www.albertapork.com/ producers/whjournal/winter02/article15.htm
- H W Gonyou