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Warm Partner Contact Is Related to Lower Cardiovascular Reactivity
Abstract
The authors investigated the relationship between brief warm social and physical contact among cohabitating couples and blood pressure (BP) reactivity to stress in a sample of healthy adults (66 African American, 117 Caucasian; 74 women, 109 men). Prior to stress, the warm contact group underwent a 10-minute period of handholding while viewing a romantic video. Followed by a 20-second hug with their partner, while the no contact group rested quietly for 10 minutes and 20 seconds. In response to a public speaking task, individuals receiving prestress partner contact demonstrated lower systolic BP diastolic BP, and heart rate increases compared with the no contact group. The effects of warm contact were comparable for men and women and were greater for African Americans compared with Caucasians. These findings suggest that affectionate relationships with a supportive partner may contribute to lower reactivity to stressful life events and may partially mediate the benefit of marital support on better cardiovascular health.
... For example, touch plays an essential role in bonding and the maintenance of social relationships [2]. Touch also reduces shortterm stress levels by lowering blood pressure and heart rate [3,4]. This has, in turn, been associated with improved immune system functioning [5]. ...
... Touch is important for social bonding and maintaining social relationships [2]. Furthermore, it has been shown that touch can reduce levels of stress and pain [3,22]. It is, therefore, crucial to receive touch on a regular basis. ...
... Second, the items in the psychological QoL domain relate to feelings of happiness, self-esteem and the presence of anxiety, low mood and depression. Previous studies have shown that touch can reduce stress, anxiety and feelings of depression [2,3,6]. Third, the social QoL domain contains questions related to the quality of personal relationships and the perceived level of social support. ...
To combat the spread of the COVID-19, regulations were introduced to limit physical interactions. This could induce a longing for touch in the general population and subsequently impact social, psychological, physical and environmental quality of life (QoL). The aim of this study was to investigate the potential association between COVID-19 regulations, longing for touch and QoL. A total of 1978 participants from different countries completed an online survey, including questions about their general wellbeing and the desire to be touched. In our sample, 83% of participants reported a longing for touch. Longing for touch was subsequently associated with a lower physical, psychological and social QoL. No association was found with environmental QoL. These findings highlight the importance of touch for QoL and suggest that the COVID-19 regulations have concurrent negative consequences for the wellbeing of the general population.
... An example of a situation that many people find stressful is public speaking. An American study on the topic of hugs and stress from 2003 therefore used such a speaking situation as a stressor (Grewen et al. 2003). The study investigated whether a hug can reduce stress in a speaking situation. ...
... The aforementioned oxytocin study by Light from 2005 showed that more frequent couple hugs were associated with lower blood pressure and lower pulse (Light et al. 2005). Similar results were also found in an acute stress situation in the study described above by Grewen et al. (2003). ...
Many people, especially during stressful periods of life, feel the desire to be hugged. Various studies have shown that hugs can help regulate stress. Both hugs from others and self-hugs lead to a reduction in the stress hormone cortisol.
... An example of a situation that many people find stressful is public speaking. An American study on the topic of hugs and stress from 2003 therefore used such a speaking situation as a stressor (Grewen et al. 2003). The study investigated whether a hug can reduce stress in a speaking situation. ...
... The aforementioned oxytocin study by Light from 2005 showed that more frequent couple hugs were associated with lower blood pressure and lower pulse (Light et al. 2005). Similar results were also found in an acute stress situation in the study described above by Grewen et al. (2003). ...
Hugs can help to reduce stress, and stress affects the immune system and the risk of various physical illnesses. Therefore, various studies have investigated the extent to which hugs affect physical health. It was found that hugs have a positive effect on the risk of catching a cold, various risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, and self-perceived physical health.
... An example of a situation that many people find stressful is public speaking. An American study on the topic of hugs and stress from 2003 therefore used such a speaking situation as a stressor (Grewen et al. 2003). The study investigated whether a hug can reduce stress in a speaking situation. ...
... The aforementioned oxytocin study by Light from 2005 showed that more frequent couple hugs were associated with lower blood pressure and lower pulse (Light et al. 2005). Similar results were also found in an acute stress situation in the study described above by Grewen et al. (2003). ...
Humans are not the only organisms that hug. Especially in great apes and other monkey species, there is convincing evidence for a wide distribution of hugs. Evolutionary advantages of hugging include social thermoregulation, comforting after conflicts, and stress reduction.
... An example of a situation that many people find stressful is public speaking. An American study on the topic of hugs and stress from 2003 therefore used such a speaking situation as a stressor (Grewen et al. 2003). The study investigated whether a hug can reduce stress in a speaking situation. ...
... The aforementioned oxytocin study by Light from 2005 showed that more frequent couple hugs were associated with lower blood pressure and lower pulse (Light et al. 2005). Similar results were also found in an acute stress situation in the study described above by Grewen et al. (2003). ...
Hugs are a form of social touch that serve to allow people to interact in social situations and communicate emotions. On the hormonal side, they increase the release of the bonding hormone oxytocin.
... Haptic interactions, such as touching, hugging, and kissing, play an essential role in affective interaction with others [1][2][3]. The effects of haptic interactions are not limited to building close relationships [4,5]. Such interactions with intimates offer both physical and mental support, such as lowering blood pressure and the levels of proinflammatory cytokines [5,6] and stress-buffering effects. ...
... In particular, whole-body hug interaction is useful for robots that possess actual physical bodies. Researchers reported similar positive effects of human-human hug interaction [4][5][6] from both such physical and mental benefits of hugging interaction with robots as stress buffering and encouraging self-disclosures [11,12]. ...
Although whole-body touch interaction, e.g., hugging, is essential for human beings from various perspectives, not everyone can interact with intimate friends/family due to physical separations caused by such circumstances as pandemics, geographical constraints, etc. The possibility of human–robot touch interaction is one approach that ameliorates such missing touch interactions. In this study, we developed a robot named Moffuly-II, that hugs people and rubs their heads during a hug because head-touching behaviors are typical affective interactions between intimate persons. Moffuly-II is a large huggable teddy-bear type robot and it has enough capability to both hug and touch the head. We conducted an experiment with human participants and evaluated the effectiveness of combining intra-hug gestures (squeezing and rubbing) and the touch area (back and head). From experimental results, we identified the advantages of implementing rubbing gestures compared to squeezing gestures and some of the advantages of head-touching behaviors compared to back-touching behaviors.
... Future studies should concentrate on examining soothing experience of interpersonal contacts in clinical samples of women suffering from AN, so to provide more conclusive evidence on the role of social relationship in meaningful affective interactions. Also, further research focusing on social touch experiences with clinical and non-clinical samples should consider levels of exposure to positive touch and being in a relationship in which touch is given daily 10,82 . For instance, previous research has revealed that (healthy) individuals in satisfying relationships experience and rate touch as more pleasant than those in less satisfying relationships 10,82,83 . ...
... Also, further research focusing on social touch experiences with clinical and non-clinical samples should consider levels of exposure to positive touch and being in a relationship in which touch is given daily 10,82 . For instance, previous research has revealed that (healthy) individuals in satisfying relationships experience and rate touch as more pleasant than those in less satisfying relationships 10,82,83 . Accordingly, it could be that individual differences in the degree of exposure to touch, as well as who are in a relationship or married, experience greater exposure to touch and are more likely to tolerate and rate this touch as more soothing than those who are single 82 . ...
Interpersonal touch is intimately related to the emotional bond between the touch giver and the touch receiver. Which bodily regions we touch in those individuals in our social network is relationship specific. Perception of interpersonal touch is altered in psychiatric disorders characterised by body image disturbances (BIDs). Here, we examined whether the ‘imagined’ experience of social touch in individuals with BIDs is body topography- and relationship-specific. By using an interactive media mobile App, the Virtual Touch Toolkit, high versus low levels of BIDs participants completed heatmaps of full-body virtual avatars, to indicate the body regions they find soothing/unpleasant to be touched by a loved one versus an acquaintance. Self-reports of interoceptive awareness and dysmorphic concerns were also measured. Overall, imagined touch was rated as the most soothing when received from a loved one, and also when this was delivered to ‘social’ body regions. The importance of the social relationship for the imagined tactile interactions was particularly evident for the high levels of BIDs group, with greater problems with interoceptive awareness predicting higher soothing touch ratings when this was received by a loved one. Despite the evidence that imagined bodily contacts between meaningful people is the most pleasant for socially acceptable bodily regions, our findings may suggest a greater sensitivity to relation-specific bodily patterns of social touch particularly in the high level of BIDs group. Heightened interoceptive awareness may also play a key role in this experience of bodily affective contacts. Future research for body-oriented therapy for BIDs is encouraged to systematically probe the efficacy of imagined social touch interaction protocols which use more plausible, ecological, scenarios where touch is delivered by loved ones and to socially acceptable bodily regions.
... Results from the intervention study demonstrated that increasing intimacy and warm contact over a four-week period led to a significant increase in salivary oxytocin concentrations in both men and women compared to the control group [86]. Increased oxytocin levels in both men and women have been shown to improve not only relationship quality and bonding but also overall health and immune function [87][88][89]. It is noteworthy here that a variety of individual and contextual factors such as sex, social context, and psychiatric history may influence oxytocin levels, the effect on certain behavior, and also the response of oxytocin to certain stimuli. ...
Love as a complex interplay of emotions and behaviors is underpinned by an intricate network of neurobiological mechanisms. This review provides insight into the molecular basis of love, focusing on the role of key hormones and neuromodulators. The aim of the paper is to report how these biochemical messengers influence various aspects of love, including attraction, attachment, and long-term bonding. By examining the effects of hormones such as dopamine, oxytocin, vasopressin, and serotonin, we aim to elucidate the intricate relationship between biology and behavior. Additionally, the potential impact of modern lifestyle factors on hormonal balance and their subsequent influence on love and social interactions are outlined. This review provides a useful overview of the molecular underpinnings of love, offering insights into the biological mechanisms that shape human relationships.
... We propose that affectionate touch may matter for bereaved parents, who could potentially experience feelings of anxiety, uncertainty, insecurity, and loneliness (Campbell-Jackson et al., 2014;Essakow & Miller, 2013;Murphy et al., 2014;Rosenberg et al., 2012;Wang & Hu, 2022) and serve as a nonverbal support behavior. Bereaved parents may benefit from reduced stress reactivity and pain, felt security and comfort, and heightened intimacy thanks to receiving touch from their partner (Debrot et al., 2013;Durbin et al.,2021;Goldstein et al., 2017;Grewen et al., 2003;Sahi et al., 2021). Several experimental studies have shown the soothing role of touch. ...
Although child loss impairs well-being, its impact on behavioral exchanges between bereaved parents remains understudied. We compared bereaved and non-bereaved couples regarding affectionate touch levels, the role of affectionate touch in intimacy, and the association between partners' affectionate touch similarity and intimacy. Bereaved (228 couples, 27 individuals) and non-bereaved (258 couples, seven individuals) people participated in our seven-day diary study. Although bereaved and non-bereaved men reported equal affectionate touch, bereaved women's affectionate touch was lower than non-bereaved women's. Despite this discrepancy, multi-level analyses revealed that affectionate touch concurrently benefited both genders' intimacy in bereaved and non-bereaved couples. For bereaved women, touch also contributed to next day's intimacy. We also showed that couples reported higher intimacy if both partners had higher vs. lower affectionate touch. Our findings highlight bereaved and non-bereaved couples' similarity regarding the relational gains of affectionate touch and the promising function of affectionate touch in coping with loss.
... More specifically, when people encounter stressors (e.g., receiving a mild electric shock), physical partner contact (e.g., holding a partner's hand) leads to dampened neural threat responses (Coan et al., 2006). Similarly, when people encounter psychosocial stressors (i.e., giving an unprepared public talk), physical partner contact is associated with lower blood pressure (Grewen et al., 2003), reduced cortisol levels, and reduced heart rate responses (Ditzen et al., 2007). Holding a partner's hand while thinking about upsetting memories also dampens the memory's potency when recalled in the future (Sahi et al., 2021). ...
Lab experiments have shown that reminders of romantic partners buffer against stressors. Yet, tightly controlled experiments do not mimic what transpires in people’s actual lives. Thus, an important question is as follows: To what extent do reminders of romantic partners confer affective benefits when they occur “in the wild” as people experience their daily activities? To capture people’s emotional experience in real time, two studies, each spanning 3 months, used event-contingent ecological momentary assessments with a within-subject experimental manipulation. Prior to encountering a stressful event (taking an exam), participants received either a supportive text message from their partner or no message (Studies 1 and 2), or a supportive text message from the research team (Study 2). Receiving supportive partner messages, compared to no messages or messages from the research team, led to less negative affect and greater positive affect, and to less negative affect and greater positive affect about the exam itself. Receiving supportive partner messages had no statistically significant effects on subjective stress. Interestingly, the quality of the partner messages, as coded by independent raters, did not significantly predict the magnitude of the affective benefits. These findings suggest that receiving any supportive partner message, and not necessarily more subtle differences in the quality of the message, may be the key ingredient for these benefits to occur. The present work advances understanding of how the symbolic presence of partners confers affective regulatory benefits in everyday life. Implications for emotion regulation and the utility of integrating perspectives from adult attachment are discussed.
... Studies have shown that the effect of interpersonal touch depends on the identity of the interaction partner; compared with a stranger, holding a partner's hand reduces anxiety and blood pressure in response to stress, as well as activating areas of the brain that support emotional and behavioral threat responses [27,28]. For instance, holding hands with their husbands relieves wives' pain during labor, and massage and breath coaching from husbands decreases depressed mood, anxiety, pain, and postpartum depression in wives and shortens their labors and length of hospital stays [29]. ...
Background
Interpersonal touch is an essential element of human social life. It’s unclear whether the neural patterns of interpersonal touch are specific to intimate relationships or generally apply to other social relationships. Romantic lovers are typically intimate and have a high level of interpersonal touch. Currently, researchers focused on the neurobiological basis and neural processes of romantic love.
Methods
110 participants finished two resting-state blocks, no-handholding and handholding conditions, with Electroencephalogram (EEG). We aimed to explore the differences in the brain-brain synchrony pattern of interpersonal touch between romantic lovers and strangers by calculating dynamic interpersonal functional connectivity (dIFC) via EEG-based hyperscanning.
Results
Our results supported that the neural processing of interpersonal touch is a dynamic process. At first half, both groups tended to adapt, and then interpersonal touch increased the dIFC between romantic lovers and decreased the dIFC between strangers. Finally, we employed Support Vector Machine (SVM) to classify EEG signals into two different relationships. SVM recognized two relationships with an accuracy of 71% and 0.77 AUC of ROC at the first half, a 73% accuracy and 0.8 AUC of ROC at the second half.
Conclusions
Our study indicates that interpersonal touch may have different meanings between romantic lovers and strangers. Specifically, interpersonal touch enhances the dIFC between romantic lovers while reducing the dIFC between strangers. The research has important implications for planning touch-based interventions in social and medical care.
... Human-being-oriented Emitted by or towards relatives (known-group socialization) Emitted by or towards strangers (unknown-group socialization) pressure, limiting stress, and increasing feelings of security and self-esteem (Grewen et al. 2003). Conversely, a lack of regular physical contacts at an early stage or with a significantother in adulthood may have damaging psychological consequences, including depression or violent behaviours (Fulkerson 2013;Linden 2015). ...
To what extent does the sense of touch matter in cultural consumption? After an extended period of limited social gathering due to COVID-19, it is vital to assess the importance of physical contacts in cultural events. Focused on the live music industry, our paper addresses the following question: How important is the
perception and experience of tactile value amongst festival- and concertgoers? For this purpose, we conducted a survey between September and November 2021 and collected 142 exploitable questionnaires. Our goal was to detect structural relationships between latent variables related to touch through a Structural Equation Model. The latter reveals the relative pleasantness of tactile value experienced by our respondents, with effects on their live music experience. In view of the importance of tactile value in live music events, we formulate several recommendations to practitioners and cultural policy in order to further take into account this variable in decision making.
... Given that touch has been noted to have positive effects not only mood but also physiology [78][79][80][81][82], we also examined the role of feedback mode on heart rate, SCR and HRV, expecting better regulation of those modalities following visuotactile feedback compared to visual feedback. Contrary to our prediction, visuotactile feedback did not affect participants' physiological measures more than visual feedback. ...
Touch offers important non-verbal possibilities for socioaffective communication. Yet most digital communications lack capabilities regarding exchanging affective tactile messages (tactile emoticons). Additionally, previous studies on tactile emoticons have not capitalised on knowledge about the affective effects of certain mechanoreceptors in the human skin, e.g., the C-Tactile (CT) system. Here, we examined whether gentle manual stroking delivered in velocities known to optimally activate the CT system (defined as ‘tactile emoticons’), during lab-simulated social media communications could convey increased feelings of social support and other prosocial intentions compared to (1) either stroking touch at CT sub-optimal velocities, or (2) standard visual emoticons. Participants (N = 36) felt more social intent with CT-optimal compared to sub-optimal velocities, or visual emoticons. In a second, preregistered study (N = 52), we investigated whether combining visual emoticons with tactile emoticons, this time delivered at CT-optimal velocities by a soft robotic device, could enhance the perception of prosocial intentions and affect participants’ physiological measures (e.g., skin conductance rate) in comparison to visual emoticons alone. Visuotactile emoticons conveyed more social intent overall and in anxious participants affected physiological measures more than visual emoticons. The results suggest that emotional social media communications can be meaningfully enhanced by tactile emoticons.
... With respect to neurobiological mechanisms, social touch activates a specific class of sensory receptors (i.e., C-tactile afferents) that create pleasurable and rewarding experiences through the release of oxytocin and endogenous opioids, which are known to buffer against stress and improve relational, physical, and psychological well-being (Jakubiak & Feeney, 2017a;2017b). Indeed, greater touch between romantic partners accelerates cortisol recovery and lowers cardiovascular reactivity when couples are exposed to stressful situations (Ditzen et al., 2019;Grewen et al., 2003). For relationalcognitive mechanisms, when touch is interpreted as an expression of love and care, it leads to feelings of closeness and security, which subsequently improves relationship quality, enhances the mood of both the giver and recipient through coregulation of emotions, increases positive health behaviors, and reduces stress (Debrot et al., 2013(Debrot et al., , 2014Jakubiak & Feeney, 2016, 2017a, 2017b. ...
Touch is a universal nonverbal action often used by romantic partners to demonstrate affection and care for each other. Attitudes toward touch might be particularly relevant across periods of relational strain—such as the transition to parenthood—when couples face many novel stressors and shifting priorities which can interfere with their sexual and affectionate experiences. New parent couples (N = 203) completed self-report measures online across six time-points (two prenatal). We tested whether couples’ attitudes toward touch (touch aversion, touch for affection, touch for emotion regulation) at baseline (20 weeks mid-pregnancy) predicted their frequency of sexual and affectionate behaviors from mid-pregnancy through 12-month postpartum. Both partners’ more positive attitudes toward touch (i.e., for affection and emotion regulation) and lower aversive attitudes toward touch, as measured in mid-pregnancy, predicted couples’ higher frequency and variety of sexual and affectionate behaviors at 3-month postpartum. Touch attitudes generally did not predict the degree of change in the frequency or variety of sexual or affectionate behaviors, with one exception: non-birthing parents’ more positive attitudes toward touch for emotion regulation in mid-pregnancy predicted a slower decline in couples’ affectionate behaviors across pregnancy. Findings underscore a link between new parents’ attitudes toward touch and their subsequent sexual and affectionate behaviors, particularly in the early postpartum period. New parents need to navigate novel sexual changes and a nonverbal strategy such as touch might be useful to promote intimacy and care.
... That way, affective touch appears to relieve physical pain, has numerous health benefits, such as improving the immune system, improving asthma, promoting sleep, physical growth (Field, 2001;Owen and Gillentine, 2011). Hugs are yet another form of touch which are perceived to reduce blood pressure and protect against increased heart rate in stressful situations (Grewen et al., 2003) and protect us from the common cold (Cohen et al., 2015). A friendly touch on the back or preschool children by an adult is perceived to improve their self-regulation to postpone gratification affecting not only their agreement to act as requested, but their decision-making and their will (Leonard et al., 2014). ...
We often talk about the way we talk, and we frequently try to see the way we see, but for some reasons we have rarely touched on the way we touch. The communication we transmit with touch is perceived to be one of the most powerful means of establishing human relationships. In particular, tactile communication with parents, caregivers and teachers is particularly important for infants and students, as it helps make stronger relationships between educators or teachers and schoolers and also between students. Research has demonstrated the numerous benefits that an affective touch has on students, physically, socially and cognitively, or as has observed, touch touches deeper that just one’s skin and it is a recipe for creating meaningful relations. However, in the educational context, touch is perceived to be a complex phenomenon full of tension and emotion. For years, a dilemma has arisen in educational institutions in some countries, whether teachers can touch students or not? Despite the benefits that affective touch brings to students, cases of sexual abuse and inappropriate behavior at school have alerted the education system, to such an extent that many teachers worldwide consider what is and is not appropriate when communicating affectively with their students through touch. In this perspective article, by drawing on previous literature reviews, we shall highlight the benefits that affective touch has on learners.
... Such interaction, known as haptic interaction, is a promising research area in the field of human-robot interaction, much like the field of human-human interaction. Such haptic interactions, which have been extensively studied in human science literature, provide both mental and physical benefits [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Human science literature has reported that haptic interactions positively change people's behavior and support various efforts [7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. Previous research has found that physical robots can impact interactions with people more strongly or differently than computer-based agents [14][15][16][17]. ...
... Robots that possess a physical presence can engage in touch-based interaction with humans, similar to how humans interact with each other. Haptic interaction is an emerging area of study in the field of human-robot interaction, since touch is a key factor in social bonding between humans and provides both mental and physical benefits [1][2][3][4][5][6]. As a result, human-robot interaction researchers have extensively examined the effects of humanrobot touch interaction, which also manifests both mental and physical benefits [7][8][9][10][11]. ...
... As mentioned in Section 15.2, previous research demonstrated that hugging interactions offer stress-buffering effects, regardless of whether the interaction partner is a person actual intimate [14,17], an imagined intimate [15], or a robot [7]. ...
... Touch interaction with other people provides various positive effects [1][2][3][4][5][6], and in this context, using social robots as a partner is a promising approach to compensate for the lack of human-human touch interaction, especially since it provides several positive effects [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. Even though the effects of touch interaction with such social robots might fail to fulfill the needs of interaction with actual people, perhaps people's negative situations can be mitigated. ...
... In a female sample, Ditzen et al. (2007) found that positive physical partner contact before experiencing social stress led to significantly lower heart rate responses. Similarly, warm partner contact prior to a social stress induction was related to lower blood pressure and heart rate reactivity to the stressor (Grewen et al., 2003). Further, research indicated that being stroked by one's partner reduces heart rate, an effect not found for stroking the partner or self-stroking (Triscoli et al., 2017a(Triscoli et al., , 2017b. ...
Interpersonal touch buffers against stress under challenging conditions, but this effect depends on familiarity. People benefit from receiving touch from their romantic partners, but the results are less consistent in the context of receiving touch from an opposite-gender stranger. We propose that there may be important gender differences in how people respond to touch from opposite-gender strangers. Specifically, we propose that touch from an opposite-gender stranger may only have stress-buffering effects for men, not women. Stress was induced as participants took part in an emotion recognition task in which they received false failure feedback while being touched by a romantic partner or stranger. We measured subjective and physiological markers of stress (i.e., reduced heart rate variability) throughout the experiment. Neither stranger’s nor partner’s touch had any effect on subjective or physiological markers of stress for men. Women, however, subjectively experienced a stress-buffering effect of partner and stranger touch, but showed increased physiological markers of stress when receiving touch from an opposite-gender stranger. These results highlight the importance of considering gender when investigating touch as a stress buffer.
... In healthy adults, receiving massages has been associated with lower blood pressure, heart rate, cortisol levels, and decreased anxiety (Moyer et al, 2004). Likewise, receiving frequent hugs relates to lower blood pressure and heart rate (Grewen et al, 2003) and one study showed that hugging a human-shaped cushion can reduce cortisol levels (Sumioka et al, 2013). In this context, clothing naturally presents a great potential for tactile sensory stimulation to promote health and wellbeing as it is often defined as the second skin, an object closest to our skin that surrounds our bodies for a whole lifetime. ...
... All this moves the therapy toward the 20-second hug as a key way to reintegrate touch into their daily relationships. Neuroscience tells us that it takes 20 seconds of close, secure contact for oxytocin to be released by the brain and for partners to feel comforted (Grewen, Anderson, Girdler, and Light, 2003). Often, when couples have not had satisfying and intimate touch in their relationship for a long time, it is important to be directive in encouraging them to actively reintegrate touch into their relationship at home. ...
... Given that Black adults face disproportionally more stressors in life (e.g., racism, socioeconomic barriers, and marital instability), having more contact with friends along with their associated support may be particularly important to Black adults' cardiovascular health than White adults. A laboratory study conducted by Grewen et al. (2003) also provided evidence to support this finding. They found that the effects of warm contact (compared to no contact) with romantic partners on lower blood pressure were greater for Black couples than White couples. ...
Objetivo: Los estudios han demostrado que el contacto con amigos mejora la salud emocional, pero se sabe poco sobre si los amigos influyen en la salud cardiovascular. Este estudio investigó (a) si los encuentros con amigos y la calidad de estos encuentros se asocian con la reactividad cardiovascular en la vida cotidiana, y (b) si estas asociaciones varían según la raza. Método: Los participantes procedían del Estudio sobre Estrés y Bienestar en la Vida Cotidiana (conocido en inglés como “Stress and Wellbeing in Everyday Life Study”), que incluyó a adultos Negros (n = 76; de 34 a 76 años de edad) y Blancos (n = 87, de 34 a 91 años de edad) que residían en los Estados Unidos. Los participantes proporcionaron información sobre sus antecedentes y redes sociales en una entrevista inicial, seguida de una Evaluación Ecológica Momentánea de cuatro días en la que informaron encuentros sociales cada 3 horas. Al mismo tiempo, los participantes llevaban un monitor de ECG que recopilaba datos fisiológicos en tiempo real. Para evaluar la reactividad cardiovascular, se analizó la variabilidad de la frecuencia cardíaca (HRV, por sus siglas en inglés). Resultados: Los modelos multinivel revelaron que en momentos en que los individuos se encontraban con amigos (particularmente en encuentros positivos), exhibían una reducción momentánea en la HRV (asociación intrapersonal). Pero aquellos con más encuentros con amigos durante el período de estudio (particularmente en encuentros positivos) tuvieron una HRV más alta que aquellos con menos encuentros con amigos durante el período de estudio (asociación entre personas). Estos vínculos se observaron sólo entre los adultos Negros, pero no entre los adultos Blancos. Conclusiones: Este estudio contribuye al modelo conceptual de integración social y enriquece la literatura sobre disparidades raciales en salud cardiovascular desde una perspectiva social. Los hallazgos resaltan las implicaciones de la interacción con amigos para la reactividad cardiovascular momentánea y sugieren que los amigos pueden ser más destacados para la salud cardiovascular para los adultos Negros.
... In early development, touch, especially between a child and a parent, is essential for healthy and typical growth [1], [2], [3]. Physiological studies have also revealed positive effects in reducing blood pressure and heart rate [4], [5], [6]. Touch can also facilitate prosocial behavior [7], [8], [9], can be used to signal emotional state [10], [11], [12], and can create bonds [13], among many other important social functions. ...
The importance of interpersonal touch for social well-being is widely recognized, and haptic technology offers a promising avenue for augmenting these interactions. We presented smart bracelets that use vibrotactile feedback to augment social interactions, such as handshakes, by transmitting vibrations between two people. This work conducts mechanical and perceptual experiments to investigate key factors affecting the delivery of interpersonal vibrotactile feedback via bracelets. Our results show that low-frequency vibrations elicited through tangential actuation are efficiently transmitted from the wrist to the hand, with amplitude varying based on distance, frequency, and actuation direction. We also found that vibrations transmitted to different locations on the hand can be felt by a second person, with perceptual intensity correlated with oscillation magnitude at the touched location. Additionally, we demonstrate how wrist-interfaced devices can elicit spatial vibration patterns throughout the hand surface, which can be manipulated by the frequency and direction of actuation at the wrist. Our experiments provide important insights into the human factors associated with interpersonal vibrotactile feedback and have significant implications for the design of technologies that promote social well-being.
... Research has shown that a firm handshake is associated with higher levels of trust and cooperation in dyadic interactions [61]. Handshake has also been shown to influence negotiation outcomes, with negotiators who used a strong handshake achieving better outcomes than those who used a weak handshake [62]. Furthermore, a handshake has been found to increase the perception of social support and the willingness of people to provide support to others [60]. ...
The study investigated Nigerian university workers’ perceptions of the verbal and non-verbal communication variables that are important to workplace peace. The study used a mixed methodology with poetic inquiry triangulated with quantitative methodology. The researchers posed and answered seven research questions. The data were collected through a semi-structured questionnaire constructed using Google Forms, from where the qualitative data were extracted and analysed using thematic and structural coding. The quantitative data analysis was done using simple percentages. The results showed that communication could engender conflict when it is improper, disrespectful, insensitive, inconsiderate and poorly channelled. For verbal communication, participants considered fluency and appropriate choice of words as very important to workplace peace. For non-verbal communication, politeness, attentiveness, and greetings were rated as most important to workplace peace. Civility and communication training were recommended for university staff.
... Esto es importante porque lo que un individuo experimenta desde antes del nacimiento, hasta la juventud y la edad adulta, influirá en su proceso de envejecimiento 1 . En este contexto, muchos estudios han demostrado que el contacto físico, además de proporcionar información, emociones o apoyo social 48 , también es capaz de impactar en la salud de las personas 49 mejorando las respuestas cardiovasculares, disminuyendo la presión arterial y la frecuencia cardiaca56,57 . Siguiendo esta línea, diversos estudios han demostrado que la terapia táctil es útil para tratar el dolor, el cáncer, la demencia y la esclerosis múltiple entre otras afecciones58,59 . ...
Aging is associated with the generalized deterioration of the organism, being of great relevance experienced by homeostatic systems such as the nervous, immune, and endocrine systems, which increases the risk of morbidity and mortality. Among the lifestyle strategies that have been researched to improve these systems and achieve greater healthy longevity, this review will focus on the social environment. In order to verify the effectiveness of these both in the improvement of homeostasis and in life expectancy, the research carried out with experimental animals that have allowed this to be done will be discussed. In addition, as it has been observed that physical contact is crucial for the positive outcomes of social interaction on homeostatic systems and longevity to occur, we will focus on that mechanism, as well as some of the possible molecular pathways underlying the effects found.
... Many studies have shown that hugging other people can increase one's physical health. For example, hugging has been demonstrated to reduce blood pressure and heart rate (Grewen et al., 2003;Light et al., 2005), can help fight off and even prevent viral infections (Cohen et al., 2015), and decreases proinflammatory cytokines in the body (van Raalte & Floyd, 2021). Finally, hugs can also buffer against the physiological stress response by reducing the expression of the stress hormone cortisol (Berretz et al., 2022;Dreisoerner et al., 2021). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has necessitated a drastic decrease in human social interactions including social touch. One of the most prevalent forms of touch is hugging. Hugging has been demonstrated to benefit both physical and mental well-being. In the present study, we used an ecological momentary assessment approach to assess the relationship between hugging and momentary mood in two independent cohorts sampled prior or during the pandemic. We found that the frequency of hugging was significantly reduced during the pandemic. Using multilevel modeling, we found a significant positive association between momentary mood and daily hugs. This effect was moderated by the cohort, as individuals during the pandemic showed a stronger positive association compared to the cohort sampled prior to the pandemic. While we have to stress that our results are correlational in nature, they potentially indicate that social touch is more beneficial in times of social distancing.
... Touch deprivation relates to depression, anxiety and somatization 2 , while more partner-touch predicts better psychological well-being, also in a long-term perspective 8 . Furthermore, interpersonal touch can provide valuable support in difficult situations, as it contributes to a lower stress response 9 through reducing heart rate and blood pressure [10][11][12][13][14][15] , as well as by decreasing cortisol production 10 . Touch can also alleviate pain through its effects on μ-opioids 16 and serotonin levels 17 . ...
Touch is the primary way people communicate intimacy in romantic relationships, and affectionate touch behaviors such as stroking, hugging and kissing are universally observed in partnerships all over the world. Here, we explored the association of love and affectionate touch behaviors in romantic partnerships in two studies comprising 7880 participants. In the first study, we used a cross-cultural survey conducted in 37 countries to test whether love was universally associated with affectionate touch behaviors. In the second study, using a more fine-tuned touch behavior scale, we tested whether the frequency of affectionate touch behaviors was related to love in romantic partnerships. OPEN
... In a study of couples in the laboratory, women who received affectionate touch through neck and shoulder massage before a stressor had significantly lower cortisol and other physiological stress responses, such as heart rate, to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), compared to women who received verbal social support or no social interaction with their partner [4]. In another TSST study in couples, both men and women had lower physiological stress response markers (i.e., lower cardiovascular reactivity) when they had a 10 min period of handholding and a 20 s hug before the stressor, compared to people who received no partner interaction [5]. ...
Previous research suggests that affectionate touch such as hugs might downregulate stress systems such as the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis. However, the current literature lacks in generalizability beyond the laboratory setting and outside the context of romantic relationships. The cortisol awakening response (CAR) is a measure of the HPA axis and is responsive to daily fluctuations in stress and social information. However, associations between affectionate touch and the CAR have never been assessed. This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to measure daily hugging behaviors in 104 first-year college students and salivary cortisol to assess the CAR. Participants who reported more daily hugs in their social interactions had significantly smaller CARs the next morning compared to days they reported fewer hugs. This study contributes to the literature on social interactions and stress responsive systems and emphasizes the importance of assessing affectionate touch behaviors such as hugs that can be exchanged outside the context of romantic relationships.
Touch is an inherent part of human social interactions and the diversity of its functions has been highlighted in numerous works. Given the varied roles of touch, with technology-mediated communication being a big part of our everyday lives, research has been interested in enabling and enhancing distant social interactions with mediated touch over networks. Due to the complexity of the sense of touch and technological limitations, multimodal devices have been developed and investigated. In this article, we explore the use of mediated visual touch in distant social interaction. Adopting an interactionist and collaborative approach to human communication, we focus on the communicative functions of distant touch behaviours which interactants co-elaborate throughout their mediated interactions. For this purpose, we conducted an exploratory study placing five romantically involved couples in interaction, where each discussed shared biographical events via a video call, using mediated touch devices (producing vibration and coloured lights). Their interactions were recorded, and excerpts were presented to participants in interviews using a collective confrontation technique (participants are confronted with a recording of their activity and encouraged to comment on it). This technique allows a better understanding of the participants’ points of view on their use of the touch devices in context. Through analysis of the interviews, our results highlight: (1) a variety of visual-touch functions with a redistribution of functions mostly supported by other modalities of communication in face-to-face interactions, such as illustrating aspects of the ongoing conversation; (2) the visual-touch characteristics as well as the verbal, paraverbal and non-verbal indicators of the interactional context considered by the participants to make sense of the stimuli and; (3) the multifactorial and dynamic aspects of the co-elaboration process of the visual-touch functions, reaffirming the role of interactional context, combined with cultural and biographical knowledge, in the meaning making.
This study conducts qualitative research on female players of otome games, exploring the mechanisms of romantic relationship formation within these games and their impact on perceptions of real-life intimate relationships. The findings reveal that the parasocial romantic relationships formed in otome games are not entirely detached from reality; instead, they are embedded in daily life through game interaction mechanisms and the players’ internalized imagination, thereby influencing the reconstruction of real-life intimate relationships. Female players show a high degree of acceptance and immersion in these romantic relationships, focusing on the emotional support provided by male characters. These relationships play a positive role in fulfilling emotional needs, regulating negative emotions, constructing self-identity, and redefining perceptions of intimacy. The intangibility of physical contact remains the only significant shortcoming, as perceived by a minority of players, pointing to a primary direction for the future development of otome games.
Touch is one of our love languages. In addition to the fact that we use touch to express love, I explore its role and significance in our lives. In the present work, drawing on the growing literature, I focus on affective touch, including received touch, in the context of adult romantic relationships. After defining affective touch, I discuss its beneficial effects. Based on research results, I show that affective touch in the context of relationships is related to physical, mental, and relational health and well-being. But not always and not for everyone. Thus, I cover some of the factors affecting touch behaviour and attitude. I discuss separately the phenomenon where, still within the couple relationship and remaining in the field of affective touch, the touch itself becomes a source of stress. We have all experienced the effects of measures taken to control the epidemic, such as social distancing and avoidance of touch. In this context, I present some of the results of our research on COVID. All of these are excerpts. I hope they will inspire others to further research. Keywords: affective touch, adult partnership, well-being
Receiving touch is of critical importance, as many studies have shown that touch promotes mental and physical well-being. We conducted a pre-registered (PROSPERO: CRD42022304281) systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis encompassing 137 studies in the meta-analysis and 75 additional studies in the systematic review (n = 12,966 individuals, search via Google Scholar, PubMed and Web of Science until 1 October 2022) to identify critical factors moderating touch intervention efficacy. Included studies always featured a touch versus no touch control intervention with diverse health outcomes as dependent variables. Risk of bias was assessed via small study, randomization, sequencing, performance and attrition bias. Touch interventions were especially effective in regulating cortisol levels (Hedges’ g = 0.78, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.24 to 1.31) and increasing weight (0.65, 95% CI 0.37 to 0.94) in newborns as well as in reducing pain (0.69, 95% CI 0.48 to 0.89), feelings of depression (0.59, 95% CI 0.40 to 0.78) and state (0.64, 95% CI 0.44 to 0.84) or trait anxiety (0.59, 95% CI 0.40 to 0.77) for adults. Comparing touch interventions involving objects or robots resulted in similar physical (0.56, 95% CI 0.24 to 0.88 versus 0.51, 95% CI 0.38 to 0.64) but lower mental health benefits (0.34, 95% CI 0.19 to 0.49 versus 0.58, 95% CI 0.43 to 0.73). Adult clinical cohorts profited more strongly in mental health domains compared with healthy individuals (0.63, 95% CI 0.46 to 0.80 versus 0.37, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.55). We found no difference in health benefits in adults when comparing touch applied by a familiar person or a health care professional (0.51, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.73 versus 0.50, 95% CI 0.38 to 0.61), but parental touch was more beneficial in newborns (0.69, 95% CI 0.50 to 0.88 versus 0.39, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.61). Small but significant small study bias and the impossibility to blind experimental conditions need to be considered. Leveraging factors that influence touch intervention efficacy will help maximize the benefits of future interventions and focus research in this field.
Háttér: Számos kutatás támasztja alá, hogy az affektív érintés a pozitív kapcsolatok kontextusában a fizikai egészséghez és jólléthez kapcsolódik. Ezeket a tanulmányokat azonban nem a globális társadalmi távolságtartási intézkedések idején végezték. A COVID-19 megfékezésére világszerte elrendelt társadalmi távolságtartás – így az érintés és érintés hiánya kapcsán pedig csak annak pszichológiai és kapcsolati jólléttel való összefüggéseire irányultak kutatások. Jelen tanulmány kereteiben ezt a hiányzó területet vettük górcső alá. Cél: Az intézetben folyó „Életünk a koronavírus járvány idején” kutatásból az érintés és a fizikai egészség és jóllét kapcsolatára vonatkozó eredményeinket mutatjuk be. Módszer: Online keresztmetszeti vizsgálat keretében megközelítően reprezentatív mintán 1799 főtől a demográfiai adatok mellett, a társas érintés különböző formái, a fizikai egészség összevont mutatói és az egészségtudatosság közti összefüggéseket vizsgáltuk. Főbb eredmények: Összességében a válaszadók retrospektív adataiból az derül ki, hogy a COVID-19 előtti, a lezárások alatti és a korlátozások feloldása utáni időszakban valamennyi általunk vizsgált érintési típus esetében – kapott bizalmi, baráti és hivatalos érintések – jelentős változásokat észleltek a megkérdezettek azok mennyiségében. Azt találtuk, hogy a különböző típusú társas érintések a világjárvány minden szakaszában enyhe pozitív összefüggéseket mutattak a szubjektív egészségi állapottal, a fizikai jólléttel és az alvásminőséggel, negatívat a fizikai tünetekkel. A különböző érintési típusok esetében ezek az összefüggések eltérő erősségűek, erősebb együttjárásokat találtunk a bizalmas és baráti érintések esetében. Elvárásainkkal ellentétben nem találtunk szignifikáns összefüggéseket az érintés és az egészségtudatosság általunk vizsgált mutatói között. Eredményeink tovább erősítik a társadalmi távolságtartás egyénekre gyakorolt hatásának megértését.
Cél: A Brennan, Wu és Loev (1998) által kidolgozott Hét Érintés Skála egy 51 tételes önkitöltős kérdőív, mely az érintés iránti attitűdöket hivatott mérni a felnőttkori romantikus kapcsolatok kontextusában. Jelen tanulmány célja a kérdőív pszichometriai mutatóinak bemutatása a magyar mintán nyert adatokon. Módszer: Keresztmetszeti kérdőíves vizsgálatban 373 főtől (50,4% férfi 49,6% nő, átlagéletkor 33 év (szórás=10,5 év), 63% párkapcsolatban, 22% házasságban, 13% élettársi kapcsolatban él, a kapcsolatban eltöltött idő átlagosan 70,89 hónap (szórás=93,8 hónap) nyertünk adatokat. A kitöltők a demográfiai kérdések és a kötődés felmérését szolgáló kérdőív mellett kitöltötték a Hét Érintés Skálát. Eredmények: Mintánkon a Hét Érintés Skála magyar változata a megerősítő faktor elemzés (JASP programban, Rosseel, 2012) eredményei alapján az eredeti faktorstruktúrát mutatta. Az érintési attitűdökben különbséget találtunk a kötődés típusok között.
Purpose
Social exclusion is a complicated psychological phenomenon with behavioral ramifications that influences consumers' lifestyles and behaviors. In contrast, anthropomorphism is a phenomenon that marketing strategists employ and that occurs in customers' lives as a result of social isolation. The literature discusses these two complicated structures as ones that require investigation based on consumer judgments. The purpose of the current study is to understand the fundamental motivations that underlie the propensity for anthropomorphizing in people who suffer social isolation through their pets.
Design/methodology/approach
To look into the motivations driving these themes, a study technique with three distinct components was created. Cyberball was employed as a technique to manipulate social exclusion in the initial stage of this research methodology. Two scenarios, one of which had an anthropomorphizing tendency and the other of which did not, were presented to participants who had suffered social exclusion and advanced to the second phase in order to determine the anthropomorphizing tendency. The Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), which Johnson et al . (1992) created based on the social support provided by pets, was utilized while creating the scenarios. The Zaltman method was applied as an interviewing technique in the third stage of the research design, with the interviewees being guided by visuals that reflected their emotions and thoughts.
Findings
The results of the data analysis were evaluated in light of social psychology. A more thorough expression of the complex relationship between anthropomorphism and those who experience social exclusion has been made. The findings showed that when people anthropomorphize their pets in response to feelings of social exclusion, the motivations that emerge include pure love, loyalty, animals' need for a human, living creature and embracing. The study emphasizes that these ideas will be helpful in customers' interactions with anthropomorphic objects.
Practical implications
As a contribution to the literature, the study findings offer the five major motivations underpinning these beliefs. These findings may help marketing scientists comprehend social exclusion and anthropomorphism, thereby benefiting the individual and society.
Originality/value
The majority of research in the literature (Chen et al. , 2017; Epley et al. , 2008; Eyssel and Reich, 2013; Waytz et al. , 2019) verified that people who were socially excluded would use anthropomorphism, but no studies were discovered about the motivations outlined in the current study. The results of this investigation should add to the body of knowledge in this area. The pet was employed as an anthropomorphism tool in the current study because it is the object that a person chooses to anthropomorphize deliberately and independently. It adds to the study's originality by explaining in the individual's own terminology how he will feel as a result of his social isolation, how he will make up for it and potential responses he may have. In addition to all of these contributions, the study's primary goal of analyzing the motivations behind anthropomorphism yields significant findings that are relevant to both industry and academic research.
In diagnostic, therapeutic, and nursing contexts, touch is a prerequisite for successful treatment. Compared to other everyday touches, these touches represent exceptional situations in the lives of both patients and the professionals performing the touches.
Social touches can be distinguished from necessary touches that serve a medical or nursing purpose. These social touches, which often occur spontaneously, fulfill social or emotional functions and can have a calming, comforting, or stress-reducing effect. It is possible to use social touches specifically for these effects in medical and nursing contexts.
The chapter informs about emotional, social, and ethical aspects of touch, placebo effects through touch, embodiment effects, effects of pets and animal-assisted therapy, and the effects of loneliness and touch deprivation on health.
Objective:
Social support has been linked to a vast range of beneficial health outcomes. However, the physiological mechanisms of social support are not well characterized. Drawing on fMRI and health-related outcome data, this study aimed to understand how neural measures of "yielding" - the reduction of brain activity during social support - moderates the link between social support and health.
Methods:
We employed a dataset where seventy-eight participants around the age of 24 were exposed to the threat of shock when holding the hand of a partner. At age 28 - 30, participants returned for a health visit where inflammatory activity and heart rate variability were recorded.
Results:
Findings showed a significant interaction between dACC-related yielding and perceived social support on C-reactive protein levels (β = -0.95, se = 0.42, z = -2.24, p = 0.025, 95% CI [-1.77, -0.12]). We also found a significant interaction between hypothalamus-related yielding and perceived social support on baseline heart rate variability (β = 0.51, se = 0.23, z = 2.19, p = 0.028, 95% CI [0.05, 0.97]).
Conclusions:
Greater perceived social support was associated with lower CRP levels and greater baseline heart rate variability among individuals who were more likely to yield to social support in the dACC and hypothalamus years earlier. The current study highlights the construct of yielding in the link between social support and physical health.
Increasing evidence suggests that intact social bonds are protective against age-related morbidity, while bond disruption and social isolation increase the risk for multiple age-related diseases. Social attachments, the enduring, selective bonds formed between individuals, are thus essential to human health. Socially monogamous species like the prairie vole (M. ochrogaster) form long-term pair bonds, allowing us to investigate the mechanisms underlying attachment and the poorly understood connection between social bonds and health. In this review, we explore several potential areas of focus emerging from data in humans and other species associating attachment and healthy aging, and evidence from prairie voles that may clarify this link. We examine gaps in our understanding of social cognition and pair bond behavior. Finally, we discuss physiologic pathways related to pair bonding that promote resilience to the processes of aging and age-related disease. Advances in the development of molecular genetic tools in monogamous species will allow us to bridge the mechanistic gaps presented and identify conserved research and therapeutic targets relevant to human health and aging.
The expression and impact of social support have been studied over the years in different fields. The purpose of this study is a preliminary exploration of how to mediate social support through touch remotely by using a vibrotactile device during a public presentation. With this study, we aim to explore (1) what are the patterns of expressing social support through touch during public speaking and (2) how can these patterns be mediated through technology. Through the User Enactment method, we identified common ways of providing social support and when to express physical support during the public speaking scenario. We gathered insights on the perceived meaning and overall experience of receiving vibrotactile feedback as a form of social support during public speaking.KeywordsVibrotactileMediated touchWearable
The concepts of agency and communion have been used to describe sex differences in vulnerability to specific stressor domains. This study examined blood pressure and heart rate responses of 60 married couples to experimental manipulations of disagreement (i.e., communion stressor) and achievement challenge (i.e., agency stressor). Consistent with predictions, disagreement elicited heightened cardiovascular reactivity among wives, but not husbands. In contrast, the achievement challenge elicited heightened cardiovascular reactivity among husbands, but not wives. Participants' responses to a circumplex measure of interpersonal appraisal were consistent with the interpretation of differential responses to agency and communion stressors. Results are congruent with a situational approach to sex differences in cardiovascular reactivity and illustrate the utility of interpersonal methods in the explication of psychosocial risk for cardiovascular disease. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
There are few systematic investigations of the potential benefits of incidental touch as it occurs in medical health care settings. In the present laboratory study 60 college students participated in two testing sessions 1 month apart. These sessions involved counterbalanced conditions of baseline, pulse palpation (touch), cold pressor test (stressor), and combined cold pressor/pulse palpation. Heart rate and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured during each condition. Subjective pain ratings were recorded during stress conditions. Significant decreases in cardiovascular measures and pain ratings were associated with physical contact. However, these changes were small and individual responses to physical contact were not stable over time. Physical contact produces a small but significant decrease in cardiovascular variables and the experience of pain. However, the tendency to show a cardiovascular response to touch does not represent a stable trait for individuals in the laboratory setting.
The investigators examined the potential influence of social support on age-related differences in resting cardiovascular
function and the potential mediators responsible for such associations in 67 normotensive women and men. Consistent with prior
research, age predicted increased resting systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP). More importantly,
regression analyses revealed that social support moderated agerelated differences in resting SBP and DBP, as age predicted
higher resting blood pressure for individuals low in social support, but was unrelated to blood pressure for individuals high
in social support. An examination of potential pathways revealed that these results were not mediated by various health-related
variables, personality factors, or psychological processes. Implications for the study of social support and health are discussed.
A field experiment focused on some implication of interpersonal touch not explored in earlier research. Conceptually, the research included measuring the effects of touch over a relatively long time frame, for a broad range of response dimensions, and in a nonreactive setting characterized by dependency. On an applied level, the research studied the value of touch as a concomitant of nurse-patient interactions. Specifically, a 2 (touch vs. no touch) X 2 (male vs. female) between-subjects design assessed the effects of nurses touching patients, during preoperative teaching, on patient affective, evaluative, behavioral, and physiological responses. Results indicated that female subjects in the touch condition experienced more favorable affective, behavioral, and physiological reactions than a no-touch control group. In contrast, males in the touch condition reacted more negatively than control subjects on these dimensions.
Autonomic responses were measured while 45 adult women performed a standard experimental stress task in the laboratory with only the experimenter present and 2 weeks later at home in the presence of a female friend, pet dog, or neither. Results demonstrated that autonomic reactivity was moderated by the presence of a companion, the nature of whom was critical to the size and direction of the effect. Ss in the friend condition exhibited higher physiological reactivity and poorer performance than subjects in the control and pet conditions. Ss in the pet condition showed less physiological reactivity during stressful tasks than Ss in the other conditions. The results are interpreted in terms of the degree to which friends and pets are perceived as evaluative during stressful task performance. Physiological reactivity was consistent across the laboratory and field settings.
Although there has been a substantial effort to establish the beneficial effects of social support on health and well-being, relatively little work has focused on how social support influences physical health. This article outlines possible mechanisms through which support systems may influence the etiology of physical disease. I begin by reviewing research on the relations between social support and morbidity and between social support and mortality. I distinguish between various conceptualizations of social support used in the existing literature and provide alternative explanations of how each of these conceptualizations of the social environment could influence the etiology of physical disease. In each case, I address the psychological mediators (e.g., health relevant cognitions, affect, and health behaviors) as well as biologic links (e.g., neuroendocrine links to immune and cardiovascular function). I conclude by proposing conceptual and methodological guidelines for future research in this area, highlighting the unique contributions psychologists can make to this inherently interdisciplinary endeavor.
Key words: social support, physical disease, psychosocial models
Recent scientific work has established both a theoretical basis and strong empirical evidence for a causal impact of social
relationships on health. Prospective studies, which control for baseline health status, consistently show increased risk of
death among persons with a low quantity, and sometimes low quality, of social relationships. Experimental and quasi-experimental
studies of humans and animals also suggest that social isolation is a major risk factor for mortality from widely varying
causes. The mechanisms through which social relationships affect health and the factors that promote or inhibit the development
and maintenance of social relationships remain to be explored.
Discusses new directions for explicating relations among stress, support, and adaptational outcomes. Attention is drawn to the distinctiveness of marriage as a source of stress and support in adult life. In addition, the literature on marital and family therapy points to the potentially deleterious effects of overinvolvement in close relationships. It is suggested that if research and theory on social support are to become relevant to clinical intervention, the current emphasis on the benefits of perceived social support needs to be balanced by consideration of the costs constraints of participating in social relationships and by a concern for how such perceptions arise. (83 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
To determine the effect of marital status on mortality for men. In particular, to examine whether subgroups of unmarried men (widowed, single, and divorced/separated men) have a similar mortality to married men.
Cohort study.
Whitehall civil service, London, between 1967 and 1969.
A total of 18,403 men aged 40-64 years with 18 years' follow up.
Cause-specific mortality rates and risk factors at baseline were determined. Overall mortality was greater for all groups of unmarried men. Patterns of mortality were different in the subgroups of unmarried men. Widowed men had a significantly greater risk of dying from ischaemic heart disease (relative risk (RR) 1.46, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.08, 1.97) which persisted after exclusion of deaths that occurred in the first two years. Divorced men had greater cancer mortality (RR 1.49; 95% CI 1.06, 2.10) that could not be explained simply by their greater consumption of cigarettes. The initial increased mortality for single men was no longer evident after adjustment for other risk factors, suggesting that single status in itself may not increase the risk. The risk for single men may have been underestimated, however, by over adjustment for possible intermediary factors.
Previous studies, which have examined total mortality only or have grouped all unmarried men, have masked interesting differences in the cause of death between subgroups of unmarried men. The extent to which the findings are explicable by psychosocial factors or the role of other environmental factors, which may also differ in relation to marital status, is unclear. Future work should not assume that all unmarried men have similar mortality risks and must examine the life course of each subgroup to advance our understanding of the possible causal role of marital status in disease aetiology.
In this review, the authors examine the evidence linking social support to physiological processes and characterize the potential mechanisms responsible for these covariations. A review of 81 studies revealed that social support was reliably related to beneficial effects on aspects of the cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems. An analysis of potential mechanisms underlying these associations revealed that (a) potential health-related behaviors do not appear to be responsible for these associations; (b) stress-buffering effects operate in some studies; (c) familial sources of support may be important; and (d) emotional support appears to be at least 1 important dimension of social support. Recommendations and directions for future research include the importance of conceptualizing social support as a multidimensional construct, examination of potential mechanisms across levels of analyses, and attention to the physiological process of interest.
We tested whether the presence of a stranger reduces cardiovascular responses during stressful tasks if the evaluation potential of the stranger is minimized and whether cardiovascular responses are affected by the quality of support in a friendship. Undergraduate women performed stressful tasks in one of three conditions: Alone, with a same-sex Stranger, or with a same-sex best Friend. The stranger and friend could not hear participants' responses. Alone women had the greatest increases in SBP and HR while women in the Stranger and Friend conditions did not differ in their responses. In the Friend condition, HR responses were smallest in women who were highly satisfied with the support that they generally received from their friend. We conclude that the presence of a nonevaluative friend or stranger can reduce cardiovascular responses and that the quality of supportive ties modulates the impact of those ties on responses to stress.
Laboratory research indicates that the presence of a supportive other can reduce physiological responses to a stressor. Whether there are gender differences, either on the part of the provider or the recipient, in this social support effect is explored. Such differences might shed some light on the frequent epidemiological reports of gender differences in social support and health.
Male and female subjects gave an impromptu speech and received either standardized supportive or nonsupportive feedback from a male or female confederate. Blood pressure and heart rate were monitored continuously during baseline and speech periods.
Speakers with a supportive female audience showed a systolic increase of 25 mm Hg over baseline. Those with a nonsupportive female audience increased 36 mm Hg. A supportive male audience led to increases of 32 mm Hg, and a nonsupportive male audience 28 mm Hg. There was no significant effect of gender of subject.
Results indicate that social support provided by women reduced cardiovascular changes for both male and female speakers compared with presence of a nonsupportive female audience. Social support from men did not. These findings suggest a possible mechanism that might help explain the epidemiological literature on the relationship between gender, social support, and health. The findings are consistent with the notion that married men are healthier because they marry women. Women do not profit as much from marriage or suffer as much from separation, in terms of health outcomes, because the support they gain or lose is the less effective support of a man. These findings render more plausible the possibility that differences in social support might contribute to health differences, through the dampening of cardiovascular responses to stress.
This study examined how cardiovascular reactivity to human touch is affected by the social context of the situation. Context for a ten-second touch was manipulated for 61 male and 64 female undergraduate participants in three ways: professional touch, were participants were touched on the wrist to have their pulse taken; social touch, an unexplained touch to the same area of the arm; and a no-touch control, where participants were told their pulse was being taken automatically without being touched. Social context was also manipulated by employing both same-sex and opposite-sex touch experimenters. In the professional touch and no-touch conditions, participants' heart rate and blood pressure decreased overall; however, in the social touch condition initial increases were observed for both measures. Female experimenters produced greater heart rate decreases than male experimenters. The greatest cardiovascular increases were found with women being touched by men in the social condition. These data suggest that both context and gender are important contextual factors in determining cardiovascular reactivity.
Social support and integration have been linked to health and longevity in many correlational studies. To explain how social relationships might enhance health, investigators are examining the effects of social support on physiological processes implicated in disease. Much of this research focuses on testing the social support-reactivity hypothesis, which maintains that social support enhances health by reducing psychobiologic reactivity to stressors. This article identifies the basic assumptions, problems, and prospects of this research endeavor. The major problems discussed include: (a) inconsistent findings across studies; (b) unidentified cognitive and emotional mediators; (c) individual differences in response to social support; and (d) a lack of experimental studies on the role of social support in adjustment to chronic stress. Besides raising consciousness about these problems, I offer ideas for advancing research in this area.
The effect of extreme social isolation and use of community‐based senior services on longevity was examined in a national sample of African American elderly women (ages 55–96). Consistent with previous research on the social integration/mortality link, African American elderly women who were extremely socially isolated were hypothesized to have a higher 5‐year mortality rate. It was also hypothesized that use of community senior services would be negatively associated with 5‐year mortality. Results of logistic regression analysis controlling for age, education, income, and health status found that extremely socially isolated African American elderly women were three times more likely than the nonisolated women to die within the 5‐year period from the initial survey. Use of community senior services did not have a relationship on mortality. Results are discussed in terms of directions for future research and intervention.
The technique of ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate monitoring allows the behavioral scientist to directly assess the physiological impact of normal psychological functioning rather than relying on inferences based upon laboratory studies or self-reports. Just as any other technique, it requires knowledge, patience, practice, and attention to detail. In this chapter we try to provide the user with insights we have gained through our experience over the last eight years. We also try to provide the novice user with a background in ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate monitoring and suggest ways in which the use of the technique can be expanded.
This study examined the relationship between social network interaction and total and cardiovascular mortality in 17,433 Swedish men and women between the ages of 29 and 74 during a 6 year follow-up period. The study group was interviewed concerning their social network interactions and a total score was formed which summarized the availability of social contact. A number of sociodemographic and health related background variables known to be associated with mortality risk were also considered. Mortality was examined by linking the interview material with the Swedish National Mortality Registry. In the 6-year follow-up period 841 deaths occurred. The crude relative risk of dying during this period was 3.7 (95% CL 3.2; 4.3) when the lower social network tertile was compared to the upper two tertiles. When controlling for potential confounding effects, only age had a major influence on the association between social network interaction and mortality (RR age-adjusted = 1.46, 95% CL 1.25; 1.72). Controlling for age and sex, age and educational level, age and employment status, age and immigrant status, age and smoking, age and exercise habits and age and chronic disease at interview left the relative risk virtually unchanged. Controlling simultaneously for age, smoking, exercise and chronic illness yielded a risk estimate of 1.36 (95% CL 1.06; 1.69). Similar results were obtained when separately analyzing for cardiovascular disease mortality in an identical manner.
Theorists and researchers have explicitly or implicitly made use of primary groups to explain a wide range of social behaviors, such as work productivity, mass media communication, combat morale, job search, services to elderly, and mortality rates. Typically, they have not systematically distinguished primary group from formal organization effects. Consequently, it is not known what primary groups uniquely contribute to social behavior. An expanded organizational contingency theory of group structure is advanced which fills in this gap and shows that primary group theory and organizational contingency theory share a common framework. To demonstrate the power of this formulation, national data on mortality are analyzed to predict which causes of death can and which cannot be reduced by primary groups.
Objective.
—To evaluate the hypothesis that diminished social and economic resources impact adversely on cardiovascular mortality in patients with coronary artery disease.Design.
—Inception cohort study of patients undergoing cardiac catheterization from 1974 through 1980 and followed up through 1989.Setting.
—Tertiary care university medical center.Patients.
—Consecutive sample of 1965 medically treated patients with stenosis 75% or greater of at least one major coronary artery. Five hundred patients were not enrolled due to logistic problems; 33 refused; 64 had missing data on key medical variables. The final study population included 1368 patients, 82% male, with a median age of 52 years.Main Outcome Measure.
—Survival time until cardiovascular death.Results.
—Independent of all known baseline invasive and noninvasive medical prognostic factors, patients with annual household incomes of 10000 or less (Cox model adjusted hazard ratio, 1.9; 95% confidence interval, 1.57 to 2.32; P =.002). Similarly, unmarried patients without a confidant had an unadjusted 5-year survival rate of 0.50, compared with 0.82 in patients who were married, had a confidant, or both (adjusted hazard ratio, 3.34; 95% confidence interval, 1.84 to 6.20; P<.0001).Conclusions.
—Low levels of social and economic resources identify an important high-risk group among medically treated patients with coronary artery disease, independent of important medical prognostic factors. Additional study will be required to see if interventions to increase these resources improve prognosis.(JAMA. 1992;267:520-524)
How does the family affect the health of its adult members? It is in the family that the macro-level social and economic order affects individual physical and emotional well-being. This review presents a general model of understanding family and health that describes patterns of well-being, and then asks, "what explains these patterns?" Explanations are found in causal chains, conditional effects, and "structural amplification." The review summarizes and synthesizes ideas and findings about four factors: marriage and parenthood (which define the family), and the wife's or mother's employment and the family's social status (which connect it to the larger social order). Overall, the married are in better health than the nonmarried, but parents are not better off than nonparents. Women's employment and high family socioeconomic status tend to be associated with good physical and psychological health. Under what circumstances are these basic patterns found, and what explains these patterns—what links structure to individual health? Economic well-being and social support are considered as the basic explanations. Concluding comments point to the need for more studies of the impact of family on the sense of control, which could be an important link to health.
Of psychosocial stressors, job strain has been associated with a sustained increase in blood pressure. The impact of marital factors on blood pressure and target organ has not been explored.
To evaluate whether marital adjustment, measured at baseline by self-report (Dyadic Adjustment Scale) influences left ventricular mass index (LVMI) and ambulatory blood pressure measured over 3 years in patients with mild hypertension.
A prospective cohort study was conducted on 103 cohabiting males or females, including 72 with technically adequate echocardiograms, who at baseline were unmedicated, employed, and living with a significant other, all for a minimum of 6 months and had repeated elevated office diastolic blood pressure.
Left ventricular mass by M-mode echocardiography indexed to body surface area and blood pressure were measured by ambulatory blood pressure every 15 minutes (daytime) and hourly between 11 PM and 7 AM.
Marital adjustment, smoking, drinking, and baseline LVMI contributed significantly to the prediction of 3-year LVMI (semipartial correlation, sr(2) = 0.04, 0.07, 0.03, and 0.22; P =.03,.008,.08, and <.001, respectively) together accounting for 36% of the total variability in follow-up LVMI. Three-year ambulatory blood pressure measures were not significantly related to marital adjustment but there were correlations with Dyadic Adjustment Scale subscales. Low or high levels of spousal contact during 3-year ambulatory blood pressure monitoring were associated with an increase or decrease of 3-year, 24-hour diastolic blood pressure, consistent with the quality of marital adjustment (P =.04) or marital satisfaction (Dyadic Adjustment Scale subscale, P =.008).
In a cohort of subjects with mild essential hypertension, marital adjustment had an influence on 3-year LVMI. Depending on the quality of marital adjustment, spousal contact at 3 years was associated with an increase or decrease of 3-year diastolic blood pressure. Confirmation of these results, including objective marital assessment and the participation of normotensive subjects, is required. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:3453-3458.
In order to examine the effects of positive and negative social interaction on task-induced cardiovascular activity, 90 undergraduates were allocated to one of three conditions: alone; with a confederate who offered support of subjects' judgements; with a confederate who disagreed with subject' judgements. In each of the 16 problem trials of the task, subjects had to indicate which of a series of cubist paintings was painted by the same artist as a target painting. Confederates were represented as possessing expert knowledge. Confederates offering positive support explicitly confirmed subjects' answers on 14 of the 16 problems and made other supportive comments; disagreeing confederates gave different answers to the subjects on 14 of the 16 problems and made other dismissive comments. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate, were monitored at pre-task baseline, and during the task. Average task values were compared across conditions using ANCOVA, with baseline as the covariate. A significant effect of conditions emerged for heart rate; the negative, undermining condition provoked higher HR than the alone condition. Subjects in the positive confederate condition reported more support than those with the negative confederate.
Ninety newlywed couples (mean age = 25), selected on the basis of extremely stringent mental and physical health criteria, were admitted to a hospital research unit for 24 hours to provide a detailed assessment of conflict-resolution behaviors and changes in autonomic, endocrine, and immune function. Among these newlyweds, negative or hostile behaviors during marital conflict (coded from videotaped interactions) were associated with increased levels of epinephrine, norepinephrine, growth hormone, and ACTH as well as greater immunological change over the subsequent 24 hours. Wives demonstrated greater and more persistent physiological changes related to marital conflict than husbands. To assess the generalizability of these physiological changes, a similar laboratory paradigm was used with 31 older couples (mean age = 67) who had been married an average of 42 years. Consistent with the data from newlyweds, both endocrinological and immunological data showed significant relationships to negative behavior during marital conflict in these older couples. These findings suggest that abrasive marital interactions have important endocrinological and immunological correlates.
This study examined the joint and independent effects of experimentally manipulated social contexts and individual differences in hostility and perceived social support on physiological responses to a social stressor, while illustrating the use of the interpersonal circumplex for integrative social psychophysiological research. Undergraduate women completed a speech task in a supportive, neutral, or provoking context and completed measures of hostility and perceived social support. The provoking context evoked the largest blood pressure and heart rate (HR) responses, followed by the neutral and the supportive context. Social context also influenced HR and electrodermal reactivity during task preparation. Hostility elicited higher systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity during preparation, speech, and recovery. Perceived social support interacted with context to affect SBP and HR during speech and preparation. The roles of interpersonal characteristics and contexts in the physiological stress response and the utility of interpersonal methods in studying these associations are discussed.
Cardiovascular reactivity is a psychophysiological construct referring to the magnitude, patterns, and/or mechanisms of cardiovascular responses associated with exposure to psychological stress. It is a term that is used to refer to the propensity for an individual to exhibit an alteration in cardiovascular activity during exposure to some external, predominantly psychological stimulus, which may, or may not, elicit an active behavioral response. Hence, cardiovascular reactivity is assumed to be a behavioral trait. A key objective of this chapter is to review the available evidence relevant to this contention.
In a sample of 225 coronary care patients it was observed that a significant reduction in ventricular arrhythmias occurred following pulse palpation. These data suggest that significant changes in ventricular arrhythmia can occur as a result of even minimally arousing psychosocial interactions.
A 30-minute back massage was given daily for a 5-day period to 52 hospitalized depressed and adjustment disorder children and adolescents. Compared with a control group who viewed relaxing videotapes, the massaged subjects were less depressed and anxious and had lower saliva cortisol levels after the massage. In addition, nurses rated the subjects as being less anxious and more cooperative on the last day of the study, and nighttime sleep increased over this period. Finally, urinary cortisol and norepinephrine levels decreased, but only for the depressed subjects.
To determine if the presence of a disrupted marriage or living alone would be an independent prognostic risk factor for a subsequent major cardiac event following an initial myocardial infarction.
Prospective evaluation in the placebo wing of a randomized, double-blind drug trial in patients with an enzyme-documented acute myocardial infarction who were admitted to a coronary care facility. Data for living alone and/or a marital disruption were entered into a Cox proportional hazards model constructed from important physiologic and nonphysiologic factors in the same database.
Multicenter trial in a mixture of community and academic hospitals in the United States and Canada.
All consenting patients who were 25 to 75 years of age and without other serious diseases were enrolled (placebo, N = 1234) within 3 to 15 days of the index infarction and followed for a period of 1 to 4 years (mean, 2.1 years). Nine hundred sixty-seven patients were followed for 1.1 years and 530 for 2.2 years.
Recurrent major cardiac event (either recurrent nonfatal infarction or cardiac death).
Living alone was an independent risk factor, with a hazard ratio of 1.54 (95% confidence interval, 1.04 to 2.29; P less than .03). Using the Kaplan-Meier statistical method for calculation, the recurrent cardiac event rate at 6 months was 15.8% in the group living alone vs 8.8% in the group not living alone. Risk remained significant throughout the follow-up period (P = .001). A disrupted marriage was not an independent risk factor.
Living alone but not a disrupted marriage is an independent risk factor for prognosis after myocardial infarction when compared with all other known risk factors.
Ninety post-myocardial infarction (MI) patients were interviewed to assess masculinity/femininity and social support shortly before hospital discharge. Patients were contacted 1 year following MI to obtain information about rehospitalization and/or death, post-MI chest pain, and perceived health. After controlling for traditional coronary risk factors, MI severity, and psychological distress, lack of disclosure to one's spouse predicted worse recovery on all three indices. Exploratory analyses revealed that males (n = 63) who disclosed to their spouses were rehospitalized less often than females (n = 14) who disclosed to their spouses, and married patients who engaged in less spouse disclosure (n = 32) were significantly more likely to be rehospitalized than either unmarried patients (n = 14) or married patients who engaged in more spouse disclosure (n = 41). Masculinity predicted more severe post-MI chest pain but was unrelated to rehospitalization and perceived health.
The relationship between social network and blood pressure was assessed in a cross-sectional, random sample of 1409 white adults aged 20 to 70 years studied in Buffalo in 1961. Higher total social network scores were associated with lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure in both males and females. Considering the components of social network separately, increased size of household and greater participation in clubs were associated with lower systolic blood pressure for males, with the trend in the same direction for women, though not reaching statistical significance. Among females, the only social network component showing significant linear trend was the number of siblings, with increased number of siblings being associated with lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Religious service attendance and marital status were not associated with blood pressure in this population.
In this study we investigated the effects of nonevaluative social interaction on the cardiovascular response to psychological challenge. Thirty-nine college-age females appeared accompanied ("Friend" condition) or unaccompanied ("Alone" condition) to an experimental laboratory. In the Friend condition, partners were present while the subject participated in two laboratory tasks, and the partners' evaluation potential was minimized by design. Subjects in the Friend condition showed reduced heart rate reactivity to both tasks, relative to the Alone group, an attenuated task-related systolic blood pressure response to one of the tasks, and a reduced diastolic blood pressure increase during a solitary interview. In two other instances, partner-related response reductions were apparent only for Type A subjects. None of these effects was accompanied by differences in task performance or self-reported emotional response. Interpersonal support may reduce cardiovascular responsivity to stress, an effect with possible implications for understanding the association between social relationships and cardiovascular risk.
This study examined the relationship between social network interaction and total and cardiovascular mortality in 17,433 Swedish men and women between the ages of 29 and 74 during a 6 year follow-up period. The study group was interviewed concerning their social network interactions and a total score was formed which summarized the availability of social contact. A number of sociodemographic and health related background variables known to be associated with mortality risk were also considered. Mortality was examined by linking the interview material with the Swedish National Mortality Registry. In the 6-year follow-up period 841 deaths occurred. The crude relative risk of dying during this period was 3.7 (95% CL 3.2; 4.3) when the lower social network tertile was compared to the upper two tertiles. When controlling for potential confounding effects, only age had a major influence on the association between social network interaction and mortality (RR age-adjusted = 1.46, 95% CL 1.25; 1.72). Controlling for age and sex, age and educational level, age and employment status, age and immigrant status, age and smoking, age and exercise habits and age and chronic disease at interview left the relative risk virtually unchanged. Controlling simultaneously for age, smoking, exercise and chronic illness yielded a risk estimate of 1.36 (95% CL 1.06; 1.69). Similar results were obtained when separately analyzing for cardiovascular disease mortality in an identical manner.
Research on psychosocial factors and cardiovascular disease has shown that psychosocial resources (including social supports and coping styles) help to protect individuals from the risk associated with psychosocial stressors. Some evidence indicates that this protective effect may extend to standard risk factors as well. This latter hypothesis was examined in greater detail in a study conducted in Brazil, in which it was found that psychosocial resources modified black-white differences in blood pressure. Highest mean blood pressures were observed among mixed race and black Brazilians who had low psychosocial resources; Afro-Brazilians with high psychosocial resources had lower blood pressures than white Brazilians. Implications of these results for the mechanisms linking ethnicity, psychosocial factors, and blood pressure are discussed.
PURPOSE: To examine the effect of marital status (married, widowed, divorced/separated, and never-married) on mortality in a cohort of 281,460 men and women, ages 45 years and older, of black and white races, who were part of the National Longitudinal Mortality Study (NLMS).METHODS: Major findings are based on assessments of estimated relative risk (RR) from Cox proportional hazards models. Duration of bereavement for the widowed is also estimated using the Cox model.RESULTS: For persons aged 45–64, each of the non-married groups generally showed statistically significant increased risk compared to their married counterparts (RR for white males, 1.24–1.39; white females, 1.46–1.49; black males, 1.27–1.57; and black females, 1.10–1.36). Older age groups tended to have smaller RRs than their younger counterparts. Elevated risk for non-married females was comparable to that of non-married males. For cardiovascular disease mortality, widowed and never-married white males ages 45–64 showed statistically significant increased RRs of 1.25 and 1.32, respectively, whereas each non-married group of white females showed statistically significant increased RRs from 1.50 to 1.60. RRs for causes other than cardiovascular diseases or cancers were high (for white males ages 45–64: widowed, 1.85; divorced/separated, 2.15; and never-married, 1.48). The importance of labor force status in determining the elevated risk of non-married males compared to non-married females by race is shown.CONCLUSIONS: Each of the non-married categories show elevated RR of death compared to married persons, and these effects continue to be strong after adjustment for other socioeconomic factors.
Assessed the impact of social support on poststressor cognitive impairment to provide a laboratory test of the buffering hypothesis of social support. High or low support was operationalized as the warm or the neutral behavior of an experimenter in an interview that preceded the experimental stressor, high or low task load (TL). Ss were 32 nonpsychotic female psychiatric inpatients (mean age 28 yrs). The predicted interaction was found on a poststressor anagram task. The performance of low-TL Ss was not markedly affected by the interview condition, whereas high-TL Ss performed significantly better in the warm interview condition. Heart rate data also supported the hypothesized buffering role of support. It is concluded that training in interpersonal skills required to mobilize social support might provide patients with some protection against the effects of stressful events. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Chandra, V., M. Szklo (Dept. of Epidemiology, The Johns Hopkins U. School of Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205), R. Goldberg and J. Tonas-cia. The impact of marital status on survival after an acute myocardial infarction: a population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 1983; 117: 320–5.
A nonconcurrent prospective study was conducted in the metropolitan Baltimore, Maryland, area to examine the influence of marital status on the in-hospital and long-term survival rate of 1401 patients who experienced an acute myocardial infarction. Patients were classified as “married” or “unmarried” at the time of their myocardial infarction and any later change in the marital history was not considered. For married males the adjusted in-hospital case fatality rate was 19.7 per cent, whereas for unmarried males the rate was 26.7 per cent (p < 0.05); similarly, the case fatality rate for married and unmarried females was 23.3 per cent and 37.4 per cent, respectively (p < 0.05). A 10-year follow-up of 888 subjects who were discharged alive after an acute myocardial infarction also showed a significantly better survival rate for the married compared to the unmarried for both males (p < 0.0001) and females (p < 0.025). The results of this study indicate that married men and women who experience an acute myocardial infarction have a significantly better survival prospect, both in-hospital and after discharge, independent of other factors.
The effects of marital status and change in marital status on mortality among middle-aged British men were examined in a prospective cohort study, the British Regional Heart Study. This is a nationally representative cohort of men selected at random from general medical practices in 24 towns in England, Wales, and Scotland. It comprises 7,735 men aged 40-59 recruited in 1978-1980 and followed up for 11.5 years. Marital status and a wide range of biologic and lifestyle variables were measured at screening, and changes in marital status were assessed after 5 years. Single (never-married) men had an increased risk of cardiovascular disease mortality (relative risk (RR) = 1.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.0-2.2) and noncancer, noncardiovascular mortality (RR = 1.8, 95% CI 1.1-3.3) after adjustment for potentially confounding variables: age, social class, smoking, recall of ischemic heart disease, recall of diabetes mellitus, use of antihypertensive drugs, body mass index, physical activity, alcohol intake, employment status, systolic blood pressure, blood cholesterol, and forced expiratory volume in 1 second. Divorced/separated men were not at increased risk of mortality, and widowed men were only at increased risk of other non-cardiovascular disease mortality (RR = 2.4, 95% CI 1.1-5.3). There was no effect of marital status on cancer mortality. Men who divorced during the follow-up period were at increased risk of both cardiovascular disease mortality (RR = 1.9, 95% CI 0.9-3.9) and other non-cardiovascular disease mortality (RR = 4.0, 95% CI 1.5-10.6), but men who became widowed during this time were not at increased risk. The excess mortality among single and recently divorced men was not explained by poor health or by exposure to a wide range of risk factors. It is unlikely that selection bias, chance, or artifact is responsible for the general relation between marital status and mortality. Variable and incomplete control for confounding by socioeconomic status and risk factors for common diseases may explain some of the inconsistencies observed between studies and between different categories of unmarried men (i.e., never-married, widowed, and divorced). It is possible that the social support offered by marriage exerts a protective effect for some men.
There are few systematic investigations of the potential benefits of incidental touch as it occurs in medical health care settings. In the present laboratory study 60 college students participated in two testing sessions 1 month apart. These sessions involved counterbalanced conditions of baseline, pulse palpation (touch), cold pressor test (stressor), and combined cold pressor/pulse palpation. Heart rate and systolic and diastolic blood pressure were measured during each condition. Subjective pain ratings were recorded during stress conditions. Significant decreases in cardiovascular measures and pain ratings were associated with physical contact. However, these changes were small and individual responses to physical contact were not stable over time. Physical contact produces a small but significant decrease in cardiovascular variables and the experience of pain. However, the tendency to show a cardiovascular response to touch does not represent a stable trait for individuals in the laboratory setting.
A large US sample was used to estimate the effects of race, employment status, income, education, occupation, marital status, and household size on mortality.
Approximately 530,000 persons 25 years of age or more were identified from selected Current Population Surveys between 1979 and 1985. These individuals were followed for mortality through use of the National Death Index for the years 1979 through 1989.
Higher mortality was found in Blacks than in Whites less than 65 years of age; in persons not in the labor force, with lower incomes, with less education, and in service and other lower level occupations; and in persons not married and living alone. With occasional exceptions, in specific sex and age groups, these relationships were reduced but remained strong and statistically significant when each variable was adjusted for all of the other characteristics. The relationships were generally weaker in individuals 65 years of age or more.
Employment status, income, education, occupation, race, and marital status have substantial net associations with mortality. This study identified segments of the population in need of public health attention and demonstrated the importance of including these variables in morbidity and mortality studies.
We evaluated hormonal changes and problem-solving behaviors in 90 newlywed couples who were admitted to a hospital research unit for 24 hours. The subjects were selected on the basis of stringent mental and physical health criteria, and admissions were scheduled during the follicular phase of the woman's menstrual cycle. For frequent, unobtrusive endocrine sampling during the interaction tasks, a long polyethylene tube was attached to a heparin well, allowing nurses to draw blood samples at set intervals, out of subjects' sight. Five blood samples were obtained before, during, and after a 30-minute structured problem-solving or conflict task. The conflict session was recorded on videotapes that were later scored for problem-solving behaviors using the Marital Interaction Coding System (MICS). Marital conflict and MICS-coded hostile or negative behavior during conflict was closely linked to changes in serum hormonal levels across five of the six hormones we studied, in spite of the high marital satisfaction of our newlywed couples and the healthy lifestyles demanded by our exclusion criteria. Hostile behavior was associated with decreased levels of prolactin (PRL) and increases in epinephrine (EPI), norepinephrine (NEPI), ACTH, and growth hormone (GH), but not cortisol. These data suggest that the endocrine system may be an important mediator between personal relationships and health.
This was an exploratory investigation of psychosocial risk factors for mortality in women with premature acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Subjects were 83 female participants in the Recurrent Coronary Prevention Project, who were between the ages of 30 and 63 in 1978, nonsmoking, nondiabetic, and at least 6 months beyond their index AMI. Follow-up ranged from 8 to 10 years, with an average of 8.5 years. Six deaths occurred in the 83 women over the follow-up. Univariate predictors of these deaths were arrhythmias on ECG (RR = 7.83, p = .003), being divorced (RR = 6.9, p = .003), being employed without a college degree (RR = 6.8, p = .03), and the inverse of Type A behavior, time urgency, and emotional arousability (p = .03; .005; .006, respectively). Multivariate stepwise logistic regression analysis produced a solution that included as independent predictors: arrhythmias on ECG (RR = 4.01, p = .004), being divorced (RR = 3.43, p = .01), and the inverse of time urgency (RR = 0.35, p = .02). In the multivariate model, "divorced" was interchangeable with "employed without a college degree" and "time urgency" was interchangeable with "emotional arousability." This small sample precludes firm conclusions, but provides a basis for hypothesis development.
This study uses a longitudinal design to examine the health effects of the quality of social roles among a cohort of women and men. The specific roles of interest are the spouse role, the parent role, and the worker role. The cumulative and interactive effects of role characteristics and role satisfactions and stresses are also examined. The study population was randomly selected from among members of a large HMO and were part of a household interview conducted in 1970-71. Medical records for the 2 years prior to the interview and for 15 years after the interview for the cohort members are linked with the survey data. The findings show that for women, particular qualities of the marital and work roles are predictive of subsequent morbidity and mortality. For married women, equality in decision making and companionship in marriage are protective against death. None of the marriage characteristics are predictive of health outcomes among men. Work support is protective against death, malignancy, and stroke among employed women, and work stress increases the risk of ischemic heart disease among employed men. None of the parental role characteristics were significant predictors of health outcomes for men or women. No interactions were found.
The effects of hostility and social support on clinic, work, and home systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressures were evaluated in 129 healthy adults. High hostility was related to higher SBP and DBP in Whites; low hostility was related to higher SBP and DBP in Blacks. These relationships were significant for men at home and at work and for women at screening. The relationship between low hostility and higher BP in Blacks was largely due to Black men who reported low hostility plus high anger-in (suggesting suppressed hostility). In contrast, high hostile Black men with high tangible support tended to exhibit lower BP than all other Black men. In White women, high belonging support was related to lower BP, independent of hostility, and low tangible support plus high hostility was related to higher clinic BP. In high hostile subjects, regardless of ethnicity or gender, high appraisal support was related to lower overall BP. These data suggest that the adverse BP effects of hostility and the beneficial effects of social support interact in a complex manner, reflecting contextual, ethnic, and gender specificities.
This 6-year follow-up study investigates the impact of interpersonal conflict at work on work disability among 8,021 male and 7,327 female employees aged 24 to 65 years at baseline. Marital status, marital conflict, monotonous work, hectic work pace, hostility, neuroticism, life dissatisfaction, and experienced stress of daily activities were included in survival analyses, which were adjusted for age, social status, and general health status. Interpersonal conflict at work predicted work disability only among women (RR 1.56, CL 1.01-2.39). This risk was confined to women who reported simultaneous marital conflicts (RR 2.54, CL 1.03-6.22). When included in further analyses, life dissatisfaction was a significant risk factor among both genders, but monotonous work, neuroticism, and experienced stress of daily activities were risk factors only among men. These data suggest that interpersonal conflict could be a determinant of work disability, and this indicates the importance of gender and marital factors.
We investigated whether the effects on cardiovascular reactivity of social support from an audience member depend only on the behavior of that person or also depend on the relationship between the audience and the actor. That is, is there any added reduction in physiological response if the person who is nodding and smiling supportively is also a friend?
Ninety subjects gave a speech to an observer. In two of the conditions, this observer was a confederate of the experimenter and a stranger to the subject. This confederate acted in either a supportive or neutral manner during the speech. In the final condition, this observer was a friend, brought by the subject, who was then trained to show support in the same manner as the supportive confederate. The comparison of the two confederate conditions tested the effect of support, holding the relationship constant. The comparison of friend and confederate supportive conditions tested the effect of the relationship, holding the supportive behaviors constant. All participants were female.
Both supportive conditions produced significantly smaller cardiovascular increases than the confederate-neutral condition, and the friend-supportive condition produced significantly smaller systolic blood pressure increases than the confederate-supportive (friend-supportive: 7.9 mm Hg: confederate-supportive: 14.9 mm Hg; confederate-neutral: 22.9 mm Hg). Differences for diastolic pressure and heart rate were not significant, although the data followed the same pattern.
Social support from a friend attenuated cardiovascular reactivity in a laboratory setting to a greater degree than support from a stranger. The subjects' construal of the supportive behaviors can have an effect on reactivity, over and above the effects of the actual behaviors themselves.
The effect of extreme social isolation and use of community-based senior services on longevity was examined in a national sample of African American elderly women (ages 55-96). Consistent with previous research on the social integration/mortality link, African American elderly women who were extremely socially isolated were hypothesized to have a higher 5-year mortality rate. It was also hypothesized that use of community senior services would be negatively associated with 5-year mortality. Results of logistic regression analysis controlling for age, education, income, and health status found that extremely socially isolated African American elderly women were three times more likely than the nonisolated women to die within the 5-year period from the initial survey. Use of community senior services did not have a relationship on mortality. Results are discussed in terms of directions for future research and intervention.
In view of the rising divorce rates, the impact of divorce on health has an increasing importance in public health. The differentials in health between the married and the divorced may be explained by 'marital selection' and 'marital protection'. Using longitudinal data from a study of the 1958 British birth cohort, factors that select people into divorce were identified from the areas of socio-economic status, health, and attractiveness, which included physical attractiveness, health-related behaviour and temperament. Evidence for both positive and adverse selection is found. The different sets of selection factors for females and males appear to be in line with gender role expectations. The health differentials between married and divorced men were weak and can be explained away by the selection factors. Having controlled for the selection effects, there were still significant associations between divorce and physical and psychological health in women. Though these unexplained differentials cannot be definitely interpreted as the consequences of marital dissolution, this interpretation remains plausible.
Critically ill patients are deprived of sleep and its potential healing qualities, although many receive medications to promote sleep. No one has adequately evaluated holistic nonpharmacological techniques designed to promote sleep in critical care practice.
To determine the effects of (1) a back massage and (2) combined muscle relaxation, mental imagery, and a music audiotape on the sleep of older men with a cardiovascular illness who were hospitalized in a critical care unit.
Sixty-nine subjects were randomly assigned to a 6-minute back massage (n=24); a teaching session on relaxation and a 7.5-minute audiotape at bedtime consisting of muscle relaxation, mental imagery, and relaxing background music (n=28); or the usual nursing care (controls, n=17). Polysomnography was used to measure 1 night of sleep for each patients. Sleep efficiency index was the primary variable of interest. One-way analysis of variance was used to test for difference in the index among the 3 groups.
Descriptive statistics showed improved quality of sleep among the back-massage group. Initial analysis showed a significant difference among the 3 groups in sleep efficiency index. Post hoc testing with the Duncan procedure indicated a significant difference between the back-massage group and the control group; patients in the back-massage group slept more than 1 hour long than patients in the control group. However, the variance was significantly different among the 3 groups, and reanalysis of data with only 17 subjects in each group revealed no difference among groups (P=.06).
Back massage is useful for promoting sleep in critically ill older men.
The impact of marital distress on cardiovascular responses to an "ecologically valid" laboratory stressor (a marital conflict recall task) was examined in maritally distressed and non-distressed women. It was hypothesized that the presence of high levels of marital distress would be associated with elevated blood pressure and heart rate responses to a marital conflict task.
Fifty married, employed women, aged 25-45, were recruited into high and low marital distress groups, based on total scores on the Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Subjects participated in three laboratory stress tasks: a marital conflict recall task, a work conflict recall task, and a serial subtraction task.
During the marital conflict recall task, women characterized as high in marital distress exhibited higher systolic blood pressure (M = 21.4 +/- 9.1 vs. 17.3 +/- 7.7) (p < .05) and heart rate (M = 13.6 +/- 9.5 vs. 10.9 +/- 6.5) (p < .01) responses, compared with low-distress women. However, the association between marital distress and cardiovascular response was statistically significant only after aggregate responses to the control stressors were used as covariates.
These data indicate that the stress associated with recalling a marital conflict was manifest in elevated blood pressure and heart rate, particularly among women characterized as experiencing high levels of distress in their marriage. Future research is needed to determine whether the blood pressure differences between women who are satisfied with their marriage, versus those that are chronically distressed are clinically meaningful. In addition, examination of the "ecological validity" of laboratory stressors suggests that a useful methodology may be to assess task responses, while controlling for nonspecific individual differences in cardiovascular reactivity.