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Abstract
On 15 September 2000 in Washington DC, the Multilateral Coordination Board (MCB), the highest-level cooperative body established by the Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs) pertaining to the International Space Station (ISS) Programme signed early in 1998 by NASA and each of the Cooperating Agencies designated by the other ISS Partners (i.e. the Russian Space Agency, ESA, the Government of Japan and the Canadian Space Agency), approved the Code of Conduct for International Space Station Crews. This document contains a set of standards agreed by all Partners to govern the conduct of ISS crew members, starting with the first expedition crew launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan on 31 October 2000. These standards had been developed over the previous six months by teams of Agency officials, working in close consultation with the competent authorities of the Partner States.
... Critical markers: For the ISS, there already exists a standard human behavior and performance competency framework for crewmembers 10 . There have also been efforts to standardize the psychological/psychosocial and behavioral data collected during space agency sponsored research activities [11][12][13] . ...
As space exploration missions move from low orbit to distant destinations, including the Moon and Mars, new psychological, behavioral, and team challenges will arise. This manuscript represents an up-to-date white paper developed by European experts invited by the European Space Agency (ESA), mapping unfilled research gaps related to the psychology of space exploration, considering the incoming human missions, and accounting for the available scientific knowledge. ESA created the expert team and facilitated its work, but the team was completely independent in terms of contents. The white paper considers basic issues of adaptation, pre-, during-, and post-mission experiences, and possible countermeasures to be developed and tested. The resulting integrative map provides a guide for researchers that are interested in conducting research in the support of future space exploration endeavors.
... This has long been recognized in human beings and primates as an innate requirement and has been termed the 'invisible second skin'. The need for personal space and the tensions it may cause if not provided has been demonstrated on board the ISS [113][114][115][116] and in submarines [117] where the confinement, isolation and stress that is characteristic of the environment provides an analog for space missions [118] and creates a psychological need for more room and a sense of privacy and this need becomes more important for longer missions. Three general reasons why humans need their own personal space relate to reducing the potential for sensory overload, protection from potential aggression, and, ultimately, stress and lastly with non-verbal behaviours such as eye contact and body orientation which we use to control the type of message we want to communicate with others. ...
Recent technical successes of the unmanned Mars 2020, Tianwen-1 and Hope Mars missions have further increased our hunger for space exploration and the possible colonisation of Mars is now firmly on the mid-term horizon. Furthermore, renewed commitment to settle on the Moon is anticipated within the next three years, led by NASA’s Artemis programme utilising the pan-space agency constructed lunar Gateway or Space X’s Starship system. These programmes will necessitate a larger number of astronauts spending longer periods in space and despite rigorous risk identification and mitigation procedures, injury is an inevitable consequence and management procedures will demand efficient and effective implementation. We have employed Cognitive Work Analysis to derive an abstraction hierarchy for reducing the potential for physical injury and managing the consequence of injury in space. We have used a crowd-sourcing approach to cluster factors and themes which may emanate from within or without habitat and consider solution management in the light of current and emerging technology. In addition, we also consider mental fitness as a confounder which may emerge during missions and propose methods for both measurement and management. Doi: 10.28991/HEF-2022-03-03-04 Full Text: PDF
... Hoy en día, pueden estar a cargo de una actividad espacial tanto un Estado, como una organización, ya sea gubernamental o privada, o una persona. Sin embargo, cualquiera de ellas está representada jurídicamente por la tripulación en el momento en que se estén llevando a cabo las actividades espaciales en cuestión (Farand, 2001). En el Tratado General del Espacio de 1967 quedan recogidas multitud de normas y leyes referentes al comportamiento y posición de la tripulación espacial y de los Estados parte en el tratado en el Espacio Ultraterrestre. ...
El objetivo general de este trabajo es analizar las principales cuestiones legales que afectan al transporte en el Espacio Ultraterrestre. A lo largo de los diferentes puntos se estudian, el punto de vista jurídico, los distintos aspectos que conforman el transporte: la definición y tipos de objeto espacial con aportaciones en la descripción del término; tripulaciones y sus componentes. Asimismo, se plantean cuestiones relacionadas con el transporte, como el turismo y la explotación espacial. Se estudia su situación legal y viabilidad, teniendo en cuenta las peculiaridades y limitaciones que presentan. Junto a ello, se aportan ideas, con el fin de solucionar algunas indeterminaciones del Derecho Espacial internacional referentes al objeto de estudio.
... Ze względu na to, że ISS jest złożona z modułów dostarczonych przez różne państwa oraz z uwagi na podleganie poszczególnych członków załogi i sprzętu pod narodowe jurysdykcje krajów partnerskich, niezbędne było opracowanie rozstrzygnięć mających moc prawa międzynarodowego. Kluczowe było także uwzględnienie różnic kulturowych i bezwarunkowe zapewnienie integralności międzynarodowego zespołu stacjonującego na orbicie (Farand, 2001). ...
Public Management in the Space Sector. This book outlines the specificity of public management regarding space sector and space industry.
... We recommend a governance structure based on a legal foundation similar to the Code of Conduct for ISS crew adopted by ISS partners on 15 September 2000 [24], having due regard for applicable national and international legislation. The crew, reporting to the Officer in Chief onboard, shall be responsible for the management of the station on a daily basis under the authority of the flight director on ground. ...
A novel concept for an artificial gravity space station capable of housing up to 200 people is presented. The Artificial Gravity Conceptual Vehicle Design includes key engineering and design considerations for a crewed low Earth orbit space station, which uses rotation to provide artificial gravity. Crucially, the station also contains a non-rotating center section, which will provide a microgravity environment for research and manufacturing, and will also serve as the docking location for the station.
... Because the States had failed to define the legal concept of 'harassment,' e.g., a general statement was inserted in the Code of Conduct in the end. 88 It merely says: ISS Crew Members' conduct shall be such as to maintain a harmonious and cohesive relationship among the ISS Crew Members and an appropriate level of mutual confidence and respect through an interactive, participative and relationship-oriented approach which duly takes into account the international and multicultural nature of the crew and mission. 89 It would thus necessary to continue the work of trying to come up with clear applicable scope for the extradition provision. ...
The purpose of this article is an attempt to introduce to the reader the legal situation of the International Space Station (ISS). It is the consensus of several states, where there are completely different legal systems (common and civil law). There is therefore no doubt that a compromise, and an answer to the question "what law should be applied?" Was (of course beside taking ISS into orbit), one of the toughest tasks for the negotiating parties. Of the essence is also the fact that, in accordance with the principle of state registration each module of ISS can belong to different state. You can therefore compare the situation of the crew of the ISS, to a situation where - going from room to the kitchen - we are are subject to the jurisdiction of another State. It is a very delicate matter, because except of international law principle that astro- cosmo-taiko-nauts are treated as emissaries of mankind, it should be noted that various types of incidents (culpable or non-culpable)may happen. Only on the basis of the above it should be assumed that regulation of the principles governing jurisdiction - including criminal - is a very significant matter.
This paper discusses the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) work to support ethics and public integrity in human space exploration. Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) to protect an organization's reputation has become widespread in the private sector. Government ethics law and practice is integral to a government entity's ERM by managing public sector reputational risk. This activity has also increased on the international plane, as seen by the growth of ethics offices in UN organizations and public international financial institutions. Included in this area are assessments to ensure that public office is not used for private gain, and that external entities are not given inappropriate preferential treatment. NASA has applied rules supporting these precepts to its crew since NASA's inception. The increased focus on public sector ethics principles for human activity in space is important because of the international character of contemporary space exploration. This was anticipated by the 1998 Intergovernmental Agreement for the International Space Station (ISS), which requires a Code of Conduct for the Space Station Crew. Negotiations among the ISS Partners established agreed-upon ethics principles, now codified for the United States in regulations at 14 C.F.R. § 1214.403. Understanding these ethics precepts in an international context requires cross-cultural dialogue. Given NASA's long spaceflight experience, a valuable part of this dialogue is understanding NASA's implementation of these requirements. Accordingly, this paper will explain how NASA addresses these and related issues, including for human spaceflight and crew, as well as the development of U.S. Government ethics law which NASA follows as a U.S. federal agency. Interpreting how the U.S. experience relates constructively to international application involves parsing out which dimensions relate to government ethics requirements that the international partners have integrated into the ISS Crew Code of Conduct, and which relate to other areas of U.S. administrative law. It is also constructive to identify areas where national and/or cultural perspectives may differ. Another reason for heightened focus on ethics is the increasing regularity of long duration human spaceflight. In earlier days of spaceflight astronauts had little time for anything other than mission operations. The increase in inflight personal time and opportunity for personal communications heightens the importance to spacefaring nations of advising on ethics obligations in real time. Through individual and collective action, stakeholders in evolving and future government space exploration will be able to effectively address ethics compliance and reputational risk. © 2017 United States Government as represented by the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Evolution, current status, and key future trends in the development of human spaceflight activities;
There is growing academic attention being directed towards the technical and engineering issues that face human spaceflight in respect of a journey to Mars. Often overlooked in such discussions, however, are the legal and ethical underpinnings that are needed to regulate human behaviour on such an extraordinary mission. This chapter will examine key issues in respect of law and ethics that will face humans on a long duration spaceflight and any subsequent human habitat or colony. This inquiry will examine the existing framework covering long duration spaceflight aboard the ISS and contrast this with legal issues in respect of the welfare of the crew and potential issues relating to the administration of justice for interplanetary travellers. There will be an analysis of the environmental impact of long duration space activity and the extent to which legal regulation should be used to embed environmentalism as a core mission value. Given that there is an emerging consensus on the damage caused by existing space activities, it is contended that any new regulatory framework should embed a commitment to environmental protection within the fabric of rules governing human behaviour in outer space and should be at the forefront of such policy discussions. It is maintained that such legal and ethical issues are not only vital in respect of any human-crewed mission to Mars, but will become the template for the way in which policy regarding all long duration space flight and constitute the lodestar for normative behaviour in this context.
One of the main concerns for space entrepreneurs and new actors on the space scene is to determine whether their interests are duly taken into account by the body of law governing space activities. Many studies have been conducted on the future development of space tourism and a proliferation of private companies planning space activities is already a reality. Beyond the commercialization of the International Space Station (ISS), suborbital flignts, and despite enthusiastic projects, the future scenarios on the private development of space are not entirely defined yet and financial challenges remain. The involvement of space entrepreneurs and tourists will undoubtedly raise great legal challenges. An appropriate legal framework is essential to ensure the legal protection of new actors, to safeguard their interests on Earth and in space, as well as to preserve outer space itself. In order to identify these challenges, key legal issues relevant to space entrepreneurs and tourists will be raised. In order to address these points, the ISS framework, although not entirely defined yet, will constitute a useful contribution for further legal developments. Based on the current regime, the suitability of the body of law will be addressed, and possible future needs will be discussed.
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