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Stability of SARS Coronavirus in Human Specimens and Environment and Its Sensitivity to Heating and UV Irradiation
Abstract
The causal agent for SARS is considered as a novel coronavirus that has never been described both in human and animals previously. The stability of SARS coronavirus in human specimens and in environments was studied.
Using a SARS coronavirus strain CoV-P9, which was isolated from pharyngeal swab of a probable SARS case in Beijing, its stability in mimic human specimens and in mimic environment including surfaces of commonly used materials or in household conditions, as well as its resistance to temperature and UV irradiation were analyzed. A total of 10(6) TCID50 viruses were placed in each tested condition, and changes of the viral infectivity in samples after treatments were measured by evaluating cytopathic effect (CPE) in cell line Vero-E6 at 48 h after infection.
The results showed that SARS coronavirus in the testing condition could survive in serum, 1:20 diluted sputum and feces for at least 96 h, whereas it could remain alive in urine for at least 72 h with a low level of infectivity. The survival abilities on the surfaces of eight different materials and in water were quite comparable, revealing reduction of infectivity after 72 to 96 h exposure. Viruses stayed stable at 4 degrees C, at room temperature (20 degrees C) and at 37 degrees C for at least 2 h without remarkable change in the infectious ability in cells, but were converted to be non-infectious after 90-, 60- and 30-min exposure at 56 degrees C, at 67 degrees C and at 75 degrees C, respectively. Irradiation of UV for 60 min on the virus in culture medium resulted in the destruction of viral infectivity at an undetectable level.
The survival ability of SARS coronavirus in human specimens and in environments seems to be relatively strong. Heating and UV irradiation can efficiently eliminate the viral infectivity.
... The persistence of viruses on different types of surfaces varies greatly [20], on some nonporous surface (metal, glass or plastic), viruses can live for hours to days [21][22][23], and viruses survive shorter on some porous surfaces than nonporous surface [22,[24][25][26]. Additional, virus aggregation on surfaces helps to prolong the survival time of viruses [27]. ...
... The duration of the virus on the antiviral surface will be shortened [28][29][30]. Although there have been a series studies on the survival of viruses on porous surfaces [23,25,29,31], current research on viruses on porous surface mostly focuses on their persistence, with limited investigation into the surface and virus properties impact on virus persistence on porous surfaces. To the best of our knowledge, there are no reports on the sustainability of viruses on the surface of architecture porous coatings. ...
... Since inviting laboratory studies for patients is mainly done manually and on paper, healthcare personnel such as doctors, chemists, and nurses, as well as medical and laboratory professionals, have a considerable probability of contracting COVID-19. SARS-CoV strain P9 has been reported to persist on a variety of non-living surfaces, including paper, for up to 4-5 days at room temperature [52]. SARS-CoV strain GVU6109 survived for 24 hours on paper at normal temperature, according to Lai et al., [53]. ...
Coronavirus disease is a contagious respiratory ailment that has spread significantly around the world. Most cases of COVID-19 are spread from person to person by coming into contact with respiratory droplets that are released when an infected person coughs or sneezes. In this manuscript, we have highlighted the possible transmission of COVID-19 through food, water, air and paper. In the case of food, we have extensively covered the transmission of COVID-19 through meat, frozen foods, food packaging and food market along with the incidences worldwide. In the nextsection, we have highlighted the different components of air which are responsible for the transmission and also covered its relation with PM 2.5 incidence. The SARS-CoV-2 was isolated from sewage water/wastewater of various countries namely the United States, India, Australia, Netherlands and France signifying that wastewater can be a mode of virus transmission. The paper circulation by the infected COVID-19 patients can also be a virus conveyance route. It can be concluded that SARS-CoV-2 can therefore be transmitted indirectly through food via the workers involved in food packing or food marts.By following general safety precautions (wearing masks, using hand sanitisers, cleaning and disinfecting contact surfaces, and avoiding close contact), heating and using chemicals like ethanol (67-71%), sodium hypochlorite (0.1%) and hydrogen peroxide (0.5%) on environmental surfaces, along with vaccination, it is possible to reduce the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
... Finally, the mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 inactivation remain poorly understood. In order to assess the effectiveness of alternative risk reduction techniques, it is necessary to know how environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, chemical concentrations, ultraviolet irradiation) affect the viability of SARS-CoV-2 [94][95][96]. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has given rise to numerous articles from different scientific fields (epidemiology, virology, immunology, airflow physics...) without any effort to link these different insights. In this review, we aim to establish relationships between epidemiological data and the characteristics of the virus strain responsible for the epidemic wave concerned. We have carried out this study on the Wuhan, Alpha, Delta and Omicron strains allowing us to illustrate the evolution of the relationships we have highlighted according to these different viral strains. We addressed the following questions. 1) How can the mean infectious dose (one quantum, by definition in epidemiology) be measured and expressed as an amount of viral RNA molecules (in genome units, GU) or as a number of replicative viral particles (in plaque-forming units, PFU)? 2) How many infectious quanta are exhaled by an infected person per unit of time? 3) How many infectious quanta are exhaled, on average, integrated over the whole contagious period? 4) How do these quantities relate to the epidemic reproduction rate R as measured in epidemiology, and to the viral load, as measured by molecular biological methods? 5) How has the infectious dose evolved with the different strains of SARS-CoV-2? We make use of state-of-the-art modelling, reviewed and explained in the appendix of the article (Supplemental Information, SI), to answer these questions using data from the literature in both epidemiology and virology. We have considered the modification of these relationships according to the vaccination status of the population.
Purpose: To determine types of refractive error and Visual Outcome with spectacles and
telescopes in Albinism
Methodology: This was a Cross Sectional study conducted in Low Vision Department of Shifa
Eye Foundation Hospital Haripur. Study duration was 6 months from March 2020 to September
2020. Sampling technique was non-probability convenience sampling. Refractive errors were
evaluated subjectively and objectively. Best corrected visual acuity with spectacles and
telescopes were assessed binocularly.
Results: A total of 37 patients with Albinism were examined and divided into two groups i.e.,
Ocular Albinism (OA) and Oculocutaneous Albinism (OCA). The frequency of OCA was 29
and that of OA was 07. OCA Astigmatism was the most common refractive error about 72.41%.
Astigmatism was found with a mean value of 2.71D. Myopia had a mean value of -6.7D, while
the degree of Hyperopia was found with a mean value of 7.20D. Main Refractive Errors found
among OA was Myopia and Astigmatism with equal percentage of 42.85%, Hyperopia was
14.28%. Myopia was found with a mean value of - 9.66D. Astigmatism was found with a mean
value of 3.5D and Hyperopia was 5.12D. In OCA the uncorrected Visual Acuity (VA) was
found with a mean value of 0.99 Log MAR. In OA it was found with a mean value of 0.90 Log
MAR. With Spectacle in OCA it was 0.82 Log MAR while with Galilean telescope the value
was 0.54 Log MAR. With Keplerian telescope it was 0.25 Log MAR and in OA with Spectacles
the mean value was 0.72 Log MAR.
Conclusion: Astigmatism was the most significant refractive error among Albino patients. VA
had improved with spectacles and telescopes. Keplerian telescope improved vision more
significantly compared with Spectacles and Galilean telescope.
The recent pandemic, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has been transmitted globally within a very short time. At present, researchers are trying to identify the elements and possible ways to reduce the COVID-19-associated health burden. Meteorological parameters have an important impact on the outcome of a pandemic. This study investigated the effects of environmental factors: temperature (maximum, minimum, and average), relative humidity, UV index, wind velocity, and rainfall on the global epidemic in six continents. Also, it included an evaluation of the possible correlation of environmental factors, population density, and social and religious gatherings with COVID-19 transmission and mortality. Population density and the cases of COVID-19 had the highest correlation. Among environmental factors, temperature, UV index, and relative humidity most profoundly impacted the pandemic. In this manner, this study creates a clear concept on the correlation between weather and the ongoing pandemic of COVID-19, providing a guideline for both the local and international authorities to make proper decisions on reducing the health burden of the ongoing pandemic.
Wastewater is one of the most important ways of transmitting viral and bacterial pathogens that can cause nosocomial and clinical infections in humans. Although previous studies show that there is no current evidence that active coronaviruses are present in surface or ground waters or are transmitted through contaminated drinking water, there is an urgent need for more effective preventive measures to limit the spread of infection, which depends on understanding their routes of transmission and persistence in different environments. Here is a narrative review of the survival of the coronavirus family in feces, urine, and wastewater. Articles related to the presence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 in feces, urine, and wastewater and their survival time were searched in the literature. Articles published in the last decade (2000–2021) were selected based on the PRISMA method. The literature review showed that due to the high concentration of RNA virus in blood and urine samples with positive oral and anal swabs, no positive case has been reported using respiratory tests. The main findings of this review show that the maximum survival time of the SARS-CoV-2 in feces and urine was 33 and 31 days, respectively. Moreover, environmental conditions (temperature and pH) are the most important factors in the survival of SRRS-CoV in feces, urine, and wastewater. This study provides researchers with basic and useful information for future research orientations in relation to wastewater treatment plant systems to eliminate and manage emerging viral contaminants.
Due to the recent pandemic, people are becoming conscious of the spread of germsdue to direct as well as indirect contact. The process of last mile delivery that is delivery directly to the house of customers from their nearby businesses and shops have suffered andreduced. This is due to no measures being taken to ensure cleanliness or sanitation during the process. The project described below is aimed at designing a robot capable of autonomous operation which will help with last mile delivery in India. This will help in providing consumers with a safe option for delivery. A compartment for storing the product,which also acts as the disinfection compartment is added to the product. The compartment will be equipped with disinfection mechanisms like UV Light disinfection, dehumidifying apparatus and disinfection spray to kill microbes present on the surface of the package.
For the past three years the COVID-19 pandemic has received much global attention due to the high risk of fatality and human-to-human transmission. This pandemic has forced changes in every sector as well as in different aspects of everyone's daily lives. Travelling has had a critical role in contributing to its transmission by negatively influencing the majority of public health. The hospitality and tourism industry is subject to being immediately influenced by the external environment. This chapter explains how COVID-19 has affected food and beverage operations and safety in the sector and the global economy. New rules and regulations are described in detail. The future of food and beverage operations has changed by integrating technology, touchless contact, social distancing, and hygiene precautions, focusing on domestic travel, virtual tourism, and luxury travel.
In March 2003, a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV) was discovered in association with cases of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). The sequence of the complete genome of SARS-CoV was determined, and the initial characterization of the viral genome is presented in this report. The genome of SARS-CoV is 29,727 nucleotides in length and has 11 open reading frames, and its genome organization is similar to that of other coronaviruses. Phylogenetic analyses and sequence comparisons showed that SARS-CoV is not closely related to any of the previously characterized coronaviruses.
Information on the clinical features of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) will be of value to physicians caring for patients suspected of having this disorder.
We abstracted data on the clinical presentation and course of disease in 10 epidemiologically linked Chinese patients (5 men and 5 women 38 to 72 years old) in whom SARS was diagnosed between February 22, 2003, and March 22, 2003, at our hospitals in Hong Kong, China.
Exposure between the source patient and subsequent patients ranged from minimal to that between patient and health care provider. The incubation period ranged from 2 to 11 days. All patients presented with fever (temperature, >38 degrees C for over 24 hours), and most presented with rigor, dry cough, dyspnea, malaise, headache, and hypoxemia. Physical examination of the chest revealed crackles and percussion dullness. Lymphopenia was observed in nine patients, and most patients had mildly elevated aminotransferase levels but normal serum creatinine levels. Serial chest radiographs showed progressive air-space disease. Two patients died of progressive respiratory failure; histologic analysis of their lungs showed diffuse alveolar damage. There was no evidence of infection by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, or Legionella pneumophila. All patients received corticosteroid and ribavirin therapy a mean (+/-SD) of 9.6+/-5.42 days after the onset of symptoms, and eight were treated earlier with a combination of beta-lactams and macrolide for 4+/-1.9 days, with no clinical or radiologic efficacy.
SARS appears to be infectious in origin. Fever followed by rapidly progressive respiratory compromise is the key complex of signs and symptoms from which the syndrome derives its name. The microbiologic origins of SARS remain unclear.
There has been an outbreak of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) worldwide. We report the clinical, laboratory, and radiologic features of 138 cases of suspected SARS during a hospital outbreak in Hong Kong.
From March 11 to 25, 2003, all patients with suspected SARS after exposure to an index patient or ward were admitted to the isolation wards of the Prince of Wales Hospital. Their demographic, clinical, laboratory, and radiologic characteristics were analyzed. Clinical end points included the need for intensive care and death. Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed.
There were 66 male patients and 72 female patients in this cohort, 69 of whom were health care workers. The most common symptoms included fever (in 100 percent of the patients); chills, rigors, or both (73.2 percent); and myalgia (60.9 percent). Cough and headache were also reported in more than 50 percent of the patients. Other common findings were lymphopenia (in 69.6 percent), thrombocytopenia (44.8 percent), and elevated lactate dehydrogenase and creatine kinase levels (71.0 percent and 32.1 percent, respectively). Peripheral air-space consolidation was commonly observed on thoracic computed tomographic scanning. A total of 32 patients (23.2 percent) were admitted to the intensive care unit; 5 patients died, all of whom had coexisting conditions. In a multivariate analysis, the independent predictors of an adverse outcome were advanced age (odds ratio per decade of life, 1.80; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.16 to 2.81; P=0.009), a high peak lactate dehydrogenase level (odds ratio per 100 U per liter, 2.09; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.28 to 3.42; P=0.003), and an absolute neutrophil count that exceeded the upper limit of the normal range on presentation (odds ratio, 1.60; 95 percent confidence interval, 1.03 to 2.50; P=0.04).
SARS is a serious respiratory illness that led to significant morbidity and mortality in our cohort.
A worldwide outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) has been associated with exposures originating from a single ill health care worker from Guangdong Province, China. We conducted studies to identify the etiologic agent of this outbreak.
We received clinical specimens from patients in seven countries and tested them, using virus-isolation techniques, electron-microscopical and histologic studies, and molecular and serologic assays, in an attempt to identify a wide range of potential pathogens.
None of the previously described respiratory pathogens were consistently identified. However, a novel coronavirus was isolated from patients who met the case definition of SARS. Cytopathological features were noted in Vero E6 cells inoculated with a throat-swab specimen. Electron-microscopical examination revealed ultrastructural features characteristic of coronaviruses. Immunohistochemical and immunofluorescence staining revealed reactivity with group I coronavirus polyclonal antibodies. Consensus coronavirus primers designed to amplify a fragment of the polymerase gene by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were used to obtain a sequence that clearly identified the isolate as a unique coronavirus only distantly related to previously sequenced coronaviruses. With specific diagnostic RT-PCR primers we identified several identical nucleotide sequences in 12 patients from several locations, a finding consistent with a point-source outbreak. Indirect fluorescence antibody tests and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays made with the new isolate have been used to demonstrate a virus-specific serologic response. This virus may never before have circulated in the U.S. population.
A novel coronavirus is associated with this outbreak, and the evidence indicates that this virus has an etiologic role in SARS. Because of the death of Dr. Carlo Urbani, we propose that our first isolate be named the Urbani strain of SARS-associated coronavirus.
We sequenced the 29,751-base genome of the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated coronavirus known as the Tor2 isolate. The genome sequence reveals that this coronavirus is only moderately related to other known coronaviruses, including two human coronaviruses, HCoV-OC43 and HCoV-229E. Phylogenetic analysis of the predicted viral proteins indicates that the virus does not closely resemble any of the three previously known groups of coronaviruses. The genome sequence will aid in the diagnosis of SARS virus infection in humans and potential animal hosts (using polymerase chain reaction and immunological tests), in the development of antivirals (including neutralizing antibodies), and in the identification of putative epitopes for vaccine development.
The susceptibility of laboratory mice to intranasal and contact infection with mouse hepatitis virus (MHV)-related coronaviruses was tested in infant CD1 mice. One day old mouse pups were inoculated intranasally with respiratory MHV-S, enteric MHV-Y, rat sialodacryoadenitis virus (SDAV), human coronavirus OC43 (HCV-OC43) or bovine coronavirus (BCV). Twenty-four hours later, they were placed in direct contact with age matched sham inoculated pups. Indices of infection in virus inoculated mice included lesions by histopathology and viral antigen by immunoperoxidase histochemistry in brain, lung, liver and intestine at 3 days after inoculation. Indices of infection in contact mice included mortality or seroconversion by 21 days after exposure. Infant mice were susceptible to infection with all five viruses. Transmission by direct contact exposure occurred with MHV and SDAV, but not HCV or BCV. Furthermore, adult mice were not susceptible to infection with HCV. Tissue distribution of lesions and antigen varied markedly among viruses, indicating that they do not induce the same disease as MHV. This study demonstrates that although these coronaviruses are antigenically closely related, they are biologically different viruses and disease patterns in susceptible infant mice can be used to differentiate viruses.
Rhinoviruses are picornaviruses that cause colds. They are naturally temperature sensitive and highly adapted to grow in respiratory epithelium. Coronaviruses are structurally quite different, being enveloped viruses but are also adapted to grow in respiratory epithelium and also cause colds.
The quasispecies nature of three animal pathogenic RNA viruses of field origin was examined by testing variants of classical swine fever virus (CSFV) originating from geographically different areas, feline coronavirus (FCoV) detected from the same animal by successive sampling, and rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) originating from successive outbreaks in the same geographic area. Clinical samples were investigated using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and ensuing single strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) assay. By the combination of these methods even subtle differences could be detected among the amplified fragments of the same virus species of different origin. FCoV proved to comprise the most and CSFV the less heterogeneous virus quasispecies. The results show that the combination of RT-PCR and SSCP provides novel and highly sensitive means for the characterisation of RNA viruses, with special regard to genome composition, evolution, features of pathogenicity and molecular epizootiology.
An outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) has been reported in Hong Kong. We investigated the viral cause and clinical presentation among 50 patients.
We analysed case notes and microbiological findings for 50 patients with SARS, representing more than five separate epidemiologically linked transmission clusters. We defined the clinical presentation and risk factors associated with severe disease and investigated the causal agents by chest radiography and laboratory testing of nasopharyngeal aspirates and sera samples. We compared the laboratory findings with those submitted for microbiological investigation of other diseases from patients whose identity was masked.
Patients' age ranged from 23 to 74 years. Fever, chills, myalgia, and cough were the most frequent complaints. When compared with chest radiographic changes, respiratory symptoms and auscultatory findings were disproportionally mild. Patients who were household contacts of other infected people and had older age, lymphopenia, and liver dysfunction were associated with severe disease. A virus belonging to the family Coronaviridae was isolated from two patients. By use of serological and reverse-transcriptase PCR specific for this virus, 45 of 50 patients with SARS, but no controls, had evidence of infection with this virus.
A coronavirus was isolated from patients with SARS that might be the primary agent associated with this disease. Serological and molecular tests specific for the virus permitted a definitive laboratory diagnosis to be made and allowed further investigation to define whether other cofactors play a part in disease progression.