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Ice massage: Effects on exercise-induced muscle damage
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of ice massage on the signs and symptoms associated with exercise-induced muscle damage.
Nine recreationally resistance trained males performed an exercise protocol designed to induce muscle damage on 2 separate occasions; this was performed on the dominant or non-dominant arm in a random cross over design. The protocol consisted of 3 sets of 10 repetitions of single arm biceps curls, at 70% of a pre-determined one repetition maximum (1RM), with the eccentric phase of the contraction extended to 7 seconds. Subjects were also randomly assigned to an ice massage group or control group in the cross over design and received treatments immediately post-exercise, 24 hours and 48 hours post-exercise. 1RM, plasma creatine kinase (CK), muscle soreness (DOMS), limb girth and range of motion (ROM) were measured pre, immediately post, 24 hours, 48 hours and 72 hours post-exercise.
Significant time effects were observed for all dependent variables (p<0.05), though no significant group effects were observed. A group by time interaction was found for CK (p<0.05), which at 72 hours post-exercise was significantly lower in the ice massage group (p<0.05).
These results indicate that although ice massage reduces the appearance of CK it has no other effect on signs and symptoms associated with exercise-induced muscle damage.
... [3,6] A prior study on the effects of ice massage on the signs and symptoms associated with EIMD showed that it had no effect on the symptoms of DOMS. [9] Also, a study by Brock et al., (2004) [10] on the effect of ultrasound-induced increase muscle temperature on the symptoms of DOMS failed to provide significant prophylactic effects. Warm-up exercises have been advocated to improve athletes' performance and reduce muscle injury. ...
... It has been reported to speed up the healing process in musculoskeletal injuries by increasing microcirculation through the release of nitrous oxide from hemoglobin. [9] However, its efficacy as a treatment modality in the management of symptoms associated with DOMS has not been thoroughly investigated; the few studies in this area have given conflicting results on the efficacy. Glasgow et al., (2001) [17] for instance, reported on the results of a randomized controlled clinical trial of low-level infrared therapy in 24 subjects with experimentally induced muscle soreness and found no significant differences between the treatment and placebo groups. ...
... [21] The significant decrease in muscle soreness immediately after treatment with IRR suggests that IRR aids in muscle repair, especially as prior studies have shown that it causes the release of nitric oxide (NO) from hemoglobin that causes vasodilatation with a resultant increase in blood flow that enhances healing. [9] Moreover, this is because red infrared has been found to have the deepest penetration among the infrared range and aids healing at any wavelength. [22,23] These results may also suggest a positive role for IRR in ameliorating the symptoms of DOMS, especially as treatment was given only on day 1 immediately after the inducement of DOMS. ...
Introduction: Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is associated with temporary morbidity
as a result of pain, soreness, and reduced muscular performance that affects the overall
performance of the individual. Several interventional modalities have been studied without a
conclusive evidence of efficacy. Objective: This study was carried out as part of a continuous
attempt to find an effective and quick relief for DOMS. The study investigated the comparative
effects of warm‑up exercises and infrared radiation in ameliorating the symptoms associated
with DOMS. Materials and Methods: Sixty volunteer subjects between the age of 16 years
and 35 years had DOMS induced in the left biceps brachii muscle. They were randomized into
three groups with 20 subjects in each group. The groups were allocated as follows: Group A as
control that received no treatment, Group B had a bout of warm‑up exercises consisting of 10
sets of maximal elbow flexion and extension after which DOMS was experimentally induced,
and GroupC had infrared radiation for 20 min after which DOMS was experimentally induced.
Assessment for muscle soreness, pain, and joint range of motion (ROM) was carried out
immediately after inducing DOMS and it was repeated 24 h and 48 h later using the Numerical
Pain Rating Scale (NPRS), deep palpation (DP), and goniometry, respectively. Results: The
infrared group (GroupC) had significantly lower scores on NPRS and DP throughout the 3 days
compared with the control while the significant effects of warm‑up exercises were seen from
day 2. There was, however, no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the range of movement(ROM)
scores. Compared with warm‑up exercises (Group B), infrared resulted in significantly lower
NPRS and DP scores and greater ROM only on day 1. Conclusion: Infrared radiation (IRR) is
effective in ameliorating the symptoms of DOMS immediately after treatment on day 1 while
the effect of warm‑up exercises is seen 24 h later. IRR, thus, has a better effect than warm‑up
exercises in ameliorating the symptoms associated with DOMS.
... The studies used different protocols that included cold water immersion techniques, ice packs, ice massage, and ice compression for cryotherapy. Thus, in 18 studies (Abaïdia et al., 2017;Adamczyk et al., 2016;Ascensão et al., 2011;Denegar & Perrin, 1992;Doungkulsa et al., 2018;Elias et al., 2012;Ferreira-Junior et al., 2015;Fonseca et al., 2016;Glasgow et al., 2014;Leeder et al., 2015;Machado et al., 2017;Malmir et al., 2017;Marquet et al., 2015;Pointon et al., 2011;Selkow et al., 2015;Siqueira et al., 2018;Vaile et al., 2008;Wiewelhove et al., 2018) significant effects were described, while14 studies showed no effects (Behringer et al., 2018;de Paiva et al., 2016;Guilhem et al., 2013;Hassan, 2011;Howatson et al., 2005Howatson et al., , 2008Howatson & Van Someren, 2003;Isabell et al., 1992;Jajtner et al., 2015;Johar et al., 2012;Micheletti et al., 2019;Paddon-Jones & Quigley, 1997;Sellwood et al., 2007;Tseng et al., 2013). ...
... All five studies that investigated this method found significant effects (Akinci et al., 2020;Macdonald et al., 2014;Naderi et (Jakeman et al., 2010a(Jakeman et al., , 2010bKraemer et al., 2001;Prill et al., 2019) while five studies did not reveal differences (Carling et al., 1995;Ferguson et al., 2014;Hill et al., 2017;Hoffman et al., 2016;Northey et al., 2016). Regarding massage, 14 studies reported significant outcomes (Andersen et al., 2013;Frey et al., 2008;Hilbert et al., 2003;Hoffman et al., 2016;Imtiyaz et al., 2014;Jakeman et al., 2010aJakeman et al., , 2010bJay et al., 2014;Kargarfard et al., 2016;Smith et al., 1994;Tiidus & Shoemaker, 1995 (Changa et al., 2020;Fuller et al., 2015;Hart et al., 2005;Howatson & Van Someren, 2003;Kong et al., 2018;Lightfoot et al., 1997;Visconti et al., 2020;Weber et al., 1994). For stretching, two studies (Ozmen (Boobphachart et al., 2017;Lightfoot et al., 1997;Rhea et al., 2009;Torres et al., 2013;Wessel & Wan, 1994;Xie et al., 2018). ...
... The methodological evaluation of the quality of the studies has yielded an average of 4.7 points on the PEDro scale. Sixteen studies were considered "high quality" (Aaron et al., 2017;Aytar et al., 2008;Chang et al., 2019;Craig et al., 1999b;de Paiva et al., 2016;Ferreira-Junior et al., 2015;Fleckenstein et al., 2016Fleckenstein et al., , 2017 R.L. Nahon, J.S. Silva A. Monteiro de Magalhães Neto Physical Therapy in Sport 52 (2021) 1e12 et al., 2002;Mikesky & Hayden, 2005;Selkow et al., 2015;Sellwood et al., 2007;Vinck et al., 2006); 42 studies were considered "moderate quality" (Adamczyk et al., 2016;Andersen et al., 2013;Butterfield et al., 1997;Changa et al., 2020;Craig et al., 1996b;Curtis et al., 2010;Doungkulsa et al., 2018;Elias et al., 2012;Glasgow et al., 2014;Guilhem et al., 2013;Hart et al., 2005;Hasson et al., 1990;Hazar Kanik et al., 2019;Hoffman et al., 2016;Howatson et al., 2008;Jayaraman et al., 2004;Jeon et al., 2015;Johar et al., 2012;Kirmizigil et al., 2019;Kong et al., 2018;Law & Herbert, 2007;Leeder et al., 2015;Macdonald et al., 2014;Machado et al., 2017;Malmir et al., 2017;McLoughlin et al., 2004;Micheletti et al., 2019;Naderi et al., 2020;Paddon-Jones & Quigley, 1997;Rey et al., 2012;Rocha et al., 2012;Romero-Moraleda et al., 2019;Siqueira et al., 2018;Smith et al., 1994;Tourville et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2006;Weber et al., 1994;Wiewelhove et al., 2018;Xie et al., 2018;Zebrowska et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2000) and 63 studies were considered "low quality" (Akinci et al., 2020;Behringer et al., 2018;Boobphachart et al., 2017;Carling et al., 1995;Ferguson et al., 2014;Haksever et al., 2016;Hill et al., 2017;Imtiyaz et al., 2014;Jakeman et al., 2010aJakeman et al., , 2010bKraemer et al., 2001;Lau & Nosaka, 2011;Northey et al., 2016;Ozmen et al., 2017;Pearcey et al., 2015;Prill et al., 2019;Rhea et al., 2009;Timon et al., 2016;Vaile et al., 2007Vaile et al., , 2008Visconti et al., 2020;Wheeler & Jacobson, 2013) , (Ascensão et al., 2011;Hassan, 2011;Hilbert et al., 2003;Howatson & Van Someren, 2003;Jajtner et al., 2015;Kargarfard et al., 2016;Lightfoot et al., 1997;Marquet et al., 2015;Micklewright, 2009;Tiidus & Shoemaker, 1995;Torres et al., 2013;Weber et al., 1994;Wessel & Wan, 1994;Xiong et al., 2009;Zainuddin et al., 2005) , (Abaïdia et al., 2017;Barlas et al., 2000;Cardoso et al., 2020;Craig et al., 1996aCraig et al., , 1999aHowatson et al., 2005;Itoh et al., 2008;Mankovsky-Arnold et al., 2013;Minder et al., 2002;Parker & Madden, 2014;Petrofsky et al., 2012;Plaskett et al., 1999;Shankar et al., 2006;Taylor et al., 2015;Tseng et al., 2013;Tufano et al., 2012;Vanderthommen et al., 2007;Zainuddin et al., 2006) (See details in Appendix 3). The overall analysis results showed that there was "low quality evidence" (according to GRADE classification). ...
Objective
To evaluate the impact of interventions on pain associated with DOMS.
Data sources
PubMed, EMBASE, PEDro, Cochrane, and Scielo databases were searched, from the oldest records until May/2020. Search terms used included combinations of keywords related to “DOMS” and “intervention therapy”.
Eligibility criteria
Healthy participants (no restrictions were applied, e.g., age, sex, and exercise level). To be included, studies should be: 1) Randomized clinical trial; 2) Having induced muscle damage and subsequently measuring the level of pain; 3) To have applied therapeutic interventions (nonpharmacological or nutritional) and compare with a control group that received no intervention; and 4) The first application of the intervention had to occur immediately after muscle damage had been induced.
Results
One hundred and twenty-one studies were included. The results revealed that the contrast techniques (p = 0,002 I² = 60 %), cryotherapy (p = 0,002 I² = 100 %), phototherapy (p = 0,0001 I² = 95 %), vibration (p = 0,004 I² = 96 %), ultrasound (p = 0,02 I² = 97 %), massage (p < 0,00001 I² = 94 %), active exercise (p = 0,0004 I² = 93 %) and compression (p = 0,002 I² = 93 %) have a better positive effect than the control in the management of DOMS.
Conclusion
Low quality evidence suggests that contrast, cryotherapy, phototherapy, vibration, ultrasound, massage, and active exercise have beneficial effects in the management of DOMS-related pain.
... [3,6] A prior study on the effects of ice massage on the signs and symptoms associated with EIMD showed that it had no effect on the symptoms of DOMS. [9] Also, a study by Brock et al., (2004) [10] on the effect of ultrasound-induced increase muscle temperature on the symptoms of DOMS failed to provide significant prophylactic effects. Warm-up exercises have been advocated to improve athletes' performance and reduce muscle injury. ...
... It has been reported to speed up the healing process in musculoskeletal injuries by increasing microcirculation through the release of nitrous oxide from hemoglobin. [9] However, its efficacy as a treatment modality in the management of symptoms associated with DOMS has not been thoroughly investigated; the few studies in this area have given conflicting results on the efficacy. Glasgow et al., (2001) [17] for instance, reported on the results of a randomized controlled clinical trial of low-level infrared therapy in 24 subjects with experimentally induced muscle soreness and found no significant differences between the treatment and placebo groups. ...
... [21] The significant decrease in muscle soreness immediately after treatment with IRR suggests that IRR aids in muscle repair, especially as prior studies have shown that it causes the release of nitric oxide (NO) from hemoglobin that causes vasodilatation with a resultant increase in blood flow that enhances healing. [9] Moreover, this is because red infrared has been found to have the deepest penetration among the infrared range and aids healing at any wavelength. [22,23] These results may also suggest a positive role for IRR in ameliorating the symptoms of DOMS, especially as treatment was given only on day 1 immediately after the inducement of DOMS. ...
Introduction: Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) is associated with temporary morbidity as a result of pain, soreness, and reduced muscular performance that affects the overall performance of the individual. Several interventional modalities have been studied without a conclusive evidence of efficacy. Objective: This study was carried out as part of a continuous attempt to find an effective and quick relief for DOMS. The study investigated the comparative effects of warm-up exercises and infrared radiation in ameliorating the symptoms associated with DOMS. Materials and Methods: Sixty volunteer subjects between the age of 16 years and 35 years had DOMS induced in the left biceps brachii muscle. They were randomized into three groups with 20 subjects in each group. The groups were allocated as follows: Group A as control that received no treatment, Group B had a bout of warm-up exercises consisting of 10 sets of maximal elbow flexion and extension after which DOMS was experimentally induced, and Group C had infrared radiation for 20 min after which DOMS was experimentally induced. Assessment for muscle soreness, pain, and joint range of motion (ROM) was carried out immediately after inducing DOMS and it was repeated 24 h and 48 h later using the Numerical Pain Rating Scale (NPRS), deep palpation (DP), and goniometry, respectively. Results: The infrared group (Group C) had significantly lower scores on NPRS and DP throughout the 3 days compared with the control while the significant effects of warm-up exercises were seen from day 2. There was, however, no significant difference (P > 0.05) in the range of movement (ROM) scores. Compared with warm-up exercises (Group B), infrared resulted in significantly lower NPRS and DP scores and greater ROM only on day 1. Conclusion: Infrared radiation (IRR) is effective in ameliorating the symptoms of DOMS immediately after treatment on day 1 while the effect of warm-up exercises is seen 24 h later. IRR, thus, has a better effect than warm-up exercises in ameliorating the symptoms associated with DOMS.
... It is not known which form of cryotherapy results in the greatest oedema removal, although CWI seem to be the most frequently used during recovery (Wilcock et al., 2006). However, research examining this area is equivocal; some studies have shown no attenuation in the signs and symptoms of muscle damage following cryotherapy (Gulick and Kimura, 1996;Howatson and van Someren, 2003;Isabell et al., 1992), whereas others have ( Bailey et al., 2007;Burke et al., 2000). Possibilities for these discrepancies potentially lay in methodological inconsistencies in cold temperature, frequency and immersion time (Wilcock et al., 2006). ...
... Dependent variables to indicate damage were maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of the knee extensors, creatine kinase activity (CK), muscle soreness (DOMS), range of motion (ROM) and swelling which have been used in previous research (Byrne et al., 2004;Howatson and van Someren, 2003;Warren et al. 1999). MVC measurements were recorded immediately pre and postexercise and for the following 96 h at 24 h increments. ...
... The results clearly demonstrate that repeated CWI did not significantly enhance the recovery process following damaging exercise to a greater extent than an experimental control. These findings add to a growing body of literature that demonstrates cryotherapy to be an ineffective strategy when recovering from EIMD (Howatson and van Someren, 2003;Howatson et al., 2005;Isabell et al., 1992;Sellwood et al., 2007). The exercise bout was successful in inducing muscle damage, which was evident from the significant change of dependent variables and concurs with previous literature that reported similar trends following a like mode of exercise ( Miyama and Nosaka, 2004b). ...
The aim of this investigation was to elucidate the efficacy of repeated cold water immersions (CWI) in the recovery of exercise induced muscle damage. A randomised group consisting of eighteen males, mean ± s age, height and body mass were 24 ± 5 years, 1.82 ± 0.06 m and 85.7 ± 16.6 kg respectively, completed a bout of 100 drop jumps. Following the bout of damaging exercise, participants were randomly but equally assigned to either a 12 min CWI (15 ± 1 °C; n = 9) group who experienced immersions immediately post-exercise and every 24 h thereafter for the following 3 days, or a control group (no treatment; n = 9). Maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of the knee extensors, creatine kinase activity (CK), muscle soreness (DOMS), range of motion (ROM) and limb girth were measured pre-exercise and then for the following 96 h at 24 h increments. In addition MVC was also recorded immediately post-exercise. Significant time effects were seen for MVC, CK, DOMS and limb girth (p < 0.05) indicating muscle damage was evident, however there was no group effect or interaction observed showing that CWI did not attenuate any of the dependent variables (p > 0.05). These results suggest that repeated CWI do not enhance recovery from a bout of damaging eccentric contractions. Key pointsCryotherapy, particularly cold water immersions are one of the most common interventions used in order to enhance recovery post-exercise.There is little empirical evidence demonstrating benefits from cold water immersions. Research evidence is equivocal, probably due to methodological inconsistencies.Our results show that the cryotherapy administered did not attenuate any markers of EIMD or enhance the recovery of function.We conclude that repeated cold water immersions are ineffective in the recovery from heavy plyometric exercise and suggest athletes and coaches should use caution before using this intervention as a recovery strategy.
... Em síntese, alguns estudos demonstram efeito da crioterapia na redução de marcadores de lesão muscular no sangue (ESTON; PETERS, 1999; HOWATSON; VAN SOMEREN, 2003), na redução de sinais e sintomas como percepção do músculo dolorido ou, ainda, no restabelecimento pleno de funções, como amplitude de movimento e força (YANAGISAWA et al., 2003). Todavia, outros estudos apontaram a incapacidade da crioterapia como forma terapêutica para as lesões musculares induzidas pelo exercício (ESTON; PATERS, 1999; PADDON-JONES; QUIGLEY, 1997; HOWATSON; VAN SOMEREN, 2003;YACKZAN;ADAMS;FRANCIS, 1984). ...
... Em síntese, alguns estudos demonstram efeito da crioterapia na redução de marcadores de lesão muscular no sangue (ESTON; PETERS, 1999; HOWATSON; VAN SOMEREN, 2003), na redução de sinais e sintomas como percepção do músculo dolorido ou, ainda, no restabelecimento pleno de funções, como amplitude de movimento e força (YANAGISAWA et al., 2003). Todavia, outros estudos apontaram a incapacidade da crioterapia como forma terapêutica para as lesões musculares induzidas pelo exercício (ESTON; PATERS, 1999; PADDON-JONES; QUIGLEY, 1997; HOWATSON; VAN SOMEREN, 2003;YACKZAN;ADAMS;FRANCIS, 1984). Assim, a crioterapia, além do seu efeito analgésico, devido à inibição nervosa, parece oferecer poucos benefícios no tratamento dos sinais e sintomas das lesões musculares induzidas pelo exercício. ...
Post-exercise recovery is a key factor within every physical training program for athletes and non-athletes alike, as well as coaches and health professionals. Thus, knowledge on the post-exercise recovery process and the efficacy of the recovery modalities in enhancing between-training session (to increase training frequency and/or training loads qualitatively) is essential. Therefore, prophylactic or therapeutic interventions that might reduce the negative effects of exercise-induced muscle damage, thereby speeding recovery, are of great interest to researchers, coaches and athletes. As such, the purpose of this review was to describe the physiological responses to post-exercise recovery modalities currently used to aid athlete recovery during the training process, and consequently enhance performance.
... Além desses métodos, Isabell et al. (31) , Yackzan et al. (32) e Howatson e van Someren (33) utilizaram a massagem com gelo por 15 minutos. E obtiveram resultados satisfatórios, como melhor amplitude de movimento imediatamente pós-exercício (26) , bem como diminuição de CK (33) . ...
... Além desses métodos, Isabell et al. (31) , Yackzan et al. (32) e Howatson e van Someren (33) utilizaram a massagem com gelo por 15 minutos. E obtiveram resultados satisfatórios, como melhor amplitude de movimento imediatamente pós-exercício (26) , bem como diminuição de CK (33) . Para Isabell et al. (31) , não houve significância estatística para as variáveis estudadas. ...
A recuperação pós-exercício consiste em restaurar os sistemas do corpo a sua condição basal, proporcionando equilíbrio e prevenindo a instalação de lesões e, nesse sentido, torna-se aspecto importante de todo programa de condicionamento físico, em quaisquer níveis de desempenho, mas, sobretudo nos mais elevados. O objetivo desta revisão foi reunir informações e descrever as respostas proporcionadas por métodos recuperativos pós-exercício, como crioterapia, contraste, massagem e recuperação ativa, constituindo uma fonte de atualização do referido tema. Utilizaram-se os bancos de dados MedLine, Scielo e Lilacs, como lista de periódicos, o SportsDiscus. Foram incluídos no estudo somente ensaios clínicos randomizados controlados e não-controlados, além de artigos de revisão referentes ao tema proposto. Optou-se por procurar os termos: cryotherapy, massage, active recovery, thermotherapy, immersion e exercise, individualmente e em cruzamentos. Como achado, observou-se que alguns estudos relatam que a crioterapia é prejudicial em se tratando de recuperação pós-exercício, pois reduz o desempenho imediatamente após a aplicação da técnica. Por outro lado, estudos apontam como sendo benéfica, pois reduzem o nível de creatinaquinase após alta intensidade de esforço, evitando danos musculares. Para o contraste, embora apresente significância em se tratando de remoção de lactato sanguíneo, sua efetividade necessita ser mais bem discutida. Na massagem e na recuperação ativa, os principais vieses descritos dizem respeito à pressão exercida e à intensidade do exercício, respectivamente. Entre as técnicas, as que parecem ter efeitos semelhantes são o contraste e a recuperação ativa, no que tange à remoção de lactato e diminuição da creatinaquinase. Ressalta-se que o tempo de exposição é de fundamental importância para todos os métodos. Entretanto, diversos estudos não se propõem a identificar os reais efeitos fisiológicos promovidos pelas técnicas, utilizando-as de modo inipiente. Portanto, a inconsistência dos resultados encontrados sugere que a análise das variáveis utilizadas como método de recuperação deve ser mais bem controlada.
... Essa hipótese se confirma quando são analisados os dados de Howatson e Van Someren (13) . Nesse estudo, os autores utilizaram exercícios isoinerciais com cargas submáximas (70% de 1RM) e aplicaram massagem com a utilização de gelo na tentativa de diminuir a resposta dos marcadores indiretos de dano muscular. ...
... Com exceção da atenuação da resposta da CK (creatina quinase -enzima intramuscular), a massagem não apresentou benefícios em nenhuma das variáveis analisadas (DOMS, CIR, ADM, 1RM). No nosso estudo, a concentração plasmática de CK não foi analisada, mas as respostas das outras variáveis apresentaram comportamento semelhante ao do estudo de Howatson e Van Somersen (13) . Além de o efeito da massagem na DOMS não estar bem estabelecido e haver controvérsia sobre o assunto, não existem estudos reportando qual o melhor momento para a aplicação da massagem. ...
Heavy resistance training induces to symptoms of muscle damage which include delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Some strategies (i.e. massage) have been used to attenuate these symptoms and to reduce discomfort associated with DOMS. This study aimed to investigate the effects of classical massage on DOMS perception, limb girth (CIR), range of motion (ADM) and maximum strength performance (1-RM) after a muscle damage protocol. Eighteen males were divided into three groups (G1= massage-only, G2= protocol-only, G3= protocol + massage) according to their 1-RM values. DOMS-inducing protocol consisted of 30 supramaximal eccentric contractions (6 sets of 5 repetitions at 110% 1RM). Immediately after the protocol, classical massage was performed in G3 for 6 minutes. DOMS, CIR, ADM were assessed 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours after the muscle damage protocol, and maximum strength was evaluated only after 48 and 96 hours. Results showed increase in DOMS and reduction in ADM and 1-RM values, in agreement with other studies using similar procedures. However, there was no difference between G2 and G3 in any of the assessed variables. It can be concluded that the muscle damage protocol used in this study was effective in causing alteration in the dependent variables observed. However, classical massage was not effective to minimize the symptoms associated to exercise induced muscle damage.
... Essa hipótese se confirma quando são analisados os dados de Howatson e Van Someren (13) . Nesse estudo, os autores utilizaram exercícios isoinerciais com cargas submáximas (70% de 1RM) e aplicaram massagem com a utilização de gelo na tentativa de diminuir a resposta dos marcadores indiretos de dano muscular. ...
... Com exceção da atenuação da resposta da CK (creatina quinase -enzima intramuscular), a massagem não apresentou benefícios em nenhuma das variáveis analisadas (DOMS, CIR, ADM, 1RM). No nosso estudo, a concentração plasmática de CK não foi analisada, mas as respostas das outras variáveis apresentaram comportamento semelhante ao do estudo de Howatson e Van Somersen (13) . Além de o efeito da massagem na DOMS não estar bem estabelecido e haver controvérsia sobre o assunto, não existem estudos reportando qual o melhor momento para a aplicação da massagem. ...
Heavy resistance training induces to symptoms of muscle damage which include delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Some strategies (i.e. massage) have been used to attenuate these symptoms and to reduce discomfort associated with DOMS. This study aimed to investigate the effects of classical massage on DOMS perception, limb girth (CIR), range of motion (ADM) and maximum strength performance (1-RM) after a muscle damage protocol. Eighteen males were divided into three groups (G1= massage-only, G2= protocol-only, G3= protocol + massage) according to their 1-RM values. DOMS-inducing protocol consisted of 30 supramaximal eccentric contractions (6 sets of 5 repetitions at 110% 1RM). Immediately after the protocol, classical massage was performed in G3 for 6 minutes. DOMS, CIR, ADM were assessed 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours after the muscle damage protocol, and maximum strength was evaluated only after 48 and 96 hours. Results showed increase in DOMS and reduction in ADM and 1-RM values, in agreement with other studies using similar procedures. However, there was no difference between G2 and G3 in any of the assessed variables. It can be concluded that the muscle damage protocol used in this study was effective in causing alteration in the dependent variables observed. However, classical massage was not effective to minimize the symptoms associated to exercise induced muscle damage.
... It has been reported to speed up the healing process in musculoskeletal injuries by increasing microcirculation through the release of nitrous oxide from hemoglobin. [15] However, its efficacy as a treatment modality in the management of symptoms associated with DOMS has not been thoroughly investigated; the few studies in this area have given conflicting results on the efficacy. Glasgow et al., (2001) [16] for instance, reported on the results of a randomized controlled clinical trial of low-level infrared therapy in 24 subjects with experimentally induced muscle soreness and found no significant differences between the treatment and placebo groups. ...
... It has been documented that training affects creatine kinase activity and blood urea concentration. Therefore, the determination of serum creatine kinase activity and urea concentration after training could be used as effective biochemical indices to evaluate the fatigue state of athletes (Howatson and Van Someren, 2003), despite divergent views on the assessment of the blood levels of myofibre proteins (i.e., CK) based on the fact that the blood streams reflect not only their release into the blood but also their removal (Warren, et al., 1999). In this study, the young wrestlers received machine massage five times a week for 20 min each time for two weeks after training, and the serum CK level decreased by 33.83%. ...
Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effect of a two-week machine massage on the physical properties of the erector spinae and serum biochemical indexes of adolescent athletes after training.
Methods: Sixteen male adolescent wrestlers were recruited (age: 15 ± 1 year; height: 166 ± 7 cm; weight: 56 ± 7 kg) and randomly assigned to machine massage (MA, 8) and control (CO, 8) groups. Participants in the MA group received machine massage for 20 min after each wrestling training from Monday to Saturday (except on Thursday) for two weeks, while the participants in the CO group recovered naturally. Over the course of two weeks, all the participants underwent similar wrestling training program under the guidance of a professional coach. Before and after the intervention, serum urea and creatine kinase (CK) levels were measured in a fasting state. A Myoton Pro digital muscle evaluation system was used to measure the physical properties of the erector spinae, including the oscillation frequency, logarithmic decrement of a muscle’s natural oscillation, and dynamic stiffness.
Results: After two weeks of machine massage treatment, the dynamic stiffness of the erector spinae in the MA group decreased by 12.90% and that in the CO group increased by 2.34%, indicating a significant difference between the two groups (p = 0.04, ƞ ² = 0.286). The decrease in the logarithmic decrement of a muscle’s natural oscillation value in the MA was significantly greater than that in the CO (p = 0.003, ƞ ² = 0.286). Moreover, the serum CK values decreased by 33.84% in the MA group and by 1.49% in the CO group, despite a trend of change between the groups (p = 0.062, ƞ2 = 0.084). No significant difference was found in the improvement in serum urea levels between the two groups after two weeks of treatment.
Conclusion: Results of the present study indicated that a two-week machine massage had a positive effect on the improvement of the physical properties of the erector spinae of wrestlers during training.
... Moreover, strenuous or unaccustomed exercise during training or competition also induce DOMS, negatively influencing exercise performance in athletes (Smith, 1992). Various protocols have been developed to alleviate DOMS induced by acute resistance or strenuous exercise, including the use of stretching (Dupuy et al., 2018), ice packs (Howatson and Van Someren, 2003), massage (Kargarfard et al., 2016), nutritional supplements (Harty et al., 2019) and anti-inflammatory drugs (Schoenfeld, 2012). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of acute repeated hypoxia–hyperoxia preconditioning on resistance exercise (RE)-induced muscle damage in male athletes.
Methods
Eleven young male athletes participated in this randomized double-blind counter-balanced crossover study, and were divided into Normoxia (N) and Hypoxia–Hyperoxia (HH) trials. Subjects of the respective trials were supplied with normoxic (FiO2 = 0.21), or alternating hypoxic/hyperoxic air (FiO2 = 0.10/0.99, 5 min each) for 60 min. Thirty minutes after preconditioning, subjects performed acute bouts of RE consisting of bench press, deadlift, and squats. Each exercise included 6 sets of 10 repetitions at 75% one-repetition maximum (1RM) with 2 min rest between sets. After a 2-week washout period, subjects changed trials and completed the same study procedure after the alternate preconditioning. Muscle soreness, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), and circulating biochemical markers were tested before preconditioning (baseline) and during recovery at 0, 24, and 48 h after exercise.
Results
Acute RE significantly increased levels of muscle soreness, creatine kinase (CK) and myoglobin (Mb), and decreased levels of peak knee extension torque in the N trial. Muscle soreness, CK, and Mb levels of the HH trial were significantly lower than that of the N trial after exercise. Interestingly, interleukin-6 (IL-6) levels of the HH trial increased significantly 0 h after exercise compared to baseline and were significantly higher than that of the N trial 0 and 24 h after exercise. However, no significant differences of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), cortisol, testosterone, peak torque, and average power levels were found between N and HH trials during recovery.
Conclusion
Our data suggest that pre-exercise treatment of alternating hypoxic/hyperoxic air could attenuate muscle damage and pain after acute RE, but has no effect on muscle strength recovery in young male athletes.
... Studies investigating repeat applications of ice following exercise are limited and inconclusive. Some studies have shown a positive effect at 48 h on the recovery of soreness (Oakley et al. 2013) and blood markers of muscle damage (Howatson and Van Someren 2003); while others have shown no effect (Howatson et al. 2005) or a delay in the recovery of both soreness and adaptation to exercise training (Isabell et al. 1992;Tseng et al. 2013). Therefore, ice is generally not an effective cryotherapy modality when used for recovery from exercise (Table 2). ...
Cryotherapy is utilized as a physical intervention in the treatment of injury and exercise recovery. Traditionally, ice is used in the treatment of musculoskeletal injury while cold water immersion or whole-body cryotherapy is used for recovery from exercise. In humans, the primary benefit of traditional cryotherapy is reduced pain following injury or soreness following exercise. Cryotherapy-induced reductions in metabolism, inflammation, and tissue damage have been demonstrated in animal models of muscle injury; however, comparable evidence in humans is lacking. This absence is likely due to the inadequate duration of application of traditional cryotherapy modalities. Traditional cryotherapy application must be repeated to overcome this limitation. Recently, the novel application of cooling with 15 °C phase change material (PCM), has been administered for 3-6 h with success following exercise. Although evidence suggests that chronic use of cryotherapy during resistance training blunts the anabolic training effect, recovery using PCM does not compromise acute adaptation. Therefore, following exercise, cryotherapy is indicated when rapid recovery is required between exercise bouts, as opposed to after routine training. Ultimately, the effectiveness of cryotherapy as a recovery modality is dependent upon its ability to maintain a reduction in muscle temperature and on the timing of treatment with respect to when the injury occurred, or the exercise ceased. Therefore, to limit the proliferation of secondary tissue damage that occurs in the hours after an injury or a strenuous exercise bout, it is imperative that cryotherapy be applied in abundance within the first few hours of structural damage.
... To our knowledge, no studies showed significant improvement in strength of elbow flexors after eccentric exercise from cryotherapy. 23,36,41 There are few limitations present in the study. The study considered only healthy male participants and hence, the external validity of the study findings may not be applicable to other groups of population (e.g., females, elderly individuals, clinical population). ...
... The results of circumference in the present study demonstrated that the tender point suspended moxibustion has no advantage on reducing the swelling of DOMS compared with other treatments. This was consistent with the prior studies which evaluated the effects of other nonpharmaceutical treatments on reducing the swelling of DOMS (Douris et al., 2006;Howatson and Van Someren, 2003;Lau and Nosaka, 2011;Sellwood et al., 2007;Vaile et al., 2008) As a pilot study, there are several limitations in the present study. Firstly, although we determined the sample size by referring a prior study about acupuncture, the sample size of the present study were not large enough to detect the differences, because the suspended moxibustion as a mild treatment might have lower efficacy than acupuncture. ...
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of suspended moxibustion upon tender point on delayed onset muscle soreness. The study was a randomized double-blind controlled trial with 50 subjects in each group. Subjects in moxibustion group received suspended moxibustion upon tender point (by palpation) twice. The controls received no treatment. Each subject received treatments twice, 24 hr and 48 hr after the delayed onset muscle soreness induction. The measurements of Pain Visual Analog Scale, maximum isometric muscle strength and circumference were made immediately after delayed onset muscle soreness induction, before and after every treatment session and 72 hr after delayed onset muscle soreness induction. There were no significantly statistical differences between two groups at all measurement time points on maximum isometric muscle strength and circumference. However, the Pain Visual Analog Scale scores after first treatment session and 72 hr after delayed onset muscle soreness induction in moxibustion group was less than the control group, with significant difference (p < 0.05). The suspended moxibustion failed to show the effect on delayed onset muscle soreness. However, results need to be cautiously interpreted because of the pilot character of this study. The suspended moxibustion has a potential effect of pain relief on DOMS from the analysis of the data of this study. A large sample size trial is needed to confirm the effect of the suspended moxibustion on DOMS in the future.
... Dans un contexte où l'inflammation joue un rôle considérable, toutes les interventions médico-sportives permettant de diminuer ou de contenir les inflammations articulaires ou musculaires sont à priori efficaces. On pense en particulier au glaçage (51,52) et aux différentes techniques de contention (53) . ...
Introduction :
The recent development of mountain ultra-
marathon (MUM) competitions raises several questions to
the health professionnals, the runners and the sport scientists
concerning the potentially deleterious short-, mid- or long-
term consequences of these « extreme » events. This article
aims to present an update on inflammatory and hematological
responses to MUM, and their consequences on cardiac and
neuromuscular fatigue and gastrointestinal disorders.
Development :
A pragmatic review of the literature was conducted for this update, as the scientific body of knowledge remains fragmented in these areas. Only the acute responses will be addressed because the data on long-term effects are insufficient to date. Overall, it can be stated that ultra-endurance events induce a large inflammation with severe effects on several physiological functions.
Discussion :
These results raise many issues concerning the prevention and the training management. While short-term effects are beginning to be better investigated, long-term health implications remain uncertain.
Conclusion :
The physiological mechanisms associated to MUMs are very specific and widely different from those observed in shorter distance road running races (marathon for exemple). To date, it remains difficult to estimate how deleterious these events are on the runners’ health. Paradoxically, the very low exercise intensity observed during very long races might limit some muscular or cardiac damages. Further longitudinal studies are needed to understand better the effects of MUMs on the runners’ health, including also the osteo-joint system.
... The most likely explanation is direct contact with ice (with temperature surely below 0°C) in IM method, while during CWI water surrounding skin was around 8°C. The direct contact of the ice applicators with the front of the thigh and associated compression with the ice cools the skin more than water (Howatson and van Someren, 2003;Howatson et al., 2005). Moreover the significant lowering of T sk at the back side of the thighs was observed only in the CWI group. ...
Cold water immersion (CWI) and ice massage (IM) are commonly used treatments to prevent the delay onset of muscle soreness (DOMS); however, little is known on their relative benefits and effectiveness to lower tissue temperature. This study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of IM and CMI on tissue temperature and potential benefit to preventing DOMS. The research encompassed 36 subjects divided into three groups of twelve depending on the form of recovery: ice massage (IM), cold-water immersion (CWI), or passive recovery (PAS). All the participants were asked to jump as high as possible from a full squat for one minute. Thermal imaging was conducted at rest, immediately following the exercise, immediately after the trial, following the recovery treatment, and after 30 minutes of rest. Their pain levels were assessed using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). After applying the selected method for supporting recovery, the LA level decreased by 4.25 mmol/L in the IM group, and by 4.96 mmol/L in the CWI group (IM vs. CWI p>0.05). The 2.75 mmol/L decrease in lactate concentration in the PAS group was significantly lower than in the other groups (IM vs. PAS p<0.05 / CWI vs. PAS p<0.01). In both groups, Tsk after 30 minutes was significantly lower (ΔTsk ~0.5 °C) than at rest (p<0.05). In turn, Tsk in the PAS group returned to the resting values (p>0.05). Seventy-two hours after the exercise, a clear decrease in discomfort was observed in the IM and CWI groups compared to the PAS group. The two applied treatments have proven to be effective both in utilizing lactate and preventing DOMS. Depending on training requirements, we recommend the use of IM when athletes experience localized muscle fatigue. One the other hand, CWI is recommended in situations of global or generalized muscle injury or fatigue.
... 7 This could account for the biphasic increase in muscle soreness observed after exercise and supports the assumption that cryotherapy can be effective in reducing muscle injury rather than facilitating removal of exercise-induced accumulation of by-products. [8][9][10] This study revealed a significant decrease in lactate, as a byproduct, and a compensated pH value as a metabolic-induced parameter after ice massage. Cryotherapy was associated with improved recovery of lactate and pH, which was significantly less than that experienced by the control group. ...
... It is also associated with loss of strength. In an attempt to lessen the symptoms of EIMD, several cryotherapy methods (Howatson et al., 2003) have been used by sports facilitators (Bleakley et al, 2012). Cryotherapy is anticipated to decrease tissue temperature, diminish inflammation and consequential edema, and reduce time to recovery. ...
The aim of this study was to examine effects of cold-water immersion after exercise on powerresponses of wrestlers. Twenty elite male wrestlers were formed by similar age, height, weight and fitness parameters. The wrestling training session included a 60-minute of vigorous exercise. It consisted of warm-up exercises, standing technical and tactical exercises that mostly allocates arm and leg muscles. Vertical jump height, ropes climb height, and delayed onset of soreness was measured before, after, 24 h and 48 hors after the wrestling training. Cold-water immersion caused decrements in power loss at each follow-up time in comparison to a thermo neutral immersion. It can be suggested that the longer time needed for power to return to normal levels after cold treatment and assessment of varied contraction types may present a more broad demonstration of muscle function and consequential capacity for dynamic exercise following exercise-induced muscle damage.
... Most of the literature on cold therapy as a recovery modality involves cold water immersion. Although it is frequently used to treat muscle and tendon soreness, ice massage has not been shown to be an effective recovery aide (48,49,51,100). Cold is postulated to work by affecting inflammation, blood flow, nutrient transport, nerve conduction velocity, and pain perception (2,14,43,95). ...
... Cryotherapy could function to blunt infl ammation and swelling following muscle damage via short-term vasoconstriction of the blood vessels within the muscle. Like the other modalities , cryotherapy has not been widely tested, but the available evidence has consistently found it to have little to no eff ect on DOMS (Gulick et al., 1996, Howatson et al., 2005, Howatson & Van Someren, 2003, Isabell et al., 1992, Sellwood et al., 2007). Th e application of heat as a treatment for DOMS has yielded mixed results, but very few studies have been performed. ...
This chapter discusses the psychobiology of muscle pain during and following exercise. The chapter includes a general discussion of peripheral nociceptive inputs from noxious biochemicals and mechanical pressure as well as a discussion of central nociceptive processing in spinal and supraspinal areas. Descending modulation of pain via endogenous opioids is also discussed. Particular attention is paid to likely mechanisms of muscle pain during exercise and delayed-onset soreness following exercise. A second section of the chapter covers commonly used methods for assessing muscle pain, such as questionnaires and measures of pain threshold, pain tolerance, and pain intensity. The final section discusses individual attributes and treatment modalities that may affect pain perception. Included are specific discussions on the repeated-bout effect, differences in pain perceptions between men and women, analgesia after exercise, and pharmacological and other commonly employed treatments for pain, such as massage, ice, and heat.
... Cryotherapy is a method that is used for decreasing the volume of the damages with the effect of the cold. Ice massage is also a cryotherapy method and easy to apply, provides cooling of superficial and deep tissues from a relatively short application period when compared with some other methods found that a single treatment with ice massage had an immediate but short-term beneficial effect on muscle soreness following eccentric exercise (Howatson and Sameron 2003). Cryotherapy in the form of ice massage is used to reduce inflammation after acute musculoskeletal injury or trauma (Geeta and Majumi 2014). ...
The present study is aimed at comparing the effects of ice massage versus cold-water immersion on creatinekinase (CK) levels and delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) values of elite wrestlers. To achieve the objectives of the research twenty elite wrestlers participated in the study. Participants were separated into two groups (ice massage vs. cold water immersion) of whose weights were equal. Between the sets, experiment group was applied ice message for 8 minutes while control group was given cold-water immersion. Blood samples of the subjects were taken before and after the exercises. Groups’ differences were determined with “Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance”. Significant differences were observed within both groups at all times (<0.001). DOMS (24 h), DOMS (48 h). There was no difference after 72 hours, and before exercise values in DOMS values for ice massage group (p> 0.05). Including competition and training for athletes, ice massage as a recovery strategy is expected to shorten the recovery time in athletes.
... Most of the literature on cold therapy as a recovery modality involves cold water immersion. Although it is frequently used to treat muscle and tendon soreness, ice massage has not been shown to be an effective recovery aide (48,49,51,100). Cold is postulated to work by affecting inflammation, blood flow, nutrient transport, nerve conduction velocity, and pain perception (2,14,43,95). ...
This review summarizes the evidence base for using compression, massage, caloric replacement, cold, and heat as exercise recovery aids in sport.
... Nosaka et al. reported that DOMS is a poor reflector of eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage, and muscle damage and inflammation do not necessarily accompany DOMS 13) . Howatson et al. reported that cryotherapy had no effect on DOMS, but reduced the appearance of plasma creatine kinase 14) . We hypothesized that cryotherapy would not be effective for DOMS, but would reduce of exerciseinduced muscle damage. ...
[Purpose] Cryotherapy has been used to treat acute skeletal muscle damage, but there are some controversies about the effects of cryotherapy on exercise-induced muscle damage. In present study, we investigated the effect of cool water immersion on exercise-induced muscle damage. [Methods] Twelve-week-old male Wistar rats were divided into a control (Cont) group, exercise (Ex) group, and cool water immersion after exercise (Ex+W) group. Rats in the Ex and Ex+W groups performed downhill running at 16 m/min on a -16 degree incline, for 90 minutes. The rats of the Ex+W group were immersed in cool water (20 degrees C for 30 minutes) immediately after exercise. The soleus muscles were removed at 24, 48, and 72 hours after exercise, cross-sectional areas of muscle were stained with hematoxylin-eosin, and glucose-6-phoshate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity was measured. [Results] Muscle damage was observed in both the Ex and Ex+W groups. The percentage of damaged muscle fibers in the Ex+W group was lower than that in the Ex group at 72 h. G6PD activity in the Ex+W group was lower than that in the Ex group at 48 and 72 h. [Conclusion] These results suggest that cool water immersion after downhill running suppresses exercise-induced muscle damage.
... At the same time, DOMS is a muscle damage symptom which occurs after eccentric exercise; however, it is not always observed together with muscle damage (4). In the skeleton muscles, the level of muscle proteins such as creatine kinase (CK) increases together with DOMS after heavy exercise, and joint movement angle, muscle power and performance decreases (5). Most studies on DOMS have focused on the plasma CK activity changes, electromyography findings and muscle power, while the effects of DOMS on other components of upper extremities such as coordination and motor performance have been seldom addressed (6). ...
Background: Eccentric exercise is defined as a type of exercise in which the muscle produces power by extending. In contrast to isometric and concentric exercises, eccentric muscle activity is much more effective mechanically; however, it may expose the muscle to soreness. Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) emerges a couple of hours after an eccentric activity, especially in individuals who are not used to this kind of exercise, and causes a temporary decrease in muscle performance, joint movement angle and muscle power, and also a temporary increase in the blood creatine kinase (CK) activity.
Aims: This study investigates the effect of DOMS on the upper extremities motor performance by conducting an eccentric exercise load on the elbow flexor muscles.
Study design: Cross sectional study.
Methods: The study included 10 wheelchair basketball players. First, the participants underwent blood CK activity, positioning sense, muscle pain, shooting performance measurements tests at the base, and after 30 minutes and 24 and 48 hours. Then, one week later, the one-repetition-maximums of biceps curls were determined in order to define the intensity of the eccentric exercise. An eccentric exercise protocol which would cause DOMS was applied to all players. All tests were replaced with acute exhaustive eccentric exercise; the same tests were repeated in the same order after the exercise. Blood CK activity was measured by taking an earlobe capillary blood sample. The muscle pain level was measured by using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Positioning sense loss was assessed via goniometer at 30º, 60º and 90º degrees horizontally.
Results: The study found a statistically significant increase in blood CK activity and positioning sense loss, and a decrease in the pressure-pain threshold, as well as the shooting percentages in the exercise group when compared with the control.
Conclusion: These findings suggest that DOMS negatively affects the upper extremities motor performance of wheelchair basketball players at least 48 hours after eccentric exercise.
... Some of these recovery strategies 32 are collectively referred to as 'cryotherapy', and include immersion in cold water/ice baths, 33 topical application of ice, or brief exposure to extreme cold air. Numerous studies have 34 examined the effects of various forms of cryotherapy on muscle function and indirect markers 35 of muscle damage after intense eccentric exercise (6, 8, 9, 16, 18, 20, 36, 38, 39, 41, 44) and 36 plyometric exercise (14, 19, 24). By contrast, fewer studies have assessed the potential 37 benefits of cryotherapy after more traditional resistance exercise (10, 12, 13, 23), which is 38 more typical of athletic training programs. ...
We investigated the effect of cold water immersion (CWI) on the recovery of muscle function and physiological responses following high-intensity resistance exercise. Using a randomized, cross-over design, 10 physically active men performed high-intensity resistance exercise, followed by one of two recovery interventions: 10 min of cold water immersion at 10 degrees C, or 10 min active recovery (low-intensity cycling). After the recovery interventions, maximal muscle function was assessed after 2 h and 4 h by measuring jump height and isometric squat strength. Submaximal muscle function was assessed after 6 h by measuring the average load lifted during six sets of 10 squats at 80% 1RM. Intramuscular temperature (1 cm) was also recorded, and venous blood samples were analyzed for markers of metabolism, vasoconstriction and muscle damage. CWI did not enhance recovery of maximal muscle function. However, during the final three sets of the submaximal muscle function test, the participants lifted a greater load (p<0.05; 38%; Cohen's d 1.3) following CWI compared with active recovery. During CWI, muscle temperature decreased ~6 degrees C below post-exercise values, and remained below pre-exercise values for another 35 min. Venous blood O2 saturation decreased below pre-exercise values for 1.5 h after CWI. Serum endothelin-1 concentration did not change after CWI, whereas it decreased after active recovery. Plasma myoglobin concentration was lower, whereas plasma interleukin-6 concentration was higher after CWI compared with active recovery. These results suggest that cold water immersion after resistance exercise allow athletes to complete more work during subsequent training sessions, which could enhance long-term training adaptations.
... 1 A realização do esforço físico pode produzir trauma muscular e esquelético seguidos da reação inflamatória local, porém, com a repetição do estímulo estressor, a inflamação local pode generalizar-se na síndrome da resposta inflamatória sistêmica (SIRS). 2,3 Em humanos, os sinais e sintomas indicativos da presença da Síndrome da Resposta Inflamatória Sistêmica são: temperatura corporal excedente a 38ºC; frequência cardíaca superior a 90 batimentos por minutos; frequência respiratória superior a 20 incursões por minuto; contagem de leucócitos superior a 12.000 células/µl; neutrófilos imaturos em quantidade superior a 10%. 1 O aumento no número de leucócitos no sangue comumente mediante a agressão, pode ocorrer em até duas ou três vezes a mais o valor normal, após um minuto de exercício extremamente intenso, ou após uma injeção de noradre-nalina. Aproximadamente uma hora após o esforço físico, a neutrofilia fisiológica volta ao normal, devido ao fato de que a maior parte dos leucócitos está novamente aderida à parede dos vasos, reduzindo-se a magnitude do compartimento leucocitário central ou circulante. 2 A aplicação de água gelada pelo período de 10 minutos mostra-se efetiva, sob uma temperatura entre 10º a 15ºC, podendo-se sustentar a redução térmica local sem comprometer a pele, 4 além de estabelecer um decréscimo da reação inflamatória em situações experimentais. ...
Systemic stress induced by exercise increases bioactive substances in plasma which leads to neutrophilic mobilization. Cryotherapy causes a decrease in the inflammatory reaction and attenuates high blood perfusion after exercise. The objective of this work was to analyze the influence of cold water immersion (CWI) after acute exercise on neutrophil and lymphocyte mobilization. A control group of rats (AI) was kept at rest and a second group (AII) was submitted to CWI at 10° C for 10 minutes. The animals of Groups BI, BII, BIII and BIV were submitted to acute exercise which consisted in swimming in water at 31° C for 100 minutes with a load equivalent to 5% of the body weight. Groups CI, CII, CIII and CIV were submitted to CWI immediately after acute exercise. The animals were sacrificed at 6 (I), 12 (II), 24 (III) and 48 (IV) hours after the exercise and neutrophil and lymphocyte cells were counted for all groups by optic microscopy. The Student t-test was used for statistical analysis with a significance level of p< 0.05. A significant increase in the number of neutrophils was observed in Groups AII, BI, BII, BIII, BIV, CI, CII and CIII compared to AI. The neutrophil count of the CIV Group was similar to the Control Group. There was a significant drop in the number of lymphocytes in Groups BII, BIII, BIV, CI and CII when compared to Group AI. The lymphocyte count of Groups AII, BI, CIII and CIV were similar to the Control Group. The changes in neutrophil and lymphocyte counts caused by acute exercise were reverted to normal at 24 hours by cold water immersion.
... Compression garments have also been found to effectively reduce the rise in serum CK after exercise 100,101 . Studies of ice massage have yielded mixed results 102,103 . In sum, cold therapy, massage, and compression have been found to attenuate post-exercise rises in serum CK. ...
Resistance exercise can result in localized damage to muscle tissue. This damage may be observed in sarcolemma, basal lamina, as well as, in the contractile elements and the cytoskeleton. Usually the damage is accompanied by release of enzymes such as creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase, myoglobin and other proteins into the blood. Serum CK has been proposed as one of the best indirect indicators of muscle damage due to its ease of identification and the relatively low cost of assays to quantify it. Thus, CK has been used as an indicator of the training intensity and a diagnostic marker of overtraining. However, some issues complicate CK's use in this manner. There is great interindividual variability in serum CK, which complicates the assignment of reliable reference values for athletes. Furthermore, factors such as training level, muscle groups involved, and gender can influence CK levels to a greater extent than differences in exercise volume completed. This review will detail the process by which resistance exercise induces a rise in circulating CK, illuminate the various factors that affect the CK response to resistance exercise, and discuss the relative usefulness of CK as a marker of training status, in light of these factors.
... 1 A realização do esforço físico pode produzir trauma muscular e esquelético seguidos da reação inflamatória local, porém, com a repetição do estímulo estressor, a inflamação local pode generalizar-se na síndrome da resposta inflamatória sistêmica (SIRS). 2,3 Em humanos, os sinais e sintomas indicativos da presença da Síndrome da Resposta Inflamatória Sistêmica são: temperatura corporal excedente a 38ºC; frequência cardíaca superior a 90 batimentos por minutos; frequência respiratória superior a 20 incursões por minuto; contagem de leucócitos superior a 12.000 células/µl; neutrófilos imaturos em quantidade superior a 10%. 1 O aumento no número de leucócitos no sangue comumente mediante a agressão, pode ocorrer em até duas ou três vezes a mais o valor normal, após um minuto de exercício extremamente intenso, ou após uma injeção de noradre-nalina. Aproximadamente uma hora após o esforço físico, a neutrofilia fisiológica volta ao normal, devido ao fato de que a maior parte dos leucócitos está novamente aderida à parede dos vasos, reduzindo-se a magnitude do compartimento leucocitário central ou circulante. 2 A aplicação de água gelada pelo período de 10 minutos mostra-se efetiva, sob uma temperatura entre 10º a 15ºC, podendo-se sustentar a redução térmica local sem comprometer a pele, 4 além de estabelecer um decréscimo da reação inflamatória em situações experimentais. ...
Systemic stress induced by exercise increases bioactive substances in plasma which leads to neutrophilic mobilization. Cryotherapy causes a decrease in the inflammatory reaction and attenuates high blood perfusion after exercise. The objective of this work was to analyze the influence of cold water immersion (CWI) after acute exercise on neutrophil and lymphocyte mobilization. A control group of rats (AI) was kept at rest and a second group (AII) was submitted to CWI at 10º C for 10 minutes. The animals of Groups BI, BII, BIII and BIV were submitted to acute exercise which consisted in swimming in water at 31º C for 100 minutes with a load equivalent to 5% of the body weight. Groups CI, CII, CIII and CIV were submitted to CWI immediately after acute exercise. The animals were sacrificed at 6 (I), 12 (II), 24 (III) and 48 (IV) hours after the exercise and neutrophil and lymphocyte cells were counted for all groups by optic microscopy. The Student t-test was used for statistical analysis with a significance level of p
Objective:
To comprehensively compare the effectiveness of cold and heat therapies for delayed onset muscle soreness using network meta-analysis.
Methods:
Eight Chinese and English databases were searched from date of establishment of the database to 31 May 2021. Cochrane risk-of-bias tool was used to analyse the included randomized controlled trials. Potential papers were screened for eligibility, and data were extracted by 2 independent researchers.
Results:
A total of 59 studies involving 1,367 patients were eligible for this study. Ten interventions were examined: contrast water therapy, phase change material, the novel modality of cryotherapy, cold-water immersion, hot/warm-water immersion, cold pack, hot pack, ice massage, ultrasound, and passive recovery. Network meta-analysis results showed that: (i) within 24 h after exercise, hot pack was the most effective for pain relief, followed by contrast water therapy; (ii) within 48 h, the ranking was hot pack, followed by the novel modality of cryotherapy; and (iii) over 48 h post-exercise, the effect of the novel modality of cryotherapy ranked first.
Conclusion:
Due to the limited quality of the included studies, further well-designed research is needed to draw firm conclusions about the effectiveness of cold and heat therapies for delayed onset muscle soreness.
Professionals and students interested in understanding the physiological mechanisms of skeletal muscle damage and repair will welcome this uniquely comprehensive text. Presenting both research-based information and applied clinical topics, Skeletal Muscle Damage and Repair assists readers in understanding the interrelationships of basic physiology, specific populations, and practical treatments for muscle injury and damage. The text covers a broad spectrum of topics:
• The basic science and scientific methods used to investigate exercise-related muscle damage and repair
• A review of current research related to the mechanisms of muscle damage, physiological responses to damage, and subsequent methods of muscle repair
• An examination of issues specific to various populations, including the elderly, diabetics, people with muscular dystrophies, and elite athletes
• An evaluation of other practical topics as they apply to muscle damage and repair, such as gender and hormonal influences, effects on gait mechanics, the impact in workplace settings, and the issue of “high-responder” individuals who seem extraordinarily susceptible to muscle damage
• A critical analysis of the efficacy of various popular treatment modalities, including massage, ultrasound, trigger-point therapy, physical therapy, nutraceutical interventions, and hyperbaric oxygen treatment
The text is organized into 21 chapters, each written by an internationally acclaimed researcher or research group who are experts in their field. Chapters are grouped into three parts covering a wide range of both current research and clinical topics related to skeletal muscle damage and repair mechanisms and their applications. Part I presents the physical mechanisms of muscle damage, inflammation, and repair. Part II addresses muscle damage and repair mechanisms and issues in specific populations, including older adults, diabetics, and athletes. Part III considers the influences of treatment interventions on muscle repair and healing. The combination of the three parts culminates in a thorough understanding of muscle damage and repair.
Skeletal Muscle Damage and Repair promotes an understanding of the physiological mechanisms of skeletal muscle damage and repair vital for many health professionals, therapists, kinesiologists, and physical educators. This comprehensive text exposes professionals, clinicians, and researchers to a range of issues related to muscle damage and repair. It also encourages communication between researchers interested in the mechanisms of muscle damage and repair and practitioners who treat muscle injury in various populations.
Background:
Many previous studies have explored the effects of manual massage on back muscle fatigue, and most of the mechanical massage techniques imitate manual massage. However, it is unknown whether mechanical and manual massage have the same functions for exercise-induced back muscle fatigue.
Objective:
To investigate the effects of mechanical bed massage on the biochemical markers of exercise-induced back muscle fatigue in male collegiate athletes.
Methods:
Twenty-eight male collegiate athletes who met the experimental criteria were recruited in this randomized controlled trial, and randomly assigned to a mechanical bed massage group (experimental group) or resting group (control group). The subjects performed eight bouts of reverse sit-up in the prone position and received 20 minutes of the intervention. Creatine kinase, blood lactate, and serum cortisol levels were measured at baseline, after fatigue, after intervention, and after 24 hours.
Results:
The level of serum cortisol of the control group was significantly higher than that of the experimental group after the intervention (p< 0.05). The comparison of the two groups for blood lactate levels showed no significant differences at any of the measurement time-points (p> 0.05). There was no significant difference in creatine kinase levels immediately after the intervention (p> 0.05), but a significant difference in creatine kinase level was observed between the two groups 24 hours later (p< 0.05).
Conclusions:
Significant differences were observed between mechanical bed massage and rest condition on serum cortisol and creatine kinase for exercise-induced muscle fatigue. Therefore, mechanical bed massage may reduce stress and muscle damage for the athlete after training or competition.
The effects of cubed-ice and wetted-ice on cutaneous temperature were studied. Skin temperature was taken at every two-minute intervals, for a period of 20 minutes. 20 female varsity students with mean age of 21.7 ± 0.6 years, mean height of 161.6 ± 5.47 cm, and mean body mass of 54.1 ± 8.8 kg participated in this study. Paired sample t-test showed that cubed-ice was a better cryotherapeutic agent than wetted-ice. The result contradicts the findings of past studies suggesting that ambient temperature and relative humidity could have an effect on the efficacy of the cryotherapeutic agents.
Keywords: Malaysia climate; cutaneous temperature;cube ice; wetted-ice
eISSN 2398-4295 © 2018. The Authors. Published for AMER ABRA cE-Bs by e-International Publishing House, Ltd., UK. This is an open-access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Peer–review under responsibility of AMER (Association of Malaysian Environment-Behaviour Researchers), ABRA (Association of Behavioural Researchers on Asians) and cE-Bs (Centre for Environment-Behaviour Studies), Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia.
Aims:
The main aim was to compare aerobic performance data, determined before «period1» and after «period2» cold water immersion in two groups of footballers (CWI and no-CWI groups).
Methods:
This is an experimental study with matching and randomization. The 20 male footballers, aged 17 to 20 years, were divided into two groups (n = 10 for each) following a random draw. The two groups were age-, height- and weight matched. 1000-m race was made during the two periods. Heart-rate (HR, % of theoretical maximum HR) and hemoglobin oxygen saturation (Oxy-sat, %) were measured before and after the race, and the time of the race (min) was noted. An Oxy-sat decrease > 4 points retained the diagnosis of exercise-induced desaturation. Eight CWI sessions (one per week), until the hip in a standing position (10 min; temperature: 11-12 °C) were performed.
Results:
The two groups were age-, height- and weight matched. Comparatively to the race time of «period1», this of «period2» was decreased in the CWI group (3.21±0.04 vs. 3.15±0.04 min) and was increased in the no-CWI group (3.23±0.05 vs. 3.27±0.07 min). Comparatively to the HRs (before, after the race) of «period1», these of «period2» were decreased in the CWI group (36±1 vs. 34±1%; 56±3 vs. 44±2%) and were increased in the no-CWI group (35±2 vs. 36±1%; 55±2 vs. 57±2%). Comparatively to the after race Oxy-sat' of the «period1», this of «period2» was increased in the CWI group (96±1 vs. 98±0%) and was decreased in the no-CWI group (96±1 vs. 95±1%). While in the CWI group, the percent of desaturators was decreased between «period1» and «period2» (30 vs. 0%), in the no-CWI group, percentages remained similar (50 vs. 90%).
Conclusion:
CWI improves aerobic capacity and muscle strength of young footballers.
Exercising in the heat and high relative humidity is a major challenge that athletes have to
overcome, especially during the summer Olympic Games. For decades, scientists investigated innovative
solutions amongst which the body cooling before competing (pre-cooling) or after competing (post-cooling)
seemed to be a valuable mean of minimizing hyperthermia threats and increasing the recovery of the athletes.
However, contradictory results have been reported concerning body cooling protocols (cold water immersion,
cooling vests, water sprays, etc.), exposure time, exercise duration, environmental conditions and their
efficiency. By preparing the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, we managed to review the existing literature on those
methods. We hypothesized that a cooling vest combined with a cooling headband would increase thermal
comfort of elite cyclists and their performances on an anaerobic (Wingate Test) and endurance (20 minutes timetrial)
exercises. The Wingate Test study showed no significant effect of pre-cooling on peak or mean power
output despite a significant increase (P < 0.05) of fatigue indexes. During the endurance study, pre-cooling
maneuvers induced significant improvement (P < 0.05) of the mean power output, of the thermal comfort and a
significant decrease in rectal and skin temperatures. Another study concerning the influence of wearing different
cycling shirt on perceived and physiological responses of cyclists showed that a large knitted shirt provided a
better thermal comfort by decreasing significantly (P < 0.05) skin temperatures, but without affecting perceived
exertion. Those positive results on elite athletes lead us to apply similar cooling strategies on a population
experiencing disease-related thermoregulation troubles. We decided to initiate an exploratory clinical study
aiming at investigating the effects of a cooling vest on motor and cognitive skills of patients with multiple
sclerosis disease. This protocol obtained the clearance of the French National Ethics Committee – East Section
II, and should start on the late of 2012.
Context: Numerous recovery strategies have been used in an attempt to minimize the symptoms of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). However, scientific evidence to support the protective effects of a Combination Treatment on muscle damage is lacking. Objective: To investigate the effects of a Combination Treatment on biochemical markers (enzymatic levels) and functional (elbow angel, arm circumference, pain rate ...) of Exercise-induced muscle damage. Design: Randomized controlled trial. Setting: University laboratory. Participants: non-Athletic college-age men participated voluntary in this study, which reported no delayed onset muscle soreness for at least 6 months before then subjects were randomly assigned to subgroups with control and experimental hands. Intervention(s): Exercise program was used for induce Exercise-induced muscle damage involved Predcher curl -testing (eccentric contraction in two hands). Main Outcome Measure(s): Relaxed arm circumference, flexed arm circumference, elbow resting angel, Forearm circumference, range of motion flexed elbow, range of motion extended elbow, Exercise-induced muscle damage, Maximal voluntary isometric and isokinetic strength were recorded at baseline, immediately after exercise, and at 24, 48(and 72,96) hours after postexercise. Serum creatine kinase was measured at baseline, immediately after exercise, and at 24, 48(and 72, 96) hours after postexercise. Results: No significant difference occurred in relaxed arm circumference, flexed arm circumference, elbow resting angel, forearm circumference, Maximal voluntary isometric and isokinetic strength, delayed onset of muscle soreness and Pain intensity rate between groups(control hand and experimental hand) in intervention (P <.05). The result of Combination Treatment during timing on muscle soreness (at 48 hours after induce DOMs) not effective. Significant difference was observed between hands in range of motion flexed elbow in this Combination Treatments (P <.05). Significant difference was observed between hands in range of motion extended elbow in this Combination Treatments (P <.05). Conclusion: This Combination Treatment on elbow flexion, range of motion extended elbow during timing was effective. Eventually, results suggest that combination treatments are effective treatment on decreased flexibility and Range of Motion due to Exercise-induced muscle damage.
Background: The current evidence base pertaining to the use of ice water immersion in the treatment and prevention of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) remains inconsistent and controversial. Although little scientific support exists, many athletes continue to acknowledge it as an important treatment modality in DOMS management. The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of ice water immersion in the treatment of DOMS induced in the lower leg in a group of untrained volunteers. Method: An experimental inter-subject design was employed, using convenience sampling, to recruit 16 untrained volunteers (11 females, 5 males). Each performed a bilateral DOMS inducing protocol, in the plantar flexors, to exhaustion. Each leg was then randomly assigned to a control (no treatment) or intervention (ice immersion) group. The ice protocol consisted of a 10 minute water immersion, superior to the knee joint, at 10°C. Range of movement (ROM), using a standard plastic goniometer, and soreness, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), were assessed. Measurements were taken prior to, and 48 hours post exercise. Results were analyzed using a related t-test. Results: Statistical analysis of the results was performed using SPSS 14.0, where p≤0.05. The related t-test detected significant differences between the control and intervention group at 48 hours post exercise in both soreness (p=0.007) and ROM (p=0.002), where p<0.05. Conclusion: The results suggest that a single bout of ice water immersion, immediately after exercise of the Triceps Surae musculature, resulted in significantly less muscle soreness and greater ROM at the ankle, in comparison to a control, 48 hours post exercise. The results offer scientific support to this popular recovery modality.
Basis: Regeneration and rehabilitation are inseparable parts of training process. Massage belongs to favourite and often performed rehabilitation and regeneration means in sport training Methods: In order to assess the effects of massage objectively, empirical monitoring and statements of subjective feeling of an athlete is not sufficient; it is important to assess exactly the selected physiologic values or the sport performance itself. Results: despite the fact that massage does not influence the blood flow in main arteries and veins, several studies proved the changes in microcirculation, either in the skin or in the massaged muscles. In case of metabolism of certain substances formed during intensive body work (e.g. lactate), the positive effect of massage concerning their removal was not shown. Conclusion: It seems that massage has more psychological than physiological effect. Relating to recovery of sport performance, the massage has positive effects especially in the performances where either the psychical endurance is exerted, or the ability to surpass the unpleasant feelings for the longer period of time, or where the amount of performed work is assessed.
Exercising in the heat and high relative humidity is a major challenge that athletes have to overcome, especially during the summer Olympic Games. For decades, scientists investigated innovative solutions amongst which the body cooling before competing (pre-cooling) or after competing (post-cooling) seemed to be a valuable mean of minimizing hyperthermia threats and increasing the recovery of the athletes. However, contradictory results have been reported concerning body cooling protocols (cold water immersion, cooling vests, water sprays, etc.), exposure time, exercise duration, environmental conditions and their efficiency. By preparing the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, we managed to review the existing literature on those methods. We hypothesized that a cooling vest combined with a cooling headband would increase thermal comfort of elite cyclists and their performances on an anaerobic (Wingate Test) and endurance (20 minutes time-trial) exercises. The Wingate Test study showed no significant effect of pre-cooling on peak or mean power output despite a significant increase (P < 0.05) of fatigue indexes. During the endurance study, pre-cooling maneuvers induced significant improvement (P < 0.05) of the mean power output, of the thermal comfort and a significant decrease in rectal and skin temperatures. Another study concerning the influence of wearing different cycling shirt on perceived and physiological responses of cyclists showed that a large knitted shirt provided a better thermal comfort by decreasing significantly (P < 0.05) skin temperatures, but without affecting perceived exertion. Those positive results on elite athletes lead us to apply similar cooling strategies on a population experiencing disease-related thermoregulation troubles. We decided to initiate an exploratory clinical study aiming at investigating the effects of a cooling vest on motor and cognitive skills of patients with multiple sclerosis disease. This protocol obtained the clearance of the French National Ethics Committee – East Section II, and should start on the late of 2012.
PhD thesis from the University of Queensland, November 2014.
A numerous training stimulus and competition as well can reduce level of abilities among athletes. This decline of performance can be a temporary phenomenon, with duration of several minutes or several hours after a workout, or take much longer, even a several days. The lack of adequate recovery process can influence on athletes not being able to train at the desired intensity or do not fully meet the tasks at the next training session. Chronic fatigue can lead to injuries, and therefore, full recovery is necessary for achieving optimal level of abilities that will ensure a better athletic performance. For this reasons, athletes often carry out a variety of techniques and methods aimed to recover after training or match. They have become a part of the training process and their purpose is reduction of stress and fatigue incurred as a result of daily exposure to intense training stimulus. There are numerous methods and techniques today that can accelerate the recovery process of athletes. For this reason it is necessary to know the efficiency of an adequate method which will be applied in the training process. The aim of this review article is to point to those currently used and their effects on the process of recovery after physical activity in elite sport.
Aim:
This study investigated the effects of pre- and post-cooling on self-paced time-trial cycling performance and recovery of cyclists exercising under a hot and highly humid environment (29.92 °C-78.52% RH).
Methods:
Ten male cyclists performed a self-paced 20-min time trial test (TT20) on a cyclo-ergometer while being cooled by a cooling vest and a refrigerating headband during the warm-up and the recovery period. Heart rate, power output, perceived exertion, thermal comfort, skin and rectal temperatures were recorded.
Results:
Compared to control condition (222.78 ± 47 W), a significant increase (P<0.05) in the mean power output during the TT20 (239.07 ± 45 W; +7.31%) was recorded with a significant (P<0.05) decrease in skin temperature without affecting perceived exertion, heart rate, or rectal temperature at the end of the TT20. However, pace changes occurred independently of skin or rectal temperatures variations but a significant difference (P<0.05) in the body's heat storage was observed between both conditions. This result suggests that a central programmer using body's heat storage as an input may influence self-paced time-trial performance. During the recovery period, post-cooling significantly decreased heart rate, skin and rectal temperatures, and improved significantly (P<0.05) thermal comfort.
Conclusion:
Therefore, in hot and humid environments, wearing a cooling vest and a refrigerating headband during warm-up improves self-paced performance, and appears to be an effective mean of reaching skin rest temperatures more rapidly during recovery.
The effects of cubed-ice and wetted-ice on cutaneous temperature were studied. Skin temperature was taken at every two-minute intervals, for a period of 20 minutes. 20 female varsity students with mean age of 21.7 ± 0.6 years, mean height of 161.6 ± 5.47 cm, and mean body mass of 54.1 ± 8.8 kg participated in this study. Paired sample t-test showed that cubed-ice was a better cryotherapeutic agent than wetted-ice. The result contradicts the findings of past studies suggesting that ambient temperature and relative humidity could have an effect on the efficacy of the cryotherapeutic agents.
This article focuses on the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) in order to enable preventive physiotherapy. We searched the Pubmed and Kinedoc databases as well as the Elsevier Masson search motor using the key words DOMS+physiotherapy, courbature, excentric, stretching and EIMD. The inclusion criterion was compatibility with the objective of this article. There was no exclusion criterion.
DOMS are remarkable because of the late onset of the soreness following excentric work leading to micro-injury to connective tissues and muscles, amplified by an associated inflammatory process.
While the literature is not in favor of the usefulness of curative treatment for DOMS, preventive physiotherapy is essential, allowing patients to avoid numerous more serious injuries.
The elements of the proposed preventive treatment are based on validated physiotherapy principles and clinical trials enabling evidence-based interventions.
Level of evidence:
not applicable
The peripheral adaptation process associated with repeating eccentric training over a longer period of time was studied in m. vastus lateralis of eleven healthy males aged 24 +/- 4 years. The maximal dynamic concentric muscle strength was only slightly improved after 8 weeks of training. However, eccentric work capacity was dramatically increased (375%). A maximal eccentric stint immediately after fulfilled 8 weeks of training caused a selective glycogen depletion from the type 28 fibers. An increased number of type 2C fibers was observed. The ultrastructure analysis showed an essentially well-preserved fine structure. Volume density of mitochondria was somewhat higher in all fiber types after training. Z-band widths were not affected by eccentric training. It is concluded that skeletal musculature adapts itself in a functional manner to the extreme tension demands put on them. Improved coordination and reorganization of the contractile apparatus of muscle fibers are the determining mechanisms of this adaptation.
Muscle soreness that has a delayed onset is a common feature among both athletes and untrained individuals who engage in unusual exercises. This study was designed to provide additional morphological data to assess the relevance and significance of our previous findings that the sore muscles contain fibers with disorganized myofibrillar material. Muscle biopsies were obtained from 12 males (mean age 25 +/- 7 years), who suffered from severe soreness in their thigh muscles 18--72 h following eccentric bicycle exercise. Their strength performance were tested in parallel. Knee extensor strength was decreased at all angular velocities soon after exercise but gradually increased over the subsequent days although slower at the fastest contractions. Disturbances of the cross-striated band pattern were constantly observed. They originated from the myofibrillar Z-band, which showed marked streaming, broadening and, at places, total disruption. The disturbances were found in every second to every third fiber up to 3 days after exercise and in one tenth of the fibers 6 days following the exercise. Type 2 fibers were predominantly affected. Thus, the eccentric exercise gives rise to muscles soreness and influences, on mechanical basis and selectively with regard to fiber type, the fine structure of the contractile apparatus.
The objective of this review is to evaluate the measurement tools currently used in the study of eccentric contraction-induced muscle injury, with emphasis on their usefulness for quantifying the magnitude and duration of the injury and as indicators of muscle functional deficits. In studies in humans, it was concluded that measurements of maximal voluntary contraction torque and range of motion provide the best methods for quantifying muscle injury. Similarly, in animal studies, the in vitro measurement of electrically elicited force under isometric conditions was considered to be the best of the measurement tools currently in use.
For future studies, more effort should be put into measuring other contractile parameters (e.g. force/torque-velocity and force/torque-length relationships, maximal shortening velocity and fatigue susceptibility) that may reflect injury-induced functional impairments. The use of histology, ratings of soreness and the measurement of blood or bath levels of myofibre proteins should be discouraged for purposes of quantifying muscle injury and/or functional impairment.
Cryotherapy is an effective treatment for acute sports injury to soft tissue, although the effect of cryotherapy on exercise-induced muscle damage is unclear. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of cold water immersion on the symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage following strenuous eccentric exercise. After performing a bout of damage-inducing eccentric exercise (eight sets of five maximal reciprocal contractions at 0.58 rad x s(-1)) of the elbow flexors on an isokinetic dynamometer, 15 females aged 22.0+/-2.0 years (mean +/- s) were allocated to a control group (no treatment, n = 7) or a cryotherapy group (n = 8). Subjects in the cryotherapy group immersed their exercised arm in cold water (15 degrees C) for 15 min immediately after eccentric exercise and then every 12 h for 15 min for a total of seven sessions. Muscle tenderness, plasma creatine kinase activity, relaxed elbow angle, isometric strength and swelling (upper arm circumference) were measured immediately before and for 3 days after eccentric exercise. Analysis of variance revealed significant (P < 0.05) main effects for time for all variables, with increases in muscle tenderness, creatine kinase activity and upper arm circumference, and decreases in isometric strength and relaxed elbow angle. There were significant interactions (P<0.05) of group x time for relaxed elbow angle and creatine kinase activity. Relaxed elbow angle was greater and creatine kinase activity lower for the cryotherapy group than the controls on days 2 and 3 following the eccentric exercise. We conclude that although cold water immersion may reduce muscle stiffness and the amount of post-exercise damage after strenuous eccentric activity, there appears to be no effect on the perception of tenderness and strength loss, which is characteristic after this form of activity.
The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between myosin heavy chain (MHC) release as a specific marker of slow-twitch muscle fibre breakdown and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of skeletal muscle injury after eccentric exercise. The effects of a single series of 70 high-intensity eccentric contractions of the quadriceps femoris muscle group (single leg) on plasma concentrations of creatine kinase and MHC fragments were assessed in 10 young male sport education trainees before and 1 and 4 days after exercise. To visualize muscle injury, MRI of the loaded thigh was performed before and 4 days after the eccentric exercise. All participants recorded an increase (P < 0.05) in creatine kinase after exercise. In five participants, T2 signal intensity was unchanged post-exercise compared with pre-exercise and MHC plasma concentration was normal; however, they showed an increase (P < 0.05) in creatine kinase after exercise. For the remaining five participants, there was an increase in T2 signal intensity of the loaded vastus intermedius and vastus lateralis. These changes in MRI were accompanied by an increase in MHC plasma concentration (P< 0.01) as well as an increase in creatine kinase (P < 0.01). We suggest that changes in MRI T, signal intensity after muscle damage induced by eccentric exercise are closely related to damage to structurally bound contractile filaments of some muscle fibres. Additionally, MHC plasma release indicates that this damage affects not only fast-twitch fibres but also some slow-twitch fibres.
In brief Cryotherapy is a readily accessible, inexpensive modality for treating acute athletic injuries. However, prolonged cryotherapy can cause peripheral nerve injury, especially in athletes who have little subcutaneous fat. The six cases reported here resolved spontaneously within 6 months. Simple measures that can help avoid nerve injury include compensating for the thickness of the patient's subcutaneous fat, limiting the duration of treatment, and applying an insulating material between the cold source and the patient's skin.
The purpose of this work is to provide the physical therapist with the research documented conclusions that he would find if he were to review the literature on the physiological effects of cold therapy. The conclusions are that the results of the studies reviewed were consistent in describing reductions in musculoskeletal pain, spasm, connective tissue distensibility, intramuscular temperature, nerve conduction velocity, and spasticity (except the initial seconds of application). Other conclusions are that the results of the studies reviewed were inconsistent in describing the changes in swelling, blood flow, heart rate, blood pressure, intraarticular temperature, rheumatoid arthritis, monosynaptic reflex, and the muscle spindle.J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1983;5(2):66-73.
The effects of performing a second eccentric exercise bout prior to and after recovery from the first bout were compared. Twenty subjects performed 70 eccentric actions with the forearm flexors. Group A (n = 9) and group B (n = 11) repeated the same exercise 5 and 14 days after the initial bout, respectively. Dependent variables included muscle soreness, elbow joint angles, isometric strength, and serum creatine kinase (SCK). Subjects were tested pre-exercise and up to day 5 following each bout. The first bout produced significant changes in all measures for both groups (P less than 0.01). Values remained significantly different from baseline on day 5 when group A repeated the exercise (P less than 0.01) but were back to normal when group B performed bout 2. For both groups an adaptation occurred; significantly smaller changes in dependent variables were produced by the second bout, and recovery time was faster whether or not muscles were fully restored (P less than 0.01). The repeated bout did not exacerbate soreness, performance decrements, and elevation of SCK when performed by affected muscles that had not fully recovered from the first bout. Thus, the results suggest that an adaptation response had taken place prior to full recovery and restoration of muscle function following the initial eccentric exercise bout.
4 subjects performed repeated eccentric contractions with leg extensors during prolonged downhill walking (-25% gradient) at 6.44 km.h-1 until collapse due to muscle weakness (range of exercise duration 29 to 40 min). During the exercise oxygen uptake rose progressively from approximately 45% of the previously determined VO2max at 10 min to approximately 65% at the end of the exercise. Following the exercise there was an immediate, significant, and sustained reduction in maximal voluntary isometric contraction, and short term (anaerobic) power output measured concentrically on an isokinetic ergometer. These reductions in muscle function persisted for 96 hours post exercise, and were reflected by significant reductions in the tension generated at low frequency (20 Hz) relative to higher frequency (50 Hz) percutaneous stimulation of the quadriceps. All four subjects showed an increase in plasma levels of creatine kinase post eccentric exercise. Performing concentric contractions by walking uphill for one hour at a significantly greater metabolic cost failed to induce comparable reductions in muscle function. These results provide evidence for the consequences of prolonged eccentric work upon dynamic function which complements earlier reports of structural, enzymatic, and static function changes.
Sixty subjects, 53 women and 7 men, were assigned at random to either concentric, eccentric, or static contraction groups. Residual muscular soreness was induced through exhaustive exercises performed on the nondominant arm. Muscular strength and limb volume measurements were taken before exercise, immediately after the bouts, and 24, 48, and 72 hr. later. Soreness was measured during the same time intervals by means of a rating scale. The results showed that eccentric contractions effected greater residual muscular soreness than concentric and static contractions, with the peak occurring after 48 hr. Muscular strength decreased appreciably following eccentric contraction, and remained depressed throughout the duration of the soreness period, while no significant differences in strength were found after concentric and static contractions. Limb volume increased in both exercised and unexercised arms immediately after exercise, regardless of the type of contraction. After 24, 48, and 72 hr., however, eccentric contractions effected continued elevated limb volume, while the return to preexercise values occurred after concentric and static contractions. There was no evidence of any relationship between the degree of residual muscular soreness and limb volume after concentric, eccentric, and static contractions. Moderate negative relationships were obtained between soreness and muscular strength after eccentric contractions at a time when soreness had reached its peak.
The following hypotheses were tested in the present study: (1) cryotherapy would reduce delayed muscle soreness (DMS) in eccentrically exercised muscles; (2) early cold treatment would reduce this soreness more than later postexercise treatment times; and (3) joint range of motion (ROM) would be inversely related to the subjective soreness ratings. Subjective sensations of muscular soreness and changes in elbow joint ROM were assessed in 30 subjects at 0, 24, 48, and 72 hours following eccentric-biased exercise in the elbow flexors. Cold treatments were applied immediately, 24 or 48 hours following a single exercise session. In response to the eccentric exercise, significant muscle soreness increases and elbow ROM decreases were observed in all exercised muscles from 24 to 48 hours postexercise. No differences in muscle soreness or elbow ROM changes were observed between treated and untreated arms except for one. Subjects treated at 24 hours postexercise reported greater soreness in their arms compared to untreated arms just prior to treatment (24 hour postexercise). The results do not support the efficacy of cold in reducing DMS. A negative correlation between muscle soreness and elbow ROM at 48 and 72 hours postexercise indicated that an increase in soreness was associated with a decrease in ROM.