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Growth in body size affects rotational performance in women’s gymnastics
Abstract
National and state representative female gymnasts (n = 37), aged initially between 10 and 12 years, completed a mixed longitudinal study over 3.3 years, to investigate the effect of body size on gymnastic performance. Subjects were tested at four-monthly intervals on a battery of measures including structural growth, strength and gymnastic performance. The group were divided into 'high growers' and 'low growers' based on height (> 18 cm or < 14 cm/37 months, respectively) and body mass (> 15 kg or < 12 kg/37 months, respectively) for comparative purposes. Development of gymnastic performance was assessed through generic skills (front and back rotations, a twisting jump and a V-sit action) and a vertical jump for maximum height. The results show that the smaller gymnast, with a high strength to mass ratio, has greater potential for performing skills involving whole-body rotations. Larger gymnasts, while able to produce more power and greater angular momentum, could not match the performance of the smaller ones. The magnitude of growth experienced by the gymnast over this period has a varying effect on performance. While some activities were greatly influenced by rapid increases in whole-body moment of inertia (e.g. back rotation), performance on others like the front rotation and vertical jump, appeared partly immune to the physical and mechanical changes associated with growth.
... As a gymnast progresses towards biological maturity, the processes of growth and maturation play vital roles in the interaction of the gymnast with the demands of the sport. Physical development is a dynamic and nonlinear process, with periods of rapid change inducing heightened vulnerability to injury (Brüggemann, 2010) and potential performance decrement (Ackland et al., 2003). The physical changes young gymnasts undergo induce complex relationships between the biology and mechanics of the gymnast's body, grounding the need for consideration of biomechanical changes throughout this time. ...
... Schärer et al. (2019a) demonstrated the potential for optimisation of important physical determinants to increase the potential to perform more difficult handspring/Tsukahara vaults. Changing morphology throughout the process of growth has a notable influence on the performance of specific types of skills including foundational handstand skills (Wyatt et al., 2020) and rotational skills (Ackland et al., 2003). Gymnasts' biomechanical properties induce skill-specific consequences, for example, growth has been found to have greater influence on back rotations than front rotations and vertical jump performance (Ackland et al., 2003). ...
... Changing morphology throughout the process of growth has a notable influence on the performance of specific types of skills including foundational handstand skills (Wyatt et al., 2020) and rotational skills (Ackland et al., 2003). Gymnasts' biomechanical properties induce skill-specific consequences, for example, growth has been found to have greater influence on back rotations than front rotations and vertical jump performance (Ackland et al., 2003). Mechanical attributes of physical development such as altered stiffness properties, segmental masses, centre of mass positioning and segment inertial parameters directly affect a gymnasts' ability to perform certain skills. ...
The sport of gymnastics is undergoing a global examination of its culture and the relationship between the gymnast, coach and environment is a central focus. The aim of this review is to explore biomechanics and motor control research in skill development and technique selection in artistic gymnastics with a focus on the underlying concepts and scientific principles that allow performance enhancement, skill development and injury risk reduction. The current review examines peer reviewed papers from 2000 onwards, with a focus on contemporary approaches in the field of gymnastics research, and highlights several key directions for future gymnastics research. Based on our review and the integration of the models of Newell and Irwin et al. (2005), we recommend that future gymnastics research should embrace at the very least a multidisciplinary approach and aim for an interdisciplinary paradigm.
... To our knowledge, no scientific papers were published on this topic so far, thus the aim of this case study is to report a preliminary research we carried out on three top-level pole dancers with the purpose to provide a first model of performance under a physical and physiological standpoint. Other individual sports, such as gymnastics, subjected to the quality assessment by a jury, [3][4][5][6][7][8] have been studied to define biomechanical and physiological models of performance. These models are considered of fundamental relevance by the coaches, in order to design training sessions consistent with the demands of the performance. ...
... The blood lactate concentration data confirm the glycolytic nature of the pole dance (ranging from 11.43 to 8.16 mmol/L, from 1' to 12' after the end of performance). In particular, we emphasize that the blood lactate concentrations we found are greater than the average blood lactate concentration found during different women's sports performances, such as in women's gymnastics, in sport dance, etc. [3,4,21,22,27]. Since the pole dance performances show a certain degree of the total workload based on Page: 12 www.raftpubs.com the ability to perform some strong isometric contractions, and knowing the possible implications that this kind of exercise might have on the blood pressure, we reported the values of the BP taken before and after the completion of this simulated competition (Figure 1). ...
The aim of this study was to investigate the physical and physiological demands of three top-level pole dancers' performances during a simulated competition. Three elite pole dancers, participated in the study. Physical data pertaining to the accelerations and the rotational values were collected. A complete video footage was recorded. Blood Pressure, Heart Rates, Blood Lactate concentrations were recorded during the performance. Before and after the simulated competitions some postural stability tests were also performed. Accelerations along the vertical axis reached 2G and rotational movements around the pole, reached 400°/s. Blood Pressure values ranged from 120/75 before and to 145/58 mmHg at the end of performance, respectively. Heart Rates reached a mean peak value of 114% of the Maximal Estimated Heart Rates (HRmax) and a mean HRmax% of 74.59±8.82% during the simulated competition. Blood Lactate concentration ranged from 11.43±2.13 to 10.63±1.65 mmol/L measured at 1 min and 5 min after the completion of the competition, respectively. Postural effects were observed on balance, after the performances. The results of this case study confirm that the Pole Dancing requires heavy physiological and physical demands on the performers. Specific training routines should be designed in order to cope efficiently with this physical activity.
... En relación al grupo de gimnastas, la mayoría presenta un IMC normopeso con diferencias significativas con un tamaño del efecto moderado, lo que determinaría la consistencia de esas diferencias (87% chicos y 56% chicas) o peso ligeramente bajo con delgadez grado I y II, no estando ningún gimnasta en niveles de sobrepeso y obesidad establecidos por los . Estos resultados, pueden ser debidos a la importancia que se le da al beneficio de un bajo peso en la práctica de estos deportes y su influencia en el rendimiento (Ackland et al., 2003). ...
El objetivo analizar y comparar la insatisfacción corporal y medidas antropométricas en dos grupos de adolescentes practicantes y no practicantes de gimnasia acrobática. Participaron 269 adolescentes de ambos sexos (165 grupo control y 104 gimnastas) entre 11 y 19 años de edad. La insatisfacción corporal fue evaluada con el Body Shape Questionnaire (BSQ) y se calcularon el índice de masa corporal (IMC), la razón cintura- estatura y el porcentaje de grasa corporal (%GC). Los gimnastas alcanzaron puntuaciones significativamente más elevadas de satisfacción corporal que los no practicantes en ambos sexos, presentando rangos promedio inferiores en todas las variables antropométricas con diferencias significativas. La puntuación global del BSQ se correlacionó con la edad, el pliegue subescapular y %GC en los gimnastas, existiendo solo relaciones entre las medidas antropométricas entre sí en el grupo control. Como conclusión, la insatisfacción corporal es mayor en el grupo control existiendo relación entre la práctica de la gimnasia acrobática y una mayor satisfacción corporal.
... [13] Wide shoulders and narrow hips featuring handball players and gymnasts indicate differential truncal growth pattern during adolescence. [9,14,15] Change in truncal growth pattern favors the performance of young athletes in sports but also increases risk of injuries. [12] Yogasana is now popular among children from an early age, but scientific studies on the truncal growth pattern of yogasana-practising children and adolescents are yet to be assessed. ...
BACKGROUND: Truncal growth forms a robust skeletal frame which determines athletic execution. At present, yogasana practice is in high demand.
AIM: Thus, the evaluation of effect of yogasana on growth pattern during childhood and adolescence (aged 4–15 years) is required.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted on Bengalee children of similar socioeconomic status. Anthropometric measurements, namely height (stature), biacromial breadth, and bicristal breadth were analyzed from 864 yogasana-practitioners (YPs) and 738 untrained control participants (CPs), subgrouped into yogasana-practising boys (YBs), yogasana-practising girls (YGs), control boys (CBs), and control girls (CGs). Unpaired t-test was performed to assess the level of significance between the anthropometric parameters of different groups. Correlation of breadth ratio and stature with biacromial and bicristal breadth was determined by Pearson's correlation coefficient.
RESULTS: YP had significantly greater biacromial breadth (P < 0.05) and bicristal breadth (P < 0.05) than CP. The mean biacromial breadth decreased, especially in YG. The shoulder and pelvis size were significantly different between YB and CB but not so among females. Growth in breadth ratio was also strongly correlated with bicristal breadth growth.
CONCLUSION: Medium-sized shoulder and pelvis in YB and medium-sized shoulder relative to narrow-sized pelvis in YG nullifies the effect of yogasana training on specific bodily growth of YP. Hence, in contrast with high-demand sports, yogasana practice is not reflected on truncal growth.
... Although there is no existing literature specifically exploring skill loss in artistic gymnasts during rapid growth, changes in both rotation and postural control during a handstand as a result of growth have been noted in artistic gymnastics. 31,32 Alongside a temporary loss or confusion of skill, coaches attributed more emotions to hormones, injuries and the overall changes that occur as a result of maturation. Adolescence is a time where emotions intensify and fluctuate more rapidly. ...
Growth-related and overuse injuries are commonly reported in young gymnasts. Two risk factors of these injuries are growth and maturation, and training load. However, little is known regarding current coaching knowledge and practice in relation to these risk factors. To help understand current knowledge and practice, 44 coaches of competitive, young gymnasts, from 3 gymnastics disciplines (men's artistic, women's artistic, trampoline) took part in focus groups. The focus groups explored the awareness, experience and practice of coaches in relation to growth and maturation, training load and injury in competitive, young gymnasts. Data were analysed manually using an inductive thematic approach to identify core themes. The findings showed that coaches were aware of the physical changes and injuries that occur during the adolescent growth spurt. Both psychological changes and skill loss/confusion were also identified as challenges during this time. The knowledge and practice of monitoring growth and maturation, and training load did however differ between disciplines. Sports science and medicine practitioners were recognised as key stakeholders in helping manage and reduce the risk of injuries during growth. There appears to be gap between coach knowledge of growth and maturation, and training load, and practices such as monitoring training load and growth. Educating coaches and further research in these areas will aid coaches in reducing the risk of injuries in young, competitive gymnasts.
... Physical morphology or physical structure, body weight or composition, body size, and shape are important to optimize performance in many sports (Slater, O'Connor, & Kerr, 2018;Durakovic, 2012). Body height and body weight have been demonstrated to affect performance in rotational movements (Ackland, Elliott, & Richards, 2003). The physical size of the body can have biomechanical effects in the figure skating; acceleration, stopping, tossing, skidding, lifting, rotating, etc. ...
In order to monitor training effects and physical developments in elite sports, it may be beneficial to perform anthropometric measurements and physical fitness tests regularly. In this study, the relationship between the anthropometric properties and physical fitness values of elite figure skating athletes were investigated. 21 elite athletes in the 11-16 age group, female (n=12) and male (n=9), participated in the study. Anthropometric measurements were taken in accordance with The International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) protocol. Σ6 and Σ8 skinfold thickness, body fat ratio (BF%), body mass index (BMI), Manouvrier Index (MI), waist/hip ratio and somatotype components in girls Group II, III and in boys Group II were calculated. Also, balance, flexibility, handgrip strength, vertical jump, agility, medicine ball overhead back throw, speed, and endurance tests were applied to all groups. Descriptive statistical analyzes were made using the IBM SPSS 25.0 statistics program. The relationship between variables was calculated by the Pearson Correlation coefficient. The significance level was taken as p<0.01 and p<0.05. In boys, body weight, body height and arm span, sitting height, BMI, humerus breadth and foot length were observed to be associated with all physical fitness parameters (p<0.01, p<0.05), except balance and agility; Girth measurements were related to handgrip strength, vertical jump, overhead medicine ball backward throw, speed and endurance (p<0.01, p<0.05). Negative relationships of the endomorphic feature with flexibility and endurance were determined (p<0.05). In girls, it was found that body weight, body height, and arm span, sitting height and BMI were related to flexibility, handgrip strength, medicine ball overhead back throw (p<0.01, p<0.05); girth measurements were found to be related to flexibility, handgrip strength, vertical jump, overhead medicine ball back throw (p<0.01, p<0.05); also, significant correlations (p<0.01, p<0.05) were found between the handgrip strength and breadth measurements. Assessment of the relationship between morphological features and motor skills with specific field tests and standardized tests performed at regular intervals in athletes can contribute to the athletes' selection and training planning of the relevant federations and orientating towards their goals.
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ENGLISH BELOW>O cheerleading vem crescendo significativamente ao redor do planeta. Não por acaso, recebeu em 2021, diretamente do Comitê Olímpico Internacional (COI), o reconhecimento mais alto concedido à uma modalidade esportiva, o primeiro passo oficial para um esporte participar dos Jogos Olímpicos. No Brasil, a modalidade está fortemente presente em universidades, assim como o número de ginásios especializados em cheerleading aumentam exponencialmente. A partir do status concedido pelo COI e dado o progressivo crescimento do cheerleading no país, este projeto visa, portanto, à luz da teoria em gestão do esporte, discutir quais são as perspectivas de desenvolvimento do cheerleading no curto, médio e longo prazo no Brasil. Para isso, enquanto procedimento metodológico, a pesquisa qualitativa foi
escolhida e aplicada através de um roteiro de entrevista semiestruturada realizada com coaches de cheerleading, como são conhecidos os treinadores e treinadores da modalidade, que atuam na cidade de São Paulo e região e que possuem relevância nacional, de forma a compreender o perfil daqueles que atuam como gestores da modalidade no país, bem como identificar os principais desafios em prol de seu desenvolvimento no cenário nacional, destacando aqui a gestão esportiva da modalidade e a promoção da saúde do cheerleader. Como principais resultados, observamos que o cheerleading cresceu de forma amadora, porém, no momento, está inserido em um processo de regularização, vide a recém-criada
Confederação Brasileira de Cheerleading e Dança. Em segundo lugar, verificamos os principais desafios vividos pelos gestores no curto e médio prazo: a dificuldade em obter patrocínio e a necessidade de regularização da modalidade no país. No longo prazo, questões acerca da profissionalização da gestão, a exigência da formação em Educação Física e a ampliação do cheerleading para as categorias de base foram mencionadas. Incentivar a promoção da saúde do praticante também foi amplamente debatido nesta pesquisa, visto que a modalidade envolve um altíssimo risco devido aos arremessos e elevações característicos. Espera-se que os dados obtidos através desta pesquisa embasem futuras produções acadêmicas sobre o cheerleading no país, visto que a modalidade vem se expandido expressivamente, e que, justamente, é digna de maior aprofundamento científico.
Cheerleading has been growing significantly around the planet. Not by chance, in 2021, directly from the International Olympic Committee (IOC), received the highest recognition given to a sport, the first official step for a sport to participate in the Olympic Games. In Brazil, the modality is strongly present in universities, and the number of gyms specializing in cheerleading has increased exponentially. Based
on the status granted by the IOC and given the progressive growth of cheerleading in the country, this project aims, therefore, in the light of sport management theory, to discuss what are the prospects for the development of cheerleading in the short, medium, and long term in Brazil. For this, as a methodological procedure, the qualitative research was chosen and applied through a semi-structured
interview script carried out with cheerleading coaches from the city of São Paulo and regions that have national relevance to understanding the profile of those who act as managers of the modality in the country, as well as identifying the main challenges for its development on the national scene, highlighting here the sport management of the modality and the promotion of cheerleader health. As
the main results, we observed that cheerleading grew in an amateur way; however, at the moment, it is inserted in the process of regularization, see the recently created Brazilian Confederation of Cheerleading and Dance. Second, we verified the main challenges faced by managers in the short and medium term: the difficulty in obtaining sponsorship and the need to regularize the sport in the country.
In the long term, the coaches mentioned questions about the professionalization of management, the requirement of training in Physical Education, and the expansion of cheerleading to the basic categories. Encouraging the health promotion of the practitioner was also widely discussed in this research since the modality involves a very high risk due to the characteristic throws and elevations. We expect that the
data obtained through this research will support future academic productions on cheerleading in the country since the modality has expanded significantly, which is worthy of further scientific investigation.
Artistik cimnastik erken yaşta özelleşmeyi gerektiren estetik sporlar arasında yer almaktadır. Cimnastiğin doğası gereği erken çocukluk döneminden itibaren yapılan mekanik yüklenmeler tüm dünyada yaygın bir uygulamadır. Ancak kadın ve erkek cimnastikçileher ne kadar benzer antrenman yüküne maruz kalsalar da antrenman yoğunluğu ve algılanan zorlanma düzeyi cinsiyete göre farklılık göstermektedir. Bu farklılıklar cimnastikçilerin biyolojik büyüme ve olgunlaşma sürecini etkileyip etkilemediğine dair tartışmalar yaratmıştır. Bu nedenle bu derlemenin amacı, özellikle artistik cimnastik antrenmanlarının büyüme ve olgunlaşma üzerine olası etkilerine dair mevcut araştırmaları özetleyerek olası faktörleri belirlemektedir.Materyal & Metot:Bu derleme araştırılırken PubMed, Google Scholar ve Elsevier veri tabanı kullanıldı. Anahtar kelimeler “artistik cimnastik” “cimnastik” “büyüme” “gelişme” “olgunlaşma” “kadın cimnastikçiler” erkek cimnastikçiler” “ergen cimnastikçiler” “ağırlık antrenmanı” “ergenlik ve cimnastik” “cimnastik ve boy uzunluğu” “cimnastikçilerde hormonal düzenleme” “cimnastik ve diyet” “kadın cimnastiği ve menarş” “cimnastik ve iskelet sistemi” terimlerinin varyasyonları kombine olarak yazılarak, toplam 75bilimsel makale incelendi. Sonuç:Yapılan incelemelerin sonuçlarına dayanarak cimnastik antrenmanlarının cimnastikçilerde büyümeyi ve olgunlaşmayı etkilediğine dair kesin bir kanıt olmadığı sonucuna varıldı.
Purpose: Artistic Gymnastics is among the aesthetic sports that require specialization at an early age. Due to the nature of gymnastics, mechanical loading from early childhood is a common practice all over the world. However, although female and male gymnasts are exposed to similar training load, training intensity and rating of perceived exertion differ by gender. These differences have created debate as to whether gymnasts influence the process of biological growth and maturation. Therefore, the purpose of this review is to summarize existing research on the possible effects of artistic gymnastics training on growth and maturation, in particular, and identify possible factors. Material & Method: PubMed, Google Scholar and Elsevier databases were used to investigate this review article. "Artistic gymnastics" "gymnastics" "growth" "development" "maturation" "female gymnasts" male gymnasts" "adolescent gymnasts "adolescence and gymnastics" "gymnastics and height " "hormonal regulation in gymnasts " "combining variations of the terms “gymnastics and diet”, "female gymnast and menarche" "gymnastics and skeletal system" has been written with the combination of the variations of the terms as keywords and a total of 75 scientific articles were reviewed. Result: According to the results of the research, it was concluded that there is no conclusive evidence that gymnastics training affects
growth and maturation in gymnasts.
Adolescence is a critical period that is heightened for dancers, whether participating recreationally or vocationally. Changes are situated within a highly complex setting and are influenced by many factors, including the dance training environment, personal feelings about changes, and perceptions of changes by significant others. The way in which sub-cultures (such as ballet) construct adolescence is likely to impact upon experiences of, and engagement in, dance, as well as development. The dance context, however, has received little attention in relation to development and maturation from a psychosocial perspective. While the facets of talent that predict engagement or dropout of young dancers have been discussed, little research within dance has viewed the adolescent from a truly developmental perspective. This chapter will explore how contemporary cultural constructions of adolescence apply to the dance context, outline the developmental ‘tasks' of adolescence, and discuss how young dancers navigate these tasks, drawing on psychosocial perspectives.
Thirty-seven females, aged initially between 10 and 13.5 years, completed a mixed longitudinal study over 3.3 years to investigate the effect of training volume and growth upon gymnastic performance. Gymnasts undergoing high volume training (mean = 30 hrs/week: Group 1) and moderate volume training (mean = 15 hrs/week: Group 2) were tested at 4-month intervals on growth measures including height, mass, skinfolds, and segment lengths, as well as the strength of lower limb, upper limb, and trunk musculature. Functional gymnastic development was observed through the assessment of generic, whole body rotation tasks, a vertical jump, and a v-sit action. The high training volume gymnasts were significantly smaller but markedly stronger than those gymnasts in Group 2 despite the size disadvantage. Consequently, Group 1 gymnasts were able to produce higher velocities for front and backward rotations and a faster v-sit action. These training group differences remained significant after initial size differences were taken into account via an analysis of covariance.
There are two very distinct types of fat in the human, which have been named brown fat and white fat because of their gross macroscopic appearance. Brown fat has a primarily thermogenetic role and is active in humans in the early neonatal period. Although in other mammals it retains its function into later life and is used in times of hibernation, it is probable that after early infancy it has no further function in the human. White adipose tissue has a multiplicity of functions; as an organ containing triglyceride it is the major store of energy for the body, but it also has functions of insulation, of protection, and, in the different sixes, of considerable attraction. The biochemistry and nervous control of lipogenesis and lipolysis are similar in white and brown fat, the differences being more in terms of quantity than quality. Later discussion will emphasize a few of the structural differences which enable these differences to be achieved.
During the last years, spline functions have found widespread application, mainly for the purpose of interpolation []. However, there may be a demand to replace strict interpolation by some kind of smoothing. Usually, such a situation occurs if the values of the ordinates are given only approximately, for example if they stem from experimental data. In the case in which, for theoretical reasons, the form of the underlying function is known a priori, it is recommended that the latter be approximated by an appropriate trial function which is fitted to the data points by application of the usual least squares technique. Otherwise a spline function may be used. The following algorithm wilt furnish such a spline function, optimal in a sense specified below. Its application is mainly for curve plotting. 2. Formulation
In the present investigation, an elite group of competitive female French-Canadian gymnasts (N = 7) were evaluated using 35 standardized morphological measures at an interval of 475 days. At the two evaluatione, the average age of the gymnasts was 13.9 and 15.3 years and at the termination 4 of the 7 girls had not yet reached menarche. Standard body lengths, widths, skinfolds and proportions were measured. Almost everybody dependent variable increased significantly while the body proportions, for the most part, stayed the same. Skinfold measures of body fat tended to remain the same or to decrease over this period. In comparison to other reference groups of female gymnasts tested over the last 10 years, these elite competiters were younger, smaller, and lighter reflecting the present day trends. Implications of this decreased body size were discussed in terms of the potential mechanical advantages that accompany these characteristics.
A mathematical model to estimate the size and inertial properties of the segments and the body as a whole was used to compare three boys of differing body types. The model is based on the assumptions that the body is composed of elliptical zones two centimetres wide and that the segment densities are known. These assumptions allow for more effective representation of body shape and wider application to sub-populations than existing models. The dimensions of the zones were obtained by digitizing photographic records of the side view of the subject and front view as reflected in a 45° mirror. Segment densities were reported by Dempster (1955). The accuracy for the estimation of body mass was better than two percent. Comparisons were made between the endomorph and the ectomorph who had similar link dimensions and the endomorph and the mesomorph who had a similar body mass. Some of the segment masses for the endomorph were substantially greater than would be expected by comparing the total body masses of the endomorph and the ectomorph and suggest significant constraints on the development of upper and lower extremity linear momentum. These differences were even more pronounced when the segmental and whole body principal moments of inertia were compared and the greatest differences were for the longitudinal exes. When the inertial properties of the endomorph and the mesomorph were compared, they were found to be similar. However, the mesomorph was older and more physically developed than the endomorph and thus better able to accommodate the constraints. These findings have important implications for the motor skills and efficiency of children of different body type.
Measurements from 44 highly skilled women gymnasts were used to evaluate previously derived equations for estimating body composition and to develop new equations by step-wise linear regression. True composition values were computed from body density (DB). Measures were taken of skeletal diameters (D), circumferences (C) and skin-folds (SF). Equations evaluated were those by Sloan et al. (23), F. Katch and Michael (15), Wilmore and Behnke (28), F. Katch and McArdle (18) and Weltman and V. Katch (26). With exception of the Weltman-Katch equation, correlations between true and estimated LBW's were high (.91 to .95) but underestimated true LBW 1.13 to 3.88 kg. Regression analysis suggested adjustment of ordinate values would give these equations acceptable accuracy for use with women gymnasts. New equations were derived from variables that had been selected by using factor analysis to minimize shared variance. Equations derived were DB - 1.024620 + .002024 Neck C--.001435 Supra-iliac SF--.001039 Juxta-um-bilicus SF (R.806, +/- .0061); Fat = .3798--.5809 Neck C + .3253 Abdominal C + .3007 Supra-iliac SF + .2047 Juxta-umbilicus SF, (R .891, +/- 1.29) and LBW = .3973 Height + .8357 Neck C + .4317 Shoulder C--87.203 (R .923, +/- 1.75).
A general procedure for determining the angular momentum of a human body is presented. This procedure was used in the analysis of four activities each of which contained an airborne phase. The results were evaluated in terms of repeated determinations of the angular momentum during each airborne phase. It was concluded that the procedure is acceptably accurate for first approximations, that it shows potential for further development and that it is highly versatile.