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Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 3, June 2004, pp. 237–247 ( C
°2004)
Temporal Relations in Daily-Reported Maternal Mood
and Disruptive Child Behavior
Frank J. Elgar,1,4Daniel A. Waschbusch,2Patrick J. McGrath,2
Sherry H. Stewart,2and Lori J. Curtis3
Received May 21, 2003; revision received September 5, 2003; accepted October 21, 2003
Examined temporal relations between maternal mood and disruptive child behaviour using daily
assessments of 30 mother–child dyads carried out over 8 consecutive weeks (623 pooled observa-
tions). Pooled time-series analyses showed synchronous fluctuation in child behaviour and mater-
nal distress. Time-lagged models showed temporal relations between maternal and child outcomes
that changed according to the type of maternal mood and child behaviour being reported. Control-
ling for cross-sectional relations, maternal anger and fatigue were related to previous child inatten-
tive/impulsive/overactive behaviour (IO) and maternal confusion related to previous child opposi-
tional/defiant behaviour (OD). However, maternal depression, low vigour, anger, and anxiety each
predicted subsequent child IO and maternal confusion and anxiety each predicted subsequent child
OD. Mutual influences on maternal and child functioning were interpreted in the context of inter-
personal mechanisms that mediate psychological problems within families and their implications for
treatment.
KEY WORDS: maternal mood; disruptive behaviour disorders; attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder;
oppositional defiant disorder; pooled time-series analysis.
Mood disturbance in mothers and disruptive behav-
ioral problems in children are common conditions that
coexist in many families. Mothers with difficult children
tend to feel more fatigued, depressed, and anxious than
mothers of healthy children (Cunningham, Benness, &
Siegel,1988) and, conversely, children ofdistressed moth-
ers tend to show more hyperactive, inattentive, and op-
positional behavior than children of nondistressed moth-
ers (Cummings & Davies, 1994). The co-occurrence of
theseconditions isconsistent with evidenceof deleterious,
mutual influences on maternal mood and child behavior.
Emotional problems in the mother may inherited by the
1School of Social Sciences, Cardiff University, Wales, United Kingdom.
2DepartmentofPsychology,DalhousieUniversity, Halifax,NovaScotia.
3Department of Community Health and Epidemiology, Dalhousie Uni-
versity, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
4AddressallcorrespondencetoFrankJ.Elgar,SchoolofSocialSciences,
Cardiff University, Glamorgan Building, King Edward VII Avenue,
Cardiff CF10 3WT, Wales, United Kingdom; e-mail: elgarf@cardiff.
ac.uk.
child, affect prenatal neuroendocrine development, inter-
fere with parenting behaviors, strain family functioning,
and present long-term risk for developmental and adjust-
ment problems in children (Cummings & Davies, 1994;
Goodman & Gotlib, 1999; Kurstjens & Wolke, 2001;
Turner, Beidel, Roberson-Nay, & Tervo, 2003). On the
other hand, disruptive behavior in children may compro-
mise mothers’ perceived abilities as parents and elicit ma-
ternal stress and emotional distress (Mash & Johnston,
1990; Pelham et al., 1997). The transactional nature of
these common psychological problems has direct impli-
cations for their aetiology, course, and treatment (Elgar &
McGrath, 2003; Hoza et al., 2000). For example, mood
disturbance in the mother may contribute to parenting
behavior that is either too intrusive or withdrawn, trig-
gering a disruptive outburst in the child which the de-
pressed mothers has difficulty managing, thereby exacer-
bating the child’s behavior, and so on. These conditions,
although typically studied as chronic disorders, may be
state-dependent and thus fluctuate and influence one an-
other over short periods of time.
237
0091-0627/04/0600-0237/0 C
°2004 Plenum Publishing Corporation
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238 Elgar, Waschbusch, McGrath, Stewart, and Curtis
Patterson described transactional influences in a de-
velopmental model of child aggression, suggesting that
the effectiveness of parents’ management of disruptive
child behavior will likely influence the course of the be-
havior(Patterson,1982;Patterson,DeBaryshe, & Ramsey,
1989). Studies have shown that disruptive child behavior
tends to increase as the mother becomes more emotion-
ally distressed, ultimately resulting in worse parenting and
family functioning (Cunningham et al., 1988; Lovejoy,
Craczyk, O’Hare, & Neuman, 2000; Webster-Stratton &
Hammond, 1988). Transactional influences on maternal
mood and child disruptive behavioral disorders (DBDs)
may be moderated by paternal support and involvement
and external social support (Goodman & Gotlib,
1999).
Despite evidence for their mutual influences, few
studies have attempted to unravel the temporal relations
in maternal mood and child DBDs. Notable exceptions in-
clude a study by Forehand and McCombs (1988) in which
child behavioral problems and maternal depression were
assessed twice 1-year apart. With stronger relations found
between maternal depression at Time 1 and child prob-
lems at Time 2 than between child problems at Time 1
and maternal depression at Time 2, the authors concluded
that maternal depression was the antecedent in the relation
between maternal depression and adolescent functioning.
Unfortunately, with just two assessments and discrepant
test–retest reliability of their measures of maternal depres-
sion (r=.71) and child adjustment problems (r=.26–
.51), differences in cross-lagged relations were difficult to
interpret.
In another panel study, child and parental depression,
anxietyand hostility were assessedin368 families on three
occasions 1-year apart (Ge, Conger, Lorenz, Shanahan, &
Elder, 1995). Symptoms of parent and adolescent distress
were reciprocally related over time after earlier symp-
toms were statistically controlled, but the study did not
find differences in cross-lagged relations. This omission
may be attributed to the application of structural equa-
tion modelling that included a single construct of distress
representing depression, anxiety, and hostility and there-
fore would not have found differences across domains of
maladjustment.
Our group recently conducted a 4-year cross-lagged
panel study of maternal depression and child adjustment
problems (i.e., hyperactivity, aggression, and emotional
problems) with the objective of examining their
antecedent-consequence conditions (Elgar, Curtis,
McGrath, Waschbusch, & Stewart, 2003). Three waves
of panel data collected in 2-year intervals from 20,849
families showed stability in, and relations between,
maternal depression and child hyperactivity, aggression,
and emotional problems. Interestingly, differences bet-
ween cross-lagged panel correlations suggested that
maternal depressive symptoms tended to coincide with
or precede child emotional problems but tended to
change as a consequence of child aggression and hyper-
activity.
Although informative of temporal relations in sta-
ble underlying psychopathology, the long assessment in-
tervals of these panel studies have not captured tempo-
ral relations in more transient, day-to-day fluctuations in
functioning. Temporal relations in daily-reported
maternal mood and child behavior may well be differ-
ent than those found using annual or biannual data cy-
cles. Unfortunately, little research has been conducted
involving intensive, repeated measurement of maternal
and child symptoms. Some studies have demonstrated
the variable nature of daily-reported mood in mothers.
Eckenrode (1984) found that the number of stressors not
only influenced daily-reported mood but also moderated
the influence of previous life events and chronic stress
on mood. Williams and colleagues studied the effects of
multiple role juggling by working mothers by assessing
mood and activities eight times a day for 8 days (Williams,
Suls, Alliger, Learner, & Wan, 1991). Their data showed
that mood fluctuated greatly from day to day and that
multiple responsibilities had cumulative, immediate in-
fluences on mood. Two studies used pooled time-series
analysistostudy influences on dailychangeinchild behav-
ioral problems. Soliday, Moore, and Lande (2002) stud-
ied the behavioral side effects of steroid medications used
to treat steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome, and Moore,
Osgood, Larzelere, and Chamberlain (1994) studied be-
havioral disturbances in foster children as a function of
the number of children residing in the home. We are not
aware of a study that examined temporal relations be-
tween daily-reported maternal mood and disruptive child
behavior.
The objective of the present study was to utilise daily
assessments of maternal and child functioning to explore
which dimensions of maternal mood (tension–anxiety,
depression–dejection, anger–hostility, fatigue–inertia,
vigour–activity, and confusion–bewilderment) relate—
concurrently, retrospectively, and prospectively—to DBD
symptoms in their children. On the basis of previous stud-
ies, it was hypothesised that general mood disturbance
in mothers would relate to previous and subsequent child
symptoms, but that maternal fatigue and frustration would
relate more to earlier child symptoms than to subsequent
symptoms, reflecting the effects of such behavior on
maternal functioning.
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Maternal Mood and Child Behavior 239
METHODS
Setting
Families were recruited from the 2002 Dalhousie
UniversitySummerTreatmentProgram(STP)for children
with DBDs. The STP was an 8-week day camp and clin-
ical research program that provided a cost-free day camp
to children in the Halifax area (Nova Scotia, Canada). The
STP enrolled children with ADHD or ODD/CD and also
enrolled healthy non-DBD children to facilitate psychoso-
cial treatments as well as for research purposes. Children
attended the STP from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday
through Friday, and participated in academic, art, and
recreational activities led by a staff of counsellors, teach-
ers, and teacher aides. A behavioral point system was in
effect throughout the day in which children earned points
for appropriate behaviors and lost points for inappropri-
ate behaviors. Staff members gave continual behavioral
feedback and children exchanged points for privileges and
honours. Parents met in a weekly support group to receive
training on the use of daily report cards, time-out pro-
cedures, token systems, and effective discipline. Further
details about the STP, including specifics about the pro-
tocol, are available elsewhere (see Pelham et al., 2002;
Pelham, Gnagy, & Greiner, 1998; Pelham & Hoza, 1996).
Participants
Families volunteered to enrol their children in the
STP through advertisements in local newspapers through-
outthe community. All36 families thatenrolled during the
summer of 2002 were asked to participate in the present
study. Inclusion criteria were that the child was between
7 and 12 years of age at the start of treatment and that
mothers had sufficient fluency in English to provide in-
formed consent and complete daily assessments. Thirty
of the 36 (83.33%) families enrolled in the STP agreed
to participate. Participating and nonparticipating families
were not significantly different in terms of the age, sex,
and number of siblings of the child, and the age, educa-
tion, income, and marital status of the mother. The STP
protocol was approved by the Human Ethics Board at the
IWK Health Centre and additional procedures carried for
this study was approved by the Health Sciences Human
Ethics Board at Dalhousie University (Halifax, Canada).
Diagnoses of DBDs (ADHD and/or ODD/CD) were
assigned if the child met DSM-IV criteria according to
parent ratings, teacher ratings, or a structured clinical in-
terview (each described below), with data combined on a
symptom-by-symptom basis (Piacentini, Cohen, &
Cohen,1992). Twentyof the 30participants were assigned
diagnoses, including four children (13.3% of sample) who
metcriteria for ADHD-only,one child (3.3%) whometcri-
teria for ODD/CD-only and 15 children (50%) who met
criteria for both ADHD and ODD/CD. Thus, 19 of 20
children met criteria for ADHD and 16 of 20 children met
criteria for ODD/CD. Mother–child dyads were assigned
to non-DBD and DBD groups on the basis of whether the
child was assigned a diagnosis.
Materials
Intake Assessments
A number of measures were completed as part of the
intake assessments for the STP. Of relevance to this study
are a brief demographic measure that parents completed
on the family, the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II)
thatmothers completedon themselves, theChild Behavior
Checklist(CBCL) that motherscompleted on thechildren,
the National Institutes of Mental Health Diagnostic Inter-
view Schedule for Children (DISC) that either mothers
or fathers completed on their children, and the Disruptive
Behavior Disorders Rating Scales (DBD) that mothers,
fathers, and teachers completed on each child.
The Beck Depression Inventory is a well-established
adult self-report assessment of the severity of depressive
symptoms (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh,
1961). Its latest revision, the BDI-II (Beck, Steer, &
Brown, 1996), matches diagnostic criteria for major de-
pressive episodes as described in the fourth edition of the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The
BDI-II includes 21 items, each consisting of four self-
evaluative statements, scored 0–3, describing a depres-
sive symptom to varying magnitudes. Scores range from
0 to 63 with higher scores indicating greater depression
severity. Using a cutoff score of 14, the BDI-II has been
found to have a 84% sensitivity and a 81% specificity in
identifying major depressive disorder in community pop-
ulations (Beck et al., 1996). The BDI-II also has high
predictive validity, test–retest reliability, and internal con-
sistency, showing a coefficient alpha of .91 in a sample
of depressed outpatients (Beck et al., 1996) and .94 in the
present study.
The CBCL is a 118-item parent-rated measure of
child behavior that assesses social competencies and emo-
tional and behavioral problems of children and adoles-
cents age 6 to 18 years (Achenbach, 1991). The CBCL
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240 Elgar, Waschbusch, McGrath, Stewart, and Curtis
assesses eight areas of functioning—anxious/depressed
symptoms, somatic complaints, thought problems, with-
drawn/depressive, aggressive behavior, attention pro-
blems, rule-breaking behavior, and social problems.
Results are reliable and can be summarised in sex-
appropriate tscores on internalising and externalising
problem scales. Internal consistency of the CBCL in this
study was α=.85 for internalising problems and α=.76
for externalising problems.
The DISC is a structured diagnostic interview de-
signed to assess over 31 psychiatric disorders in children
age 6 to 17 years (Shaffer, Fisher, Lucas, & the NIMH
DISC Editorial Board, 1998). A computerised version of
the parent interview can be conducted in about 1 hr. DISC
items are organised by diagnosis and parents are asked di-
chotomous questions about whether the child had specific
symptoms during the past year and the previous 4 weeks.
The criterion validity, acceptability, interrater reliability,
and test–retest reliability of the DISC have been well-
established (Piacentini et al., 1993; Schwab-Ston et al.,
1993; Shaffer et al., 1993, 1996).
The DBD consists of 45 questions designed to mea-
sure DSM-IV symptoms of ADHD, ODD, and CD
(Pelham, Gnagy, Greenslade, & Milich, 1992). Symptoms
are rated using Likert scales that range from 0 =not at
all to3=very much. Symptoms were considered present
if they were rated pretty much or very much. The DBD is
widely used with demonstrated reliability and validity for
the assessment of ADHD, ODD, and CD (Pelham et al.,
1992).
Daily Report Assessments
To minimise burden, missing data and sample attri-
tion, mothers’ daily reports were made as brief as possible
byformatting two measures intobooklets. These measures
were the short version of Profile of Mood States (POMS;
Shacham, 1983) which mothers completed on themselves
andthe Inattention/OveractivityWithAggression(IOWA)
Conners Scale (Loney & Milich, 1982) which mothers
completed on their children. The POMS and IOWA were
chosen for their sensitivity to change and because they do
not include fixed time parameters relating to diagnostic
criteria. Thus, their data reflect mood and behavior, re-
spectively, at the time of assessment. Assessment order of
the POMS and IOWA alternated each day of the study to
control for possible transfer effects.
The POMS is a measure of transient but distinct di-
mensions of mood disturbance which, if severe and persis-
tent enough would resemble symptoms of depression or
feelings that often accompany depression. Respondents
indicate how well a set of mood adjectives (e.g., tense,
angry, worn-out) describes their current mood using a 5-
point scale ranging from not at all to extremely. Six factor
analytically derived subscales measure dimensions of
mooddisturbance:tension–anxiety,depression–dejection,
anger–hostility, fatigue–inertia, vigour–activity, and
confusion–bewilderment.Using the original65-item scale
(McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1981), Shacham (1983)
used the internal consistency of each scale and factor
loadings of its items to shorten the instrument from 65
to 37 items. Shacham found that factor scores of the short
scale correlated highly with the original (rs=.95–
.98) and had similar internal consistency (αs=.78–.91).
The internal consistency of the POMS scales in this study
was αs=.84–.87 (tension–anxiety), .80–.88 (depression–
dejection), .85–.90 (anger–hostility), .81–.86 (fatigue–
inertia), .85–.91 (vigour–activity), and .78–.83 (confu-
sion–bewilderment).
The IOWA Conners is a 10-item parent or teacher
measure of disruptive behavioral problems in children age
6–17 years (Loney & Milich, 1982). Items were consistent
with descriptions of behaviors that are typical of ADHD
or ODD/CD each of which is rated on a 4-point scale rang-
ing from not at all to very much. The IOWA yields two
scores, an inattentive/impulsive/overactive (IO) score and
an oppositional/defiance (OD) score. Five items comprise
the IO score: fidgeting, hums and makes other odd noises,
excitable/impulsive, inattentive/easily distracted, and fails
to finish things he or she starts. Five items comprise the
OD score: quarrelsome, acts “smart,” temper outburst (ex-
plosive, unpredictable behavior), defiant, and uncoopera-
tive. The IOWA requires minimal time to complete and
has good reliability, predictive validity, and sensitivity to
behavior change (Pelham, Milich, Murphy, & Murphy,
1989).The internal consistencyof the IOWAin the present
study was αs=.72–.82 for IO and .64–.72 for OD.
Procedure
Intake assessments (rating scales and clinical inter-
view) were completed 1–3 months prior to the STP. Moth-
ers’and fathers’ ratingsof child symptomswere combined
on a symptom-by-symptom basis and symptoms were
scored if either the mother or father reported it. Cross-
informant rating scale assessments have been found to
yield more accurate results than using single informants
(Piacentini et al., 1992). Additional data were collected
at intake using the BDI-II to measure maternal depressive
symptoms and CBCL to measure child behavioral prob-
lems.Mothersweresuppliedwith booklets containing daily
assessments for each day the STP ran during the Summer
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Maternal Mood and Child Behavior 241
of 2002. Because the STP operated from Mondays to
Fridays, there were five assessments per week, except for
fourassessmentson the firstandlastweeks, yielding atotal
of 38 data cycles. One-day intervals were chosen to pro-
vide as many assessments as possible with consideration
for the fatigue and compliance problems that could have
arisen with even shorter intervals (e.g., every 4 or 8 hr).
Mothers completed assessments at home in the evenings
after their child had returned home from the STP and the
family had dinner. Mothers brought their completed as-
sessmentstoa specified drop-offlocationattheend of each
week. Staff members were in regular contact with mothers
to encourage compliance. Participants were compensated
$40 at the end of data collection.
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis of baseline data was carried out
using cross-tabulation (χ2) analysis and ANOVAs. Pooled
time-series analysis was used to study temporal relations
between dimensions of maternal mood and child symp-
toms whereas controlling for a lack of independent obser-
vations, individual differences, and ongoing time trends.
This analysis has the form of a linear model that treats
each observation for each participant as a separate case.
Pooled time-series analysis is one of the strongest quasi-
experimentaldesigns available for itscontrol for selection,
maturation, and history in the assessment of change (Cook
& Campbell, 1979). Time-series models are not often seen
inpsychological research, possibly becauseordinary time-
series analysis requires more observations than are avail-
ablein most psychologicalstudies, or because analysesare
limited to a single case and provide no basis for general-
ization, or because visual data analysis is too cumbersome
when large individual differences exist (Soliday et al.,
2002). Pooled time series analysis avoided such limita-
tions through a regression-based analysis that is more tol-
erant of missing data and serial dependence than more tra-
ditional methods (e.g., repeated-measures ANOVA) and
yields high statistical power from small samples. Anal-
ysis involved two procedures for meeting the statistical
assumptions of regression analysis. First, dummy vari-
ables were used to control for between-subjects variance,
leaving only within-subjects variance over time.5Sec-
5The number of dummy variables required equals the number of partic-
ipants in the sample minus one. The use of dummy variables to control
individual differences is only appropriate in fixed effects models. Error
components or “random effects” models require different procedures
(see Dielman, 1989). We adopted a fixed effects model because of high
levels of between-subjects variance (see Results). The error compo-
nents model in pooled time-series analysis provides less control for
individual differences because it reduces between-subject variance to
ond, to address the assumption of independent residu-
als, a version of generalized least squares was used in
which data are transformed to statistically remove auto-
correlation (Moore et al., 1994). This procedure involved
(1) pooling the data and estimating the regression model
of interest, (2) estimating the degree of correlation among
the residuals that are adjacent in time, (3) transforming the
dependent variables to remove that correlation, (4) con-
ducting the regression analysis again on the transformed
variables, and (5) reexamining correlations among residu-
als from this second analysis to ensure the transformation
was successful.6Transformed data and block regression
models were then used whereby the child’s age and sex,
mother’s age and education, family income, and number
of children were entered in Block 1, dummy variables to
control for individual differences were entered in Block
2, and pooled observations of maternal mood were en-
tered in Block 3. Separate analyses were performed on
previous, concurrent, or subsequent child symptoms and
on non-DBD and DBD groups.
RESULTS
A demographic profile of the sample is shown in
Table I. Children in the DBD group, compared to the
non-DBD group, were more likely male than female and
they showed significantly more internalising, externalis-
ing, and total problems. A cross-tabulation showed that
of the 10 (33.33%) mothers who scored above the cutoff
on the BDI-II, their children were no more likely to re-
ceive a diagnosis compared to children of mothers who
scored below the cutoff. However, with regard to prob-
lem scores on the CBCL, children of mothers who scored
a level consistent with within-subject variance rather than eliminate it
altogether (Dielman, 1989).
6This procedure utilizes the Durbin–Watson statistic, dw, which can be
transformed to an autocorrelation estimate, r.
r=(2 −dw)
2
Dependent variables were then transformed separately for each analysis
using the formula:
X∗t=Xt −r(Xt −1)
where X∗tis the new version of the variable at time t,tis the original
version, ris the autocorrelation estimate, and t−1 is the time (day) pe-
riodprevioustot.Eachnewlytransformed value becomes the difference
between the old value and the product of rand the value from the previ-
ous assessment. Ostrom (1990) recommended repeating this procedure
until autocorrelation drops below r=.15. Although the procedure is
tedious, failure to correct for autocorrelation leads to overestimates of
the statistical significance of time series relations. Interested readers
are referred to Soliday et al. (2002) for an accessible demonstration of
pooled time-series analysis in clinical research.
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242 Elgar, Waschbusch, McGrath, Stewart, and Curtis
Table I. Descriptive Statistics on Maternal and Child Functioning in Non-DBD and DBD Groupsa
Variable Non-DBD (N=10) DBD (N=20) Comparison
Child
Male (%) 5 (50.00) 17 (85.00) χ2(df 1) =4.18, p=.04
Female (%) 5 (50.00) 3 (15.00)
Age in years (SD) 9.40 (1.36) 9.40 (1.88) F(1, 28) =0.01, p=.99
Number of siblings (SD) 2.00 (0.94) 1.45 (1.28) F(1, 28) =1.45, p=.24
Has 2+siblings (%) 4 (40.00) 4 (20.00) χ2(df 1) =1.36, p=.24
Lives with father (%) 10 (100.00) 14 (70.00) χ2(df 1) =1.09, p=.30
Internalising problems (SD) 41.30 (7.21) 59.47(11.62) F(1, 27) =20.17, p<.001
Externalising problems (SD) 40.30 (8.43) 63.40 (8.39) F(1, 27) =50.39, p<.001
Total problems (SD) 37.70 (7.96) 65.26 (9.57) F(1, 27) =60.54, p<.001
Mother
Age (SD) 38.20 (4.10) 41.00 (3.61) F(1, 25) =3.43, p=.08
Education (SD)b2.00 (1.12) 2.12 (1.05) F(1, 25) =.07, p=.79
Family income (SD)c4.70 (2.67) 4.45 (2.98) F(1, 28) =.05, p=.83
Marital status
Single or separated (%) 2 (20.00) 8 (40.00) χ2(df 2) =1.20, p=.27
Married or common-law (%) 8 (80.00) 12 (60.00)
Depressive symptoms (SD) 7.00 (8.34) 12.45 (14.43) F(1, 28) =1.21, p=.28.
Depressed (%)d3 (30.00) 7 (35.00) χ2(df 1) =.75, p=.78.
a“DBD” refers to diagnosis of either ADHD or ODD/CD.
bScale: 1 =no high school;2=high school;3=technical school;4=graduated from college or university
(bachelor’s degree), 5 =postgraduate degree.
cScale: 1 =<$10,000, 2 =$10,000–19,999, 3 =$20,000–29,999, 4 =$30,000–39,999, 5 =$40,000–49,999,
6=$50,000–59,999, 7 =$60,000–69,999, 8 =$70,000–79,999, 9 =$80,000–89,999, 10 =$90,000–99,999,
11 =$100,000–125,000, 12 =>$125,000 (Canadian dollars).
dBeck Depression Inventory-II scores above the recommended cut point of 14.
above the cutoff on the BDI-II rated their child as hav-
ing marginally more internalising problems (M=63.50
vs. M=51.80), F(1,28) =4.07, p=.05, and signifi-
cantly more externalising problems (M=62.00 vs. M=
52.95), F(1,28) =5.53, p<.05,butnotmore total prob-
lems (M=60.33 vs. M=50.00), F(1, 28) =2.05, p=
.16, than children whose mothers scored below the cutoff.
Of a possible 1,170 recordings across 38 data cycles,
mothers provided a total of 623 recordings on the daily
assessments, indicating 54.56% compliance. The mean
number of recordings per mother was 21.07 (SD =10.63,
Minimum =1.00, Maximum =35.00). Four hundred and
twelve recordings were from mothers of children in the
DBD group—378 from mothers of ADHD children, 323
from mothers of ODD/CD children (70.14% overlap) and
212 from mothers of non-DBD children. Test order of the
POMS and IOWA did not affect these data.
Preliminary results lent some support to the notion
that mood disturbance in mothers coincided with disrup-
tive child behavior. By pooling the data so that all 623
observations were considered independent, it was found
that maternal mood disturbance correlated positively with
child IO, rs =.22 (depression–dejection), −.22 (vigour–
activity), .28 (anger–hostility), .40 (tension–anxiety), .24
(confusion–bewilderment), and .22 (fatigue–inertia), all
ps<.001, and all but vigour-activity correlated with
child OD, rs =.32 (depression–dejection), .36 (anger–
hostility),.42 (tension–anxiety), .32(confusion–bewilder-
ment), and .34 (fatigue–inertia), all ps<.001. Because
pooling data in this way was not entirely justified, pooled
time-series analysis was used to extract individual differ-
ences and autocorrelation before looking further at rela-
tions between maternal mood and child functioning.
Between-Subject Variance and Autocorrelation
In pooled time-series analysis, dichotomous dummy
variables representing each of the 30 participants were
used to control for individual differences in the data
(Dielman, 1989). The degree of between-subject variance
was high, accounting for 78% of the variance in child IO
and 36% of the variance in child OD. With respect to ma-
ternal mood, individual differences accounted for 79% of
the variance in depression–dejection, 74% in confusion–
bewilderment, 66% in tension–anxiety, 64% in vigour–
activity, 62% in anger–hostility, and 47% in fatigue–
inertia. Data transformations involved estimating
autocorrelation using multiple regressions on child out-
comes with the following predictors: child age and sex,
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Maternal Mood and Child Behavior 243
maternal age and education, family income, and number
of children (Block 1), dummy variables to control for in-
dividual differences (Block 2), and pooled observations of
maternal mood (Block 3). Block 1 controlled for sociode-
mographic factors that may have constituted shared envi-
ronmentalrisk for mothersand children.Block 1 predicted
3% of the variance in child inattention/impulsiveness, 2%
of the variance in child opposition/defiance, and 2 to 12%
of the variance in maternal mood (2% vigour–activity,
5%fatigue–inertia, 10% tension–anxiety, 11% confusion–
bewilderment, 11% anger–hostility, and 12% depression–
dejection. Data were transformed using the procedures
described above. One iteration of the procedure was suf-
ficient to reduce autocorrelation to below r=.15.
Cross-Sectional Relations
Pooledtime-seriesmodels included dummy variables
to control for between-subject variance, transformed data
to control for autocorrelation, and hierarchical regression
models, described above, to control for shared environ-
mental risk factors. Using this method, cross-sectional re-
lations were analysed between maternal mood and child
IO (Table II, centre column) and between maternal mood
Table II. Pooled Time Series Analysis of Child IO on the Day Previous, Same Day as, and Day After
Maternal Mood
Previous day Same day Next day
Predictor B(SE)βB(SE)βB(SE)β
Non-ADHD (N=11; 244 pooled observations)
R2=.065 (previous day), .112 (same day), .105 (next day)
Maternal
Depression–dejection .04 (.09) .09 .16 (.06) .35∗∗ .17 (.06) .34∗∗
Vigour–activity −.08 (.02) −.06 −.03 (.01) −.21∗−.03 (.02) −.22∗
Anger–hostility .19 (.07) .39∗∗ .22 (.04) .44∗∗ .09 (.04) .20∗
Tension–anxiety .09 (.07) .23 .02 (.04) .03 .16 (.04) .47∗∗
Confusion–bewilderment .09 (.06) .18 .05 (.04) .10 .03 (.04) .06
Fatigue–inertia .03 (.02) .24∗.02 (.01) .09 .01 (.02) .00
ADHDa(N=19; 378 pooled observations)
R2=.023 (previous day), .079 (same day), .034 (next day)
Maternal
Depression–dejection .11 (.13) .08 .09 (.10) .06 .12 (.05) .21∗
Vigour–activity −.05 (.06) .09 −.11 (.05) −.18∗−.07 (.12) .05
Anger–hostility .05 (.11) .04 .32 (.08) .26∗∗ .20 (.09) .15∗
Tension–anxiety .19 (.11) .15 .14 (.09) .10 .20 (.08) .17∗
Confusion–bewilderment .08 (.11) .01 .05 (.08) .04 .08 (.09) .06
Fatigue–inertia .13 (.05) .19∗∗ .04 (.04) .05 .02 (.04) .01
Note. Controlled for between-subject variance, child’s age and sex, maternal age, education, marital status,
and household income. Time-lagged analyses were based on four recordings per week in order to avoid the
lag extending over a weekend.
aDiagnosisofAttentionDeficitHyperactivityDisorder(eitherPredominantlyInattentiveorCombinedType).
Dissimilar ns between Tables II and III were due to comorbidity of ADHD and ODD.
∗p<.05. ∗∗ p<.01.
and child OD (Table III, centre column). Separation of
DBD and non-DBD cases varied in these analyses to cor-
respond to child symptoms. Table II (maternal mood and
IO)shows results from 11 non-ADHDand 19 ADHD chil-
dren and Table III (maternal mood and child OD) shows
results from 14 non-ODD/CD and 16 ODD/CD children.
Innon-ADHDand ADHD children, significant cross-
sectional relations were found between child IO and
maternal anger–hostility and significant inverse relations
were found between child IO and maternal vigour–
activity. A significant cross-sectionalrelationalsoemerged
between child IO and maternal depression–dejection but
only in the non-ADHD group. Quite different results
emerged in cross-sectional relations between child OD
and maternal mood. Interestingly, child OD was associ-
ated with maternal tension–anxiety, but only in ODD/CD
children. No other cross-sectional relations were found
between child OD and maternal mood.
Time-Lagged Relations
Tables II and III show the results of time-lagged
pooled time-series analyses in which the criterion, child
symptoms, alternated from 1 day prior to when maternal
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244 Elgar, Waschbusch, McGrath, Stewart, and Curtis
Table III. Pooled Time Series Analysis of Child OD on the Day Previous, Same Day as, and Day After
Maternal Mood
Previous day Same day Next day
Predictor B(SE)βB(SE)βB(SE)β
Non-ODD ICD (N=14; 250 pooled observations)
R2=.018 (previous day), .026 (same day), .035 (next day)
Maternal
Depression–dejection .32 (.31) .11 .06 (.23) .02 .03 (.23) .01
Vigour–activity .05 (.05) .06 −.06 (.05) .06 .08 (.05) .10
Anger–hostility .18 (.19) .07 .30 (.16) .11 .27 (.15) .11
Tension–anxiety .08 (.19) .08 .24 (.13) .13 .24 (.11) .15∗
Confusion–bewilderment .48 (.19) .18∗.25 (.14) .10 .22 (.15) .10
Fatigue–inertia .01 (.05) .00 .07 (.05) .08 .08 (.06) .08
ODD/CDa(N=16; 373 pooled observations)
R2=.058 (previous day), .144 (same day), .067 (next day)
Maternal
Depression–dejection .18 (.20) .11 .11 (.15) .07 .30 (.19) .19
Vigour–activity −.10 (.10) .15 −.10 (.08) −.14 −.01 (.09) .02
Anger–hostility .17 (.18) .11 .28 (.13) .18 .02 (.14) .01
Tension–anxiety .05 (.18) .04 .45 (.13) .32∗∗ .43 (.14) .30∗∗
Confusion–bewilderment .49 (.17) .31∗∗ .10 (.13) .06 .29 (.14) .19∗
Fatigue–inertia .01 (.08) −.01 .03 (.06) .03 .02 (.06) .02
Note. Controlled for between-subject variance, child’s age and sex, maternal age, education, marital status,
and household income. Time-lagged analyses were based on four recordings per week in order to avoid the
lag extending over a weekend.
aDiagnosis of either Oppositional Defiant Disorder or Conduct Disorder.
∗p<.05. ∗∗ p<.01.
moodwasmeasuredto 1 day subsequenttomaternalmood.
Because pooled time-series analysis assumes equivalent
assessment intervals, 18–21% of the data were censored
in these analyses to prevent time-lags from extending over
a weekend.
ChildIOwassignificantly related to maternalfatigue–
inertiaonthe followingday in both non-ADHDandADHD
groups (Table II, left column). Child IO was also signifi-
cantly related to subsequent maternal anger–hostility, but
only in the non-ADHD group. As shown in Table III (left
column), child OD was related to maternal confusion–
bewilderment on the following day in both non-ODD/CD
and ODD/CD groups. However, child OD was not signif-
icantly related to any other subsequent maternal mood.
Tables II and III (right columns) also show relations
between maternal mood and subsequent child behavior.
In non-ADHD and ADHD children, maternal depression–
dejection, tension–anxiety, and anger–hostility related to
child IO on the following day. Maternal vigour–activity
was inversely related to child IO on the following day but
only in the non-ADHD group. Finally, maternal tension–
anxiety was related to child OD on the following day in
both non-ODD/CD and ODD/CD groups. Children in the
ODD/CD group also showed OD as a consequence of
maternal confusion–bewilderment.
DISCUSSION
The objective of the study was to examine temporal
relations between daily fluctuations in maternal mood and
disruptive child behavior. Temporal relations changed as
a function of mood dimensions in the mother and type of
disruptive child behavior. As expected, fatigue in moth-
ers was related to prior, but not subsequent, child IO, in-
dicating that fatigue occurred as a consequence of child
inattentiveness, impulsiveness, and overactivity. That is,
mothers reported feeling more tired in response to child
overactivity and impulsivity. However, maternal depres-
sion and anxiety were both antecedents to child IO and
maternal anxiety was an antecedent to child OD. Feel-
ings of anger and hostility in mothers were independently
related to previous, concurrent, and subsequent child IO,
possibly reflecting transactional relations between mater-
nal moods and child behaviors. Similarly, confusion in the
mother was independently related to previous and subse-
quent child oppositional defiant behavior.
Theconsequencesof difficultchild behaviors in terms
of maternal functioning were significant and consistently
negative, even with non-DBD children. These influences
are indicative of the frustration and hopelessness that can
be elicited by difficult and annoying child behavior,
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Maternal Mood and Child Behavior 245
irrespective of whether symptoms are severe enough to
meet diagnostic criteria. Mediating mechanisms may in-
clude interpersonal stress (Pelham et al., 1997), feeling in-
adequateasa parent or “maternal efficacy”(Teti& Gelfand,
1991),passivecopingstrategies(Wells-Parker et al., 1990),
or difficulties in family and marital relationships (Kelly,
2000). These findings are consistent with data that has
shown that mothers who feel sad, anxious, or hostile have
more difficulty communicating with and disciplining their
children than mothers who feel contented and are respon-
sive in their interactions with their children (Cunningham
et al., 1988; Turner et al., 2003).
It was also found that state-like fluctuation in ma-
ternal emotional distress (anxiety, depression, and anger
in particular) had short-term consequences for child be-
havior. Unfortunately, without measures of potential me-
diators it remains for further research to determine which
most actively transmit influences between maternal mood
and disruptive child behavior. It was clear that distress in
mothers and children was dynamically interrelated, evi-
denced by independent relations shown between maternal
anger and both prior and subsequent child IO and between
maternal confusion and both prior and subsequent child
OD. As many frustrated mothers well know, living with
a disruptive child is stressful and demoralising at times
(Mash & Johnston, 1990; Teti & Gelfand, 1991). This
study showed that as child behavior became increasingly
disruptive, mothers grew more frustrated, fatigued, and
anxious.
Though it has been suggested that maternal mood
influences only serious forms of child behavioral prob-
lems—an association that may be obscured in community
populations (e.g., Downey & Coyne, 1990), these results
suggest otherwise. In DBD and non-DBD groups, child
problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and conduct were
significantly influenced by mothers’ feelings of depres-
sion, anxiety, and anger. As well, the mutual influences
shown here are inconsistent with an assumption of equiv-
alent temporal relations across dimensions of maternal
mood and disruptive child behavior. Consideration for dis-
tinctmoodstates in mothersmayidentify potential areas of
intervention. For example, helping mothers feel less sad,
worried, and angry, may result in a 3.4–10.5% reduction
in child hyperactivity on the following day. Such results
couldnot have been shown with generalized(and therefore
confounded) screening instruments of depression such as
the CES-D.
An important advantage of the pooled time-series de-
sign was its capacity to test relations in time-ordered data
while controlling for autocorrelation that would plague
most other analyses. Another advantage was that the pos-
sibility of spurious time-lagged relations was diminished
by exploiting hundreds of observations over an extended
period of time. Pooled time-series analysis controlled his-
torical effects and yielded high statistical power from a
small sample. But although internal validity of the design
was strong, the generalizability of these findings was still
limited by the small size and unique features of the sam-
ple. Participants were self-selected and it is worth noting
that families who seek help are likely to be importantly
different from families with similar problems who do not
seek help.
Anothercaveatis the possibilitythat distressedmoth-
ers were more likely than nondistressed mothers to ex-
aggerate the severity of their children’s symptoms. This
possibility is consistent with cognitive theories of depres-
sion, but the evidence is mixed. In a systematic review,
Richters (1992) concluded that studies in which mater-
nal reports of child behavior were compared with behav-
ioral observations and teacher reports did not consistently
show that distressed mothers were any less accurate in as-
sessing child behavior than nondistressed mothers. Stud-
ies have shown that maternal mood does not affect the
reliability or accuracy of their assessments of child psy-
chopathology and that distressed mothers are not neces-
sarily biased to report child problem behaviors that have
not occurred (Faraone, Biederman, & Milberger, 1995;
Querido, Eyberg, & Boggs, 2001). However, reliance on a
single source of information was a limitation of the study.
The possibility remains that sources of method variance
(e.g., social desirability) could have inflated associations
between maternal mood and child behavioral problems.
Replication of these findings using additional sources of
data would be helpful in testing the accuracy of mothers’
daily reports and, given the low return rates, whether the
mothers were more or less likely to complete assessments
on days when their mood was low or their child’s behavior
was especially disruptive.
Maternal mood and disruptive child behavior are in-
trinsically intertwined and this study demonstrated their
mutual influences and temporal relations over a very short
and relevant time frame. Further study is needed of me-
diating mechanisms in day-to-day relations in maternal
and child functioning and experimental data are needed
to help determine how psychosocial interventions that
are intended to treat either maternal depression or child
DBDs indirectly change functioning in the other over re-
peated follow-up. Clinically, it is recognised that dyadic
assessment and treatment for parents and children may
interrupt transmission of illness between generations
(Rutter,1990).When parents facilitatetreatmentsfor child
DBD, it is likely that their emotions and cognitions will
influence the success of these interventions (Hoza et al.,
2000)—especially when treatment is self-administered
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246 Elgar, Waschbusch, McGrath, Stewart, and Curtis
with limited contact with a therapist (Elgar & McGrath,
2003). As well, inclusion of children in psychotherapy
for maternal depression may show lasting benefits to both
mothers and children (Cicchetti, Rogosch, & Toth, 2000).
Mutual influences such as these can be demonstrated over
very short time parameters.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Supported by doctoral fellowships from the Hospital
for Sick Children Foundation and Nova Scotia Health Re-
search Foundation awarded to the first author, grants from
the Children’s Miracle Network/Canadian Psychiatric Re-
search Foundation, IWK Foundation, Nova Scotia Health
Research Foundation, and Social Sciences and Humani-
ties Research Council of Canada awarded to the second
author, and a research grant from the Canadian Institutes
for Health Research awarded to the third author. We also
thank the STP staff for their assistance in recruitment and
data collection. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Dan
Offord and three blind reviewers for their comments on
earlier drafts of this paper.
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