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Psychophysiology of Aggression, Psychopathy, and Conduct Problems:
A Meta-Analysis
Michael F. Lorber
State University of New York at Stony Brook
A meta-analysis of 95 studies was conducted to investigate the relations of heart rate (HR) and
electrodermal activity (EDA) with aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems. Analyses revealed a
complex constellation of interactive effects, with a failure in some cases of autonomic patterns to
generalize across antisocial spectrum behavior constructs. Low resting EDA and low task EDA were
associated with psychopathy/sociopathy and conduct problems. However, EDA reactivity was positively
associated with aggression and negatively associated with psychopathy/sociopathy. Low resting HR and
high HR reactivity were associated with aggression and conduct problems. Physiology–behavior rela-
tions varied with age and stimulus valence in several cases. Empirical and clinical implications are
discussed.
The physiological correlates of antisocial spectrum behavior—
including aggression, psychopathy, conduct problems, and antisocial
personality characteristics—have been the subject of a good deal of
theoretical and empirical attention over the past 45 years (see Scarpa
& Raine, 1997). Understanding possible links between autonomic
physiology and antisocial spectrum behavior may hold special prom-
ise for advancing our understanding of these highly costly behavior
patterns. Autonomic measures move beyond self-reports of psycho-
logical functioning and may be less prone to bias and measure-related
error. They may also be more sensitive indexes of the brain processes
that are ultimately thought to be responsible for the behavior (e.g.,
Fowles, 1980, 1988). Convincingly demonstrating links between an-
tisocial spectrum behavior and autonomic physiology might elucidate
relevant mechanisms and individual differences and potentially lead
to treatment innovations. This is especially important with regard to
antisocial spectrum behavior, because of its enormous cost to society
(e.g., Moffitt, Caspi, Harrington, & Milne, 2002) and its relative
resistance to treatment in many of its forms (e.g., Offord & Bennet,
1994; Richards, Casey, & Lucente, 2003), with the possible exception
of conduct problems in young children (e.g., Brestan & Eyberg,
1998).
Many different theories of antisocial spectrum behavior that in-
volve autonomic psychophysiology have been proposed (Berkowitz,
1994; Eysenck & Gudjonsson, 1989; Fowles, 1980, 1988; Gray,
1987; Hare, 1978a; Quay, 1965; Raine, 1993, 1997; Zillmann, 1994;
Zuckerman & Como, 1983), some with conflicting predictions (e.g.,
Quay, 1965, and Zillmann, 1994). Furthermore, a wide range of
experimental methods and populations have been employed and stud-
ied, respectively. Clear interpretation of the literature has proved
elusive in the face of a mixed pattern of results. In an attempt to clarify
these issues, the present meta-analytic review was designed to quan-
tify the aggregate associations of heart rate (HR) and electrodermal
activity (EDA) with aggression, psychopathy, conduct problems, and
antisocial personality characteristics and to investigate factors that
moderate these relations.
HR and EDA are variables of central interest in many theories
of physiology and antisocial spectrum behavior and have histori-
cally been the most popular measures of psychophysiological
response. Thus, the present analysis was limited to these two
measures. The heart is subject to influence from the sympathetic
(SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) branches of the autonomic
nervous system, and it is subject to neuroendocrine influences as
well. Chronotropic (i.e., rate-related) cardiac effects are controlled
primarily by the PNS, whereas inotropic effects such as contractile
force and stroke volume are controlled primarily by the SNS. In
contrast, EDA is under exclusive control of the SNS (Blascovich
& Kelsey, 1990; Fowles, 1986). From a perspective dating back to
the seminal work of James and Cannon, HR and EDA are thought
to be tied to emotional responses, with increases reflecting general
emotional arousal, specific emotions, or both (reviewed in Lang,
1994). HR and EDA may also reflect the influence of motivational
systems that control behavior in response to internal and external
cues (e.g., Fowles, 1988; Gray, 1987).
The present meta-analysis focused on three classes of HR and
EDA measures: resting, task, and reactivity. Resting measures
reflect the assessment of autonomic activity in the absence of any
obvious external stimuli. HR and EDA in response to experimental
stimuli are frequently measured in raw form during such presen-
tations (task physiology) or expressed as a change from resting,
baseline, or prestimulus levels (physiological reactivity).
Problems With Interpretation of the Literature
Because of frequent nonreplications and theories that make
competing predictions, the literature on the psychophysiology of
antisocial spectrum behavior is often confusing and seemingly
contradictory. The major thesis of this meta-analytic review is that
these ambiguities are caused in part by two sources: heterogeneity
I would like to thank Theodore Beauchaine, K. Daniel O’Leary, Susan
G. O’Leary, Amy Smith Slep, and Paul Wortman for their helpful com-
ments on earlier versions of this article and Tamara Del Vecchio for her
coding assistance.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michael
F. Lorber, Department of Psychology, State University of New York,
Stony Brook, NY 11794-2500. E-mail: michael.lorber@stonybrook.edu
Psychological Bulletin Copyright 2004 by the American Psychological Association
2004, Vol. 130, No. 4, 531–552 0033-2909/04/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.531
531
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