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Evaluation of the Effects of East Indian Sandalwood Oil and α-Santalol on Humans after Transdermal Absorption

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The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of East Indian sandalwood oil ( Santalum album, Santalaceae) and alpha-santalol on physiological parameters as well as on mental and emotional conditions in healthy human subjects after transdermal absorption. In order to exclude any olfactory stimulation, the inhalation of the fragrances was prevented by breathing masks. Eight physiological parameters, i. e., blood oxygen saturation, blood pressure, breathing rate, eye-blink rate, pulse rate, skin conductance, skin temperature, and surface electromyogram were recorded. Subjective mental and emotional condition was assessed by means of rating scales. While alpha-santalol caused significant physiological changes which are interpreted in terms of a relaxing/sedative effect, sandalwood oil provoked physiological deactivation but behavioral activation. These findings are likely to represent an uncoupling of physiological and behavioral arousal processes by sandalwood oil.
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Introduction
The essential oil of East Indian sandalwood (Santalum album,
Santalaceae) has a long history of use in oriental medicine. The
interest in the usage of sandalwood oil and one of its main com-
pounds,
a
-santalol, as therapeutic substances has grown consid-
erably. The oil has been associated with chemopreventive activ-
ity since it has been found to enhance the activity of glutathione
S-transferase (GST) and to increase the level of acid-soluble sulf-
hydryl groups (SH) in mice [1]. Antiviral activity of sandalwood
oil has been demonstrated by Benencia et al. [2]. Okugawa et al.
[3] described the effects of
a
- and
b
-santalol on the central ner-
vous system. Their results showed that both fragrances could be
considered as neuroleptics with some resemblance to the phar-
macological activity of chlorpromazine. In recent years, the use
of fragrances for clinical purposes has been propagated [4]. A
study conducted at the Royal Sussex County Hospital [5] showed
that foot massage with the essential oil of lavender lowered
blood pressure as well as heart and respiratory rates of the pa-
tients in an intensive care unit. In a similar investigation at the
Middlesex Hospital in London [6] intensive care patients were
given foot massage using the essential oil of Citrus aurantium
(Neroli oil). The results suggested that massage with essential
oils positively affects the psychological state of the patients. To-
pical application of essential oils in a carrier lotion has been re-
ported by Macdonald [7]. This study demonstrated the enhance-
ment of conventional methods of arthritic pain relief by the
usage of essential oils. Although massage of essential oils is
used growingly for the improvement of the quality of life as
well as for the relief of various symptoms in patients, scientific
evaluations of the effects of transdermal administration of fra-
grances in healthy volunteers are rather scarce. Up to now, no ex-
periments about the effects of sandalwood oil and one of its main
components,
a
-santalol, on human physiological parameters and
Evaluation of the Effects of East Indian Sandalwood
Oil and
aa
-Santalol on Humans after Transdermal
Absorption
T. Hongratanaworakit
1
E. Heuberger
2
G. Buchbauer
2
Affiliation
1
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Srinakharinwirot University,
Nakorn-nayok, Thailand
2
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Center of Pharmacy, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Correspondence
Dr. Tapanee Hongratanaworakit ´ Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry ´
Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences ´ Srinakharinwirot University ´ Nakorn-nayok 26120 ´ Thailand ´
Fax: +66-37-395096 ´ E-mail: tapanee@swu.ac.th
Received June 12, 2003 ´ Accepted August 2, 2003
Bibliography
Planta Med 2004; 70: 3±7 ´ Georg Thieme Verlag Stuttgart ´ New York ´ ISSN 0032-0943 ´
DOI 10.1055/s-2004-815446
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of East Indian
sandalwood oil (Santalum album, Santalaceae) and
a
-santalol on
physiological parameters as well as on mental and emotional
conditions in healthy human subjects after transdermal absorp-
tion. In order to exclude any olfactory stimulation, the inhalation
of the fragrances was prevented by breathing masks. Eight phys-
iological parameters, i. e., blood oxygen saturation, blood pres-
sure, breathing rate, eye-blink rate, pulse rate, skin conductance,
skin temperature, and surface electromyogram were recorded.
Subjective mental and emotional condition was assessed by
means of rating scales. While
a
-santalol caused significant phys-
iological changes which are interpreted in terms of a relaxing/se-
dative effect, sandalwood oil provoked physiological deactiva-
tion but behavioral activation. These findings are likely to repre-
sent an uncoupling of physiological and behavioral arousal pro-
cesses by sandalwood oil.
Key words
Autonomic nervous system ´ human ´ sandalwood ´
a
-santalol ´
subjective evaluation ´ transdermal administration
Original Paper
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on behavioral measures after percutaneous administration have
been carried out. Therefore, the main objective of the present
study was to investigate the effects of these fragrance com-
pounds on parameters of the autonomic nervous system as well
as on mental and emotional conditions in healthy human sub-
jects following transdermal absorption.
Materials and Methods
Subjects and fragrance compounds
Thirty-six healthy volunteers aged between 19 and 32 years
(mean age 23.18 2.64 years) took part in the experiments. Sub-
jects were tested in individual sessions and randomly assigned to
either the control group or one of two experimental groups, i. e., a
sandalwood oil group and an
a
-santalol group. Each group con-
sisted of 12 subjects. They were fully briefed, gave written in-
formed consent to all aspects of the study (Viennese ethic com-
mission's permissions No. 324/96, 419/98) and were free to with-
draw at any time. East Indian sandalwood oil (commercially
available from Dragoco GmbH, Holzminden, Germany, product
No. 16 598) and the main component
a
-santalol were used as fra-
grances in this study. East Indian sandalwood oil was identified
by Dr. Leo Jirovetz, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry,
University of Vienna. The most prominent constituents are san-
talols (90%). A voucher specimen (No. 4/942130) is deposited in
the refrigerator (4 8C) at room number 2E464 of that department.
a
-Santalol was separated from a mixture of
a
- and
b
-santalols
(Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, D-89 555 Steinheim, Germany,
CAS 11031-45-1) via argentation column chromatography [8].
Complete identification of each obtained santalol was accom-
plished by
1
H- and
13
C-NMR-spectroscopy and GC-MS, and com-
parison of these data with those in the literature [3].
Fragrance administration
In the experimental groups, 20 % (w/w) solutions of either san-
dalwood oil or
a
-santalol in peanut oil were used. One mL of
this solution was applied to the skin of the lower abdomen of
each subject. In the control group, 1 mL of the placebo substance,
i. e., pure peanut oil, was used. In all groups subjects were sup-
plied with pure air by breathing masks in order to prevent any
olfactory stimulation.
Experimental design
The experimental design is shown in Fig.1. One session consisted
of two trials of 20 minutes each. At the beginning as well as at the
end of each trial, subjective mental and emotional condition was
assessed by visual analogue scales (VAS). Physiological para-
meters were recorded continuously during each trial. In the first
trial, which served as a control for influences of the experimental
set-up, the placebo substance was administered to all subjects.
In the second trial the placebo was again administered to the
control group, whereas in the experimental groups the appropri-
ate fragrance was administered.
Acquisition of physiological parameters
Blood oxygen saturation (BOS), breathing rate (BR), eye-blink
rate (EBR), pulse rate (PR), skin conductance (SC), skin tempera-
ture (ST), and surface electromyogram (EMG) were recorded si-
multaneously and in real time on the non-dominant side of the
body. All parameters were measured using MP100WSW hard-
ware (Biopac Systems, Inc., Santa Barbara, California, USA) in-
cluding sensors and Ag/AgCl surface electrodes and Acqknowledge
software (V3.2.6, 1992±1997, Biopac Systems, Inc., Santa Bar-
bara, California, USA). Systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic
blood pressure (DBP) were measured in the dominant arm by
sphygmomanometry using an automated system (Hartmann Digi-
tal HG160, Paul Hartmann AG, D-89522 Heidenheim). Details of
the recording system and procedure have been described else-
where [17].
Visual analogue scales (VAS)
VAS were used to assess subjective mental and emotional condi-
tions. They consisted of 100 mm lines for six items: relaxation,
vigor, calmness, attentiveness, mood and alertness. Each subject
was asked to mark his or her feeling for each item between the
two possible extremes.
Procedure
All experiments were conducted in a bright and quiet room. Am-
bient temperature was 21± 24 8C. Upon arrival, the volunteers
were interviewed about their personal data, i. e.; name, age, sex,
weight and height. In addition, they were asked about the rating
of mental and emotional condition. After completion of the inter-
view and rating scales, SBP and DBP were measured. Subse-
quently, subjects were informed about the proceedings. The
electrodes and sensors were attached to the suitable positions.
The breathing mask was attached to the subject's face to cover
nose and mouth. Following THAT, subjects applied 1 ml of the
placebo substance to the skin of their lower abdomen by them-
selves for approximately 2 ± 3 minutes. The area was then cov-
ered with plastic film. Then, the recording of physiological
parameters was started. After completion of the first trial the rat-
ing scales were presented. SBP and DBP were measured at the
end of the first trial. This procedure was repeated in the second
trial.
Data reduction
The physiological recordings of each subject were computed trial
by trial using AcqKnowledge
software. For each subject and
Fig. 1 Experimental design.
Hongratanaworakit T et al. Evaluation of the ¼ Planta Med 2004; 70: 3 ± 7
Original Paper
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every parameter the mean value in the second trial was subtracted
from the mean value in the first trial to give the individual inter-
trial difference score. Additionally, for each subject difference
scores between blood pressure measurements 2 and 4 were cal-
culated. For subjective ratings, on each scale the distance of the
mark from the left-hand side was measured in mm. Individual
difference scores between ratings 2 and rating 4 were calculated
for each item.
Statistical analysis
Systat 9.0 (SPSS Inc., 1999) was used for data analysis. Mann-
Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variances
were used in this study. The effects of fragrances on physiological
parameters and ratings of mental and emotional condition were
determined by comparing the difference scores between the
control group and the experimental groups. Furthermore, the
difference scores of the sandalwood oil group were compared to
those of the
a
-santalol group in order to detect differences in the
effectiveness of the fragrances.
Correlational analyses were performed by means of Bravais-
Pearson correlation and Spearman rank-order correlation. To
evaluate correlations among physiological parameters the Bra-
vais-Pearson correlation was carried out. Spearman rank-order
correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relation between
subjective ratings and physiological parameters.
Results
Physiological parameters
Mean and SEM of physiological parameters of the control group
and the experimental groups are presented in Table 1. Mean dif-
ference scores of PR of the control group and the experimental
groups are shown in Fig. 2. Comparison of the difference scores
revealed a significantly larger decrease of PR in the
a
-santalol
group than in the control group (P = 0.050). Mean difference
scores of EBR of the control group and the experimental groups
are shown in Fig. 3. The difference scores of the sandalwood oil
group and the
a
-santalol group were in significant contrast to
that of the control group (control versus sandalwood oil:
P = 0.025; control versus
a
-santalol: P = 0.033). Mean differ-
ence scores of SBP between measurement 2 and 4 for the control
group and the experimental groups are shown in Fig. 4. The dif-
ference scores of the sandalwood oil group and the
a
-santalol
group were in marginal contrast to that of the control group
(control versus sandalwood: P = 0.073; control versus
a
-santa-
lol: P = 0.093). No significant effects of the sandalwood oil or
a
-santalol on BR, on SCL, on ST, on EMG, DBP, and on BOS were
found (p > 0.1 for all, data not shown).
Mental and emotional conditions
Mean difference scores of attentiveness between rating 2 and
rating 4 for the control group and the experimental groups are
shown in Fig. 5. Comparison of these difference scores (control
versus sandalwood oil) revealed a trend towards an increase of
subjective attentiveness in the sandalwood oil group (P =0.088).
No significant effects of sandalwood oil or
a
-santalol on subjective
Fig. 2 Mean difference scores and SEM of pulse rate for the control
group, the sandalwood oil group, and the
a
-santalol group. Asterisks
(**) on the top of the error bars indicate significant differences (P
£
0.050) between the experimental groups and the control group.
Fig. 3 Mean difference scores and SEM of eye-blink rate for the con-
trol group, the sandalwood oil group, and the
a
-santalol group. Aster-
isks (**) on the top of the error bars indicate significant differences (P
£
0.050) between the experimental groups and the control group.
Table 1 Mean and SEM of physiological parameters of the control
group and the experimental groups
PR SBP EBR
C trial 1 Mean (SEM) 67.737
(2.801)
117.167
(2.330)
18.916
(2.897)
trial 2 Mean (SEM) 66.526
(2.529)
120.000
(2.610)
21.183
(3.322)
SAN trial 1 Mean (SEM) 66.686
(2.742)
119.333
(2.520)
19.350
(4.003)
trial 2 Mean (SEM) 64.369
(2.398)
117.667
(2.970)
18.713
(3.560)
a
-SAN trial 1 Mean (SEM) 72.381
(2.643)
128.750
(3.130)
13.203
(2.713)
trial 2 Mean (SEM) 69.278
(2.516)
128.000
(3.520)
11.572
(2.556)
C: control group, SAN: Sandalwood oil group,
a
-SAN:
a
-santalol group; PR: pulse rate, SBP:
systolic blood pressure, EBR: eye-blink rate.
Hongratanaworakit T et al. Evaluation of the ¼ Planta Med 2004; 70: 3± 7
Original Paper
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vigor, alertness, mood, relaxation, and calmness were found (p >
0.1 for all, data not shown).
Correlations
In the control group changes of subjective attentiveness were
correlated with changes of PR and SBP: the more attentive sub-
jects rated themselves, the more PR and SBP rose (
r
= ±0.734
and ±0.591, respectively). Also, a relation between changes of
DBP and SCL was revealed: the more DBP increased, the less
SCL rose (r = ±0.628, P = 0.029). Additionally, interactions be-
tween changes of subjective calmness, attentiveness, and re-
laxation were found: the more calm subjects felt, the more re-
laxed and the less attentive they judged themselves (
r
=
+ 0.733 and ±0.704, respectively). Moreover, changes of subjec-
tive alertness interacted with changes of subjective vigor: the
more alert subjects felt, the more vigorous they rated them-
selves (
r
= + 0.746).
In the sandalwood oil group changes of subjective attentive-
ness were correlated with changes of SBP: the more attentive
subjects rated themselves, the less SBP rose (
r
= + 0.536). Addi-
tionally, interactions between changes of subjective calmness
and relaxation were found: the more calm subjects felt, the
more relaxed they felt (
r
= + 0.755). Moreover, changes of sub-
jective alertness interacted with changes of subjective mood:
the more alert subjects felt, the more cheerful they rated them-
selves (
r
= + 0.663).
In the
a
-santalol group relations between changes of SBP, SCL
and PR were revealed: the less SBP increased, the less SCL rose
(r = + 0.806, P = 0.002); the less PR increased, the less SCL rose
(r = + 0.597, P = 0.041). Additionally, interactions between
changes of subjective vigor, attentiveness, and alertness were
found: the more vigorous subjects felt, the more alert and atten-
tive they judged themselves (
r
= + 0.620 and + 0.732, respective-
ly); the more alert subjects felt, the more attentive they rated
themselves (
r
= + 0.524).
Discussion
In the present investigation essential sandalwood oil and one of
its main components
a
-santalol were administered transdermal-
ly to healthy subjects. Inhalation of the fragrances was prevented
by breathing masks in order to eliminate effects of subjective
odor evaluation. Physiological parameters, i. e., blood oxygen sa-
turation, blood pressure, eye-blink rate, pulse rate, breathing
rate, skin conductance, skin temperature, and surface electro-
myogram, were recorded as indicators of the arousal level of the
autonomic nervous system. In addition, subjects had to rate their
mental and emotional condition in terms of relaxation, vigor,
calmness, attentiveness, mood, and alertness in order to assess
subjective behavioral arousal. Transdermal absorption of sandal-
wood oil led to a significant decrease of eye-blink rate and a
trend towards a larger decrease of systolic blood pressure. Gener-
ally, eye movement and blink rate are indicative of cognitive pro-
cessing and the level of arousal [9]. Therefore, the decrease of
blink rate may be interpreted as a decrease of arousal. Since
blood pressure is determined by the activity of the sympathetic
branch of the ANS a decrease of systolic blood pressure shows a
decrease of sympathetic tone, i. e., a decrease of physiological
arousal. At the behavioral level, subjects in the sandalwood oil
group rated themselves more attentive than subjects in the con-
trol group. This finding points towards an increase of arousal in
terms of self-evaluation. Correlational analyses showed that
changes of subjective attentiveness were correlated with chang-
es of systolic blood pressure in both groups. The more systolic
blood pressure decreased in subjects in the control group the
less attentive they rated themselves, i. e., in this group a decrease
of physiological arousal was correlated with a decrease in behav-
ioral activation. In contrast, the more systolic blood pressure de-
creased in subjects in the sandalwood oil group the more atten-
tive they judged themselves. Obviously, in the latter group a de-
crease of physiological activation was correlated with an
increase of arousal at the subjective level. This finding may indi-
cate that massage of essential sandalwood oil results in the un-
coupling of physiological and behavioral arousal processes [10].
Fig. 4 Mean difference scores and SEM of systolic blood pressure for
the control group, the sandalwood oil group, and the
a
-santalol group.
Asterisks (*) on the top of the bars indicate significant differences
(0.050
t
; P
£
0.100) between the experimental groups and the control
group.
Fig. 5 Mean difference scores and SEM of subjective attentiveness for
the control group, the sandalwood oil group, and the
a
-santalol group.
Asterisks (*) on the top of the bars indicate significant differences
(0.050
t
; P
£
0.100) between the experimental groups and the control
group.
Hongratanaworakit T et al. Evaluation of the ¼ Planta Med 2004; 70: 3 ± 7
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The observed effects of essential sandalwood oil are not precisely
characterized by concepts like relaxation or sedation, since deac-
tivation on both the physiological level and on the level of self-
evaluation is associated with these concepts. Massage of essen-
tial sandalwood oil, however, reduced the level of arousal of the
autonomic nervous system but did not lead to deactivation at the
behavioral level, i. e. after the administration of the oil subjects
did not feel more relaxed or drowsy, but in contrast reported to
feel more attentive than before the application of the oil. Thus,
the effects of essential sandalwood oil may be characterized by
the concept of ªharmonizationº rather than relaxation/sedation
which has also been described for the essential oil of lavender
[11], [12]. The decrease of eye-blink rate was not correlated with
changes in self-evaluation. This finding suggests the effective-
ness of pharmacological mechanisms, e. g., direct interactions
between fragrance molecules and receptor sites which are in-
volved in the regulation of ANS arousal. Due to their high lipophi-
licity fragrance molecules easily penetrate the blood-brain barri-
er [13], and animal experiments have shown that they interact
with various receptor types in the brain, e.g., GABA
A
[14], gluta-
mate [15], D
2
and 5-HT
2A
[16]. Therefore, it seems likely that es-
sential sandalwood oil exerts its effects by an interaction with
central (e. g., hypothalamic, limbic) structures which control the
level of physiological and/or behavioral arousal. Transdermal ad-
ministration of
a
-santalol, like essential sandalwood oil, pro-
voked a significant decrease of eye-blink rate which represents
a decrease of arousal. In addition,
a
-santalol caused a significant
decrease of pulse rate. Since pulse rate is mainly controlled by
the parasympathetic nervous system the decrease of pulse rate
after percutaneous absorption of
a
-santalol is likely to show an
increase in vagal tone, i. e., a decrease of ANS arousal. As in the
sandalwood oil group, a trend towards a larger decrease of systo-
lic blood pressure in subjects in the
a
-santalol group as compar-
ed with subjects in the control group was revealed which again
indicates a decrease of physiological arousal. Thus,
a
-santalol
may be characterized as physiologically relaxing. However, ad-
ministration of
a
-santalol had no effects on subjective mental
and emotional conditions. Moreover, changes of physiological
parameters were not correlated to changes of subjective mental
and emotional conditions. It may again be speculated that the
observed effects of
a
-santalol on the physiological parameters
occur via pharmacological mechanisms.
In conclusion, our investigation showed ªharmonizingº effects of
the essential oil of East Indian sandalwood and relaxing/sedative
effects of one of its main compounds,
a
-santalol. In addition, the
present study showed that transdermal administration offers the
opportunity to exclude psychological mechanisms that are active
when odorous substances are applied by means of inhalation
[17], [18] and to separately investigate effects of fragrances
mediated by pharmacological mechanisms.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
(grant for T.H.) and to Dragoco, GmbH (now Symrise), Vienna, for
the interest in this study.
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... Thereby, higher levels of RBCs, Hb, and lymphocytes found in the current study were associated with increased oxygenation in Nile tilapia tissue. It appears likely that SEO exerts its effects through an interaction with central systems (e.g., hypothalamus, limbic) that determine the level of physiological excitation as blood oxygen saturation (Hongratanaworakit et al. 2004). SEO exhibit a diverse array of pharmacological activities, such as antioxidant efficacy, antiinflammatory activity, Fig. 4 Effect of sandelwood essential oil (SEO) supplementation after 14 days of bacterial challenge on mRNA expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin 10 (IL-10), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT ), and caspase-3 in spleen of O. niloticus. ...
... Secondly, the calming effects of sandalwood oil are mainly due to the presence of αand β-santalols, the main active components (Akbar 2020). Higher dose of SEO with prolonged administration may lead to physiological deactivation, but behavioral activation (Hongratanaworakit et al. 2004); however, these negative effects need further studies to be completely understood. ...
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The effects of long-term dietary supplementation with sandalwood (Santalum album L.) essential oil (SEO) was investigated on hemato-biochemical biomarkers, immune status, antioxidant capacity, and resistance against Staphylococcus aureus in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Five groups (with four replicates) of O. niloticus (12.60 ± 0.20 g) were fed diets supplemented with SEO at doses of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 mL/kg diet for 60 days. Results indicated a substantial increase in blood protein levels and lower serum cholesterol, cortisol, glucose, urea, creatinine levels and, transaminase activities of fish fed a 2.0-mL SEO/kg diet. Serum lysozyme activity, nitric oxide, complement-3 levels, and phagocytic activity were significantly improved in O. niloticus after 60 days of feeding SEO-supplemented diets. Dietary SEO at level of 2.0-mL SEO/kg diet increased the activities of SOD, CAT, and GPx, and decreased MDA levels in liver homogenate. In addition, dietary 2.0-mL SEO/kg diet significantly upregulated antioxidant genes expression (CAT, SOD, GPx, GST, and GSR) with downregulation of apoptotic genes (HSP70, TLR2, caspase-3, and PCNA) in the liver. Furthermore, SEO-enriched diets significantly down-regulated pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-8) and up-regulated anti-inflammatory cytokine genes (TFG-β and IL-10) in the spleen. Moreover, SEO fortification increased the relative percentage of survival against S. aureus challenge and regulated immune-antioxidant genes in the spleen after the challenge. Overall, the results revealed that long-term using SEO might strengthen the physiological performance, hepatic oxidant/antioxidant balance, innate immune response, and resistance of O. niloticus against bacterial infections.
... Furthermore, alpha-antipsychotic santalol's impact was identical to that of chlorpromazine (Okugawa et al., 2000). After transdermal absorption, alpha-santalol generated some substantial changes physiologically, such as calming and tranquil effects; further analysis showed that it caused physiological deactivation and behavioral stimulation (Hongratanaworakit et al., 2004). In addition to soothing the mind, sandalwood aromatherapy benefits individuals with insomnia. ...
... Even though several blended essential oils are applied to improve one's quality of life and relieve numerous illnesses, the scientific examination of the aroma therapeutic impacts in humans, on the other hand, is severely lacking. The major element, alphasantalol, has a hypnotic effect and has been proven to have "harmonizing" benefits when absorbed via the skin (Hongratanaworakit et al., 2004). After further exploration of the impact of alpha-and beta-santalols on the central nervous system in mice, it was found that they had sedative properties (Okugawa et al., 1995). ...
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Santalum album Linn. also known as white sandalwood (Chandan/ srigandha), is a scented evergreen tree that belongs to the Santalaceae family. This plant is rich in essential oils extracted commonly by hydrodistillation. In phytochemical studies, alpha and beta santalols are major constituents in the heartwood. Sandalwood oil is used in aromatherapy, a holistic approach to treating mental illnesses without any risk of side effects like conventional medicines. Aromatherapy also cures insomnia and skin problems and provides relief in case of respiratory ailments too. Among numerous beneficial qualities, sandalwood oil also has antiviral properties; it is proven to prevent the multiplication of Herpes Simplex Virus, helps treat Human Papilloma virus, and indirectly contributes to combating Influenza-A virus. This article attempts to concisely apply aromatherapy and antiviral activities using the essential oil of sandalwood.
... A summary of the most commonly used herbal remedies in aromatherapy, along with their scientific and clinical evidence[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] . ...
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Sleep is essential for cognitive function, emotional balance, and overall well-being. Disruptions like insomnia or poor sleep quality can have negative consequences. Various methods, including bedtime perfumes, have been studied to improve sleep. This review examines the scientific basis of scent-based sleep enhancement, focusing on the olfactory system and the effects of specific aromatic compounds on sleep. The olfactory system plays a crucial role in how scents influence sleep. Odor molecules bind to receptors in the nasal cavity, sending signals to the olfactory bulb, which processes these signals and relays them to the limbic system. This connection allows scents to evoke emotional responses and impact sleep. Historically, scent therapy has been used across cultures. The effectiveness of bedtime perfumes depends on their delivery methods. Diffusers, sprays and roll-on oils are common ways to disperse essential oils. Incorporating these perfumes into comprehensive sleep hygiene routine, including a consistent sleep schedule and a calming environment, maximizes their benefits. Future research should identify specific scent compounds that induce sleep, explore the interaction between olfactory stimuli and sleep stages and investigate the long-term safety and efficacy of bedtime perfumes. In conclusion, bedtime perfumes can improve sleep quality through the power of scent. Understanding olfactory pathways, calming scents and the historical context of scent therapy helps individuals make informed choices about using these fragrances.
... Sandalwood oil, on the other hand, has the opposite effects of α-central santalol upon transdermal absorption, which are physiological deactivation and behavioral stimulation. While the effects of α-central santalol on the nervous system, such as relaxation and sedation, were rather noticeable, the effects of sandalwood oil were less so (Hongratanaworakit et al., 2004). Recent TLC254 bioautographic studies demonstrated that α-santalol, the primary component of the essential oil, is a potent inhibitor of both tyrosinase and cholinesterase in vitro. ...
Chapter
Santalum album L. (Santalaceae) is more frequently referred to as Indian Sandalwood, and it is among the ancient and most valuable sources of natural scent. It also has a significant impact on both medicine and business. Sandalwood has been cultivated in India for the last twenty-five centuries and is well regarded around the globe for the long-lasting, pleasant, and medicinally valuable scented oil it produces. Traditional medical practises such as Siddha, Unani, and Ayurveda all make use of sandalwood and the essential oil that is extracted from the heartwood of the sandal tree for diagnosis, treating, and preventing a broader range of diseases and disorders. The abundant supply of phytochemicals, in particular sesquiterpeness, is what gives sandalwood its significant therapeutic and medical value. Sandalwood has a wide range of applications in healthcare. Recent research in the field of pharmacology has uncovered a diverse array of pharmacological actions. However, additional research on chemical constituents and the mechanisms by which they exhibit certain biological activities is required in order to gain a full understanding of the phytochemical profile of sandalwood or its oil or the plant. Sandalwood oil and its individual constituents have not been shown to exhibit any significant toxicity. In this chapter, traditional applications, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and biological activities of sandalwood are dissected in order to reveal its medicinal and industrial usefulness as well as gaps in knowledge that need to be filled by further investigation.
... Spathulenol is a component of some floral and wood shrub essential oils (Martelli and others 1985). Also found was santalol, a critical component of the oil of sandalwood (Hongratanaworakit 2004). In addition to β-damascenone, another C-13 Isoprenoid, Ionone, was identified commonly in Missouri Norton wine. ...
... Enfin, certains terpènes ont des propriétés antioxydantes (Misra and Dey, 2013), neuroleptiques et anxiolytiques (Hongratanaworakit et al., 2004;Satou et al., 2014;Satou et al., 2015). e. Applications en parfumerie et dans l'industrie cosmétique ...
Thesis
Grâce à leur photosynthèse oxygénique, les cyanobactéries peuvent produire des composés d'intérêt à partir de l’énergie solaire, du CO₂ atmosphérique et de l’eau (douce et marine) même polluée. Au laboratoire, on s'intéresse aux terpènes (molécules odorantes et volatiles) qui ont de nombreuses applications pour la cosmétique (parfums), la santé (antimicrobiens) et l'environnement (biocarburants). Peu d’études ont montré la production de terpènes par les cyanobactéries et les rendements obtenus sont faibles et difficilement comparables. L’objectif de mon travail de thèse était de combiner la diversité biologique de 5 cyanobactéries dotées d'atouts différents (Synechocystis PCC 6803, Synechococcus PCC 7942 et PCC 7002, Cyanothece PCC 7425 et PCC 7822), la diversité chimique de 5 terpènes (bisabolène, farnésène, limonène, pinène et santalène) et les outils génétiques polyvalents du laboratoire, pour générer de bons producteurs. Dans ce but j'ai développé la génétique de Cyanothece PCC 7425 (Chenebault et al., 2020). J'ai contribué à montrer que certaines de nos cyanobactéries produisent mieux certains terpènes, validant notre démarche. Ainsi, Synechocystis PCC 6803 produit plus de bisabolène et de farnésène que les autres cyanobactéries et Synechococcus PCC 7002 est le meilleur châssis pour la production du limonène. En outre, j'ai montré que Cyanothece PCC 7425 peut produire des terpènes à partir d'eaux polluées par de l’urée ou du calcium. Enfin, la stabilité des rendements a été analysée sur plusieurs mois.
... Indian sandalwood oil from the S. album L. is considered as the gold standard to use as an ingredient in cosmetics, medicine and for aromatherapy [10,11]. Previous studies have demonstrated that, at different pharmacological doses, sandalwood oil demonstrated a protective effect of varying degrees, and was capable of attenuating the damages induced by the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vitro [12][13][14][15][16]. ...
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... Studies reported a significant sedative effect in mice after treatment with sandal oil 73 and alpha and beta santalols are responsible for sedative effect of sandalwood preparations 74 . A clinical study reported significant subjective sedative effect by alpha santalol in healthy Thai volunteers 75 Invitro antioxidant activity of Terminalia chebula Retz is reported by various studies 76,77,78 Golechha M etal reported memory enhancing, and antioxidant activity of hydroalcoholic extract of Emblica officinalis Gaertn. in scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice 79 . Antidepressant-like effect in mice was observed by treatment with aqueous fruit extract 80 Pretreatment of rats with hydroalcoholic extract improved cognitive deficit and ameliorated oxidative stress 81 . ...
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Ageing and related ailments especially mental health conditions imparts a greater burden in elderly population. Age related dementia including both memory loss and cognitive impairment is a leading contributor of disability. Due to the concern over safety of available pharmacological therapies many people with dementia turn to complementary medicine. Ayurveda, the Indian system of medicine recognises this condition as Medhakshaya (deterioration of intellect) and has given much emphasis on drugs which will promote Medha. Several rasayana drugs in ayurveda are primarily claimed as medhya since they have the ability of mental upliftment. Naladadi ghrita is such a formulation described in rasayana prakarana of Ashtanga hridaya and in this review we tried to analyse individual drug action and their synergetic action. Role of drugs in neuroprotection, learning and memory was analysed by electronic database search. And drugs were also reviewed by ayurveda parameters. Results of the review revealed the role of individual drugs in digestion and various brain functions. Combination of drugs may produce an extra therapeutic effectiveness by synergism and can be utilised for the treatment of various CNS disorders including jarajanya medhakshaya.
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Santalum album L., commonly known as sandalwood, is a tree species with recognized medicinal properties. The essential oil extracted from the heartwood of this tree is of considerable economic importance. It is used as an essential ingredient in many traditional medicinal practices worldwide, being widely employed for the prevention and treatment of different ailments. The medicinal and physiological benefits of sandalwood are well recognized due to its richness in phytochemicals, especially sesquiterpenes. In addition, sandalwood is of great historical and economic importance as a venerable and highly valuable natural scent resource, renowned for its many medical and commercial uses. Cultivated in India for more than 25 centuries, sandalwood is appreciated worldwide for its pleasant and long-lasting aroma. Numerous biological features and potential health benefits associated with sandalwood have been extensively studied, including its anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant activities. The objective of this review is to elucidate the several natural origins of santalenes and santalols, as well as their biosynthetic pathways, while exploring the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of sandalwood. Among the reported characteristics are antioxidant, antibacterial, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer effects. However, further investigations regarding the toxicity and pharmacokinetic aspects of S. album and its main compounds, santalenes and santalols, are strongly required to support their efficacy in medical applications.
Chapter
Indian sandalwood (Santalum album L.) is an exquisite evergreen woody tropical tree which yields one of the world’s most expensive essential oil from its matured heartwood (~US$2600 l−1). The tree accumulates sesquiterpenes, second important group of active compounds in essential oil of plants. α- and β-santalols (C15H24O) in addition to α-and β-santalenes are the major constituents. The minor constituents of essential oil includes lanceol, nuciferol, bisabolol and the sesquiterpene hydrocarbons such as, bergamotenes, α-, β- and γ-curcumenes, β-bisabolene. Oil yield vary from 3 to 4% through steam distillation (48–72 h). Sandalwood oil having incredible signature in their base and top note, Cis-α-santalol is responsible for the light woody smell, and Cis-β-santalol is more linked to the stronger woody smell with a distinctive mark which fetch high value in the perfume and fragrance industries. In addition to this, sandalwood oil is well known to aid wide range of ailments and it has long antiquity of pharmacology and aromatherapy.Keywords Santalum album Sandalwood oilSesquiterpeneα-santalenesHeartwoodSantalol
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The effects of chiral fragrances (enantiomers of limonene and carvone) on the human autonomic nervous system (ANS) and on self-evaluation were studied in 20 healthy volunteers. Each fragrance was administered to each subject by inhalation using an A–A–B design. Individuals were tested in four separate sessions; in one session one fragrance was administered. ANS parameters recorded were skin temperature, skin conductance, breathing rate, pulse rate, blood oxygen saturation and systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure. Subjective experience was assessed in terms of mood, calmness and alertness on visual analog scales. In addition, fragrances were rated in terms of pleasantness, intensity and stimulating property. Inhalation of (+)-limonene led to increased systolic blood pressure, subjective alertness and restlessness. Inhalation of (–)-limonene caused an increase in systolic blood pressure but had no effects on psychological parameters. Inhalation of (–)-carvone caused increases in pulse rate, diastolic blood pressure and subjective restlessness. After inhalation of (+)-carvone increased levels of systolic as well as diastolic blood pressure were observed. Correlational analyses revealed that changes in both ANS parameters and self-evaluation were in part related to subjective evaluation of the odor and suggest that both pharmacological and psychological mechanisms are involved in the observed effects. In conclusion, the present study indicates that: (i) prolonged inhalation of fragrances influences ANS parameters as well as mental and emotional conditions; (ii) effects of fragrances are in part based on subjective evaluation of odor; (iii) chirality of odor molecules seems to be a central factor with respect to the biological activity of fragrances.
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Scientific research on the effects of essential oils on human behavior lags behind the promises made by popular aromatherapy. Nearly all aspects of human behavior are closely linked to processes of attention, the basic level being that of alertness, which ranges from sleep to wakefulness. In our study we measured the influence of essential oils and components of essential oils [peppermint, jasmine, ylang-ylang, 1,8-cineole (in two different dosages) and menthol] on this core attentional function, which can be experimentally defined as speed of information processing. Substances were administered by inhalation; levels of alertness were assessed by measuring motor and reaction times in a reaction time paradigm. The performances of the six experimental groups receiving substances (n = 20 in four groups, n = 30 in two groups) were compared with those of corresponding control groups receiving water. Between-group analysis, i.e. comparisons between experimental groups and their respective control groups, mainly did not reach statistical significance. However, within-group analysis showed complex correlations between subjective evaluations of substances and objective performance, indicating that effects of essentials oils or their components on basic forms of attentional behavior are mainly psychological.
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In order to investigate the pharmacodynamic basis of the previously-established anticonvulsant properties of linalool, we examined the effects of this compound on behavioral and neurochemical aspects of glutamate expression in experimental seizure models. Specifically, linalool effects were investigated to determine its inhibition of (i) L-[H-3]glutamate binding at CNS (central nervous system membranes), (ii) N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-induced convulsions, (iii) quinolinic acid (QUIN)-induced convulsions, and the behavioral and neurochemical correlates of PTZ-kindling. The data indicate that linalool modulates glutamate activation expression in vitro (competitive antagonism of L-[H-3]glutamate binding) and in vivo (delayed NMDA convulsions and blockage of QUIN convulsions). Linalool partially inhibited and significantly delayed the behavioral expression of PTZ-kindling, but did not modify the PTZ-kindling-induced increase in L-[H-3]glutamate binding.
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Electrooculographic (EOG) records were studied in 10 neurological patients with disturbances of activation according to clinical assessment and in 12 normal subjects. Rapid horizontal eye movements (saccades) and movements of the eyelids (blinks) were measured. It was concluded that the frequency distribution of blinks and saccades indicates activation deficits in a sensitive and reliable way. The continuous decrease of activation from orthological to pathological states could be shown by counting the frequencies of blinks and saccades. The relationship between the two variables is interpreted with regard to its functional significance.
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Sandalwood (Byakudan in Japanese; Santalum album L.) is used as a popular sedative in Oriental medicine. Extracts of the wood of Santalum album were obtained by successively extracting with benzene, chloroform, methanol and water. Each of these fractions was tested for activity on the central nervous system of mice following intraperitoneal administration, i.e. potentiation of hexobarbital sleeping time, body temperature alterations, antinociceptive and spontaneous motor activity changes. The benzene extract was active in these assays and was then separated further into fractions 1, 2 and 3. Fraction 2 was shown to be the most active in the aforementioned assays, α- and β-Santalols were isolated from this active fraction as the major CNS active constituents. They were both active by the intragastric and intracerebroventricular routes of administration. Thus, it can be considered that α- and β-santalols contribute to the reputed sedative effect of sandalwood preparations in Oriental medicine. Additionally, α- and β-santalols significantly increased the levels of homovanillic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid and/or 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in the brain of mice, and chlorpromazine did the ones of homovanillic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid. These results showed that α- and β-santalols could be considered as neuroleptic by resemblance to the pharmacological activities of chlorpromazine.
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The effect of the oil from the wood of Santalum album on glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity and acid soluble sulphydryl (SH) levels in the liver of adult male Swiss albino mice was investigated. Oral feeding by gavage to mice each day with 5 and 15 microliters sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days exhibited an increase in GST activity in time- and dose-responsive manners. Feeding a dose of 5 microliters sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days caused, respectively, a 1.80-fold (P < 0.001) and 1.93-fold (P < 0.001) increase in GST enzyme activity, while feeding a dose of 15 microliters of the oil per day for 10 and 20 days induced, respectively, 4.73-fold (P < 0.001) and 6.10-fold (P < 0.001) increases in the enzyme's activity. In addition, there were 1.59-fold (P < 0.001) and 1.57 (P < 0.001) increases in acid-soluble SH levels in the hepatic tissue of the mice following feeding of the oil at the dose levels of 5 and 15 microliters for 10 days. Furthermore, mice fed on a diet containing 1% 2(3)-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (positive control) also showed an increase in hepatic GST activity and SH levels. Enhancement of GST activity and acid-soluble SH levels are suggestive of a possible chemopreventive action of sandalwood oil on carcinogenesis through a blocking mechanism.
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To study the effects of perfume and phytoncid on GABAA receptors, ionotropic GABAA receptors were expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injecting mRNAs that had been prepared from rat whole brain. Essential oil, perfume and such phytoncid as leaf alcohol, hinokitiol, pinene, eugenol, citronellol and citronellal potentiated the response in the presence of GABA at low concentrations (10 and 30 microM), possibly because they bound to the potentiation-site in GABAA receptors and increased the affinity of GABA to the receptors. Since it is known that the potentiation of GABAA receptors by benzodiazepine, barbiturate, steroids and anesthetics induces the anxiolytic, anticonvulsant and sedative activity or anesthetic effect, these results suggest the possibility that the intake of perfume or phytoncid through the lungs, the skin or the intestines modulates the neural transmission in the brain through ionotropic GABAA receptors and changes the frame of the human mind, as alcohol or tobacco does.
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Six sesquiterpenoids, namely jinkoh-eremol, agarospirol, alpha- and beta-santalols, dehydrocostus lactone and costunolide, isolated from oriental incenses inhibited acetic acid-induced writhing in mice. The incidence of writhing produced by jinkoh-eremol, alpha-santalol and costunolide were revealed by administration of naloxone (mu-, kappa- and delta-antagonists). Inhibitory activities of alpha-santalol on opioid receptors were shown only by the delta antagonist, but not by the mu- and kappa-antagonists. The delta2-antagonist, but not the delta-antagonist, inhibited the activity of alpha santalol. The mechanism of inhibitory activity on the opioid receptor by alpha-santalol was different from that of morphine. Alpha-santalol was shown to be the most potent of the six as an antagonist of dopamine D2 and serotonine 5-HT2A receptor binding. The effect of alpha-santalol, was the same as that of chlorpromazine as an antipsychotic agent, although alpha-santalol was less potent than chlorpromazine.