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Mortality due to Fox Predation in Free-range Poultry Flocks in Britain
Abstract
Information derived from questionnaires sent to producers of free-range eggs, chickens, turkeys and geese was used to assess the extent of fox predation in terms of the density of the fox population and farm management factors. The mean reported bird mortality was less than 2 per cent for all the producers, but there were marked differences between them. Egg producers reported losing many more birds to foxes than other types of producer (up to 1000 birds in a laying cycle). On average, egg and goose producers lost the highest proportions of their total flocks (0.5 per cent). The extent of predation was not associated either with large-scale estimations of the density of the fox population or with variations in the farms' habitat. Chicken predation was not linked to differences in types of housing or fencing. However, there was a positive association between losses due to other causes and chicken predation. The results suggest that changes in farm management would be the most cost-effective means of reducing fox predation, rather than greater fox control.
... However, range use varies widely between individual birds of brown genotypes (Campbell et al. 2016b;Larsen et al. 2017b), suggesting that not all birds find outdoor access rewarding. Range access also presents risks in terms of predation and disease transmission from wild birds (Moberly et al. 2004;Scott et al. 2018a). In terms of range access expanding the behavioural repertoire, brown strains of hen will show the same types of behaviour inside the laying house as they will out on the range, although the frequency of these behaviours may change with location (Thuy Diep et al. 2018). ...
... Surviving a predator attack may also incur significant amounts of fear and stress for hens, and an experimental free-range flock in Australia experienced an increase in non-predator related mortalities and a 15% decrease in egg production following two fox attacks (Miao et al. 2006). Smothering may also occur as a result of hens panicking in response to a predator (Moberly et al. 2004). ...
... Management practices that can reduce the risk of predation include installing fox-proof or electric fences, and the use of guardian animals such as alpacas or Maremma dogs (Ruhnke 2015;Singh et al. 2017). In a survey of fox predation on British egg farms, farm management practices were found to be the most important predictor of predation (Moberly et al. 2004). Foxes appeared to target specific farms and predation rates were not related to density of the local fox population, the surrounding habitat type or the type of hen housing used (Moberly et al. 2004). ...
The present review examines the impact of management and husbandry decisions on the welfare of laying hens in Australia. The literature on many of these aspects is lacking for the Australian egg industry, and, indeed, for the egg industry in general. Management decisions that can affect hen welfare relate to the initial farm design, husbandry routines, and staff selection and training. As modern laying houses represent a considerable financial investment, the decisions made during the design phase are likely to affect both the hens and stockpeople for substantial periods. Hens in cage systems may benefit from fewer tiers and greater space allowances. In non-cage systems, the brown genotypes used in the Australian egg industry may benefit from lower structures that accommodate their heavier and less agile bodies. Keel fractures can be reduced by improving the skeletal health and spatial cognition of laying hens during the rearing period, in addition to minimising the distances they need to jump when navigating aviary structures. The addition of a wintergarden to fixed free-range systems appears to be beneficial. Housing hens in mobile units on free-range farms may challenge their welfare, particularly in relation to heat stress. There is also room for improvement in biosecurity practices and health monitoring of hens, as these appear to be lacking at some farms. The current strains of hen used in free-range systems may not be best suited to these conditions, on the basis of their body condition and flock uniformity. Feed quality may also need to be monitored for quality assurance and optimal hen nutrition. Hen welfare during depopulation can be improved through staff training and by reducing staff fatigue. Euthanising spent hens on farm offers welfare benefits over transporting spent hens to an abattoir. Both hen welfare and working conditions for stock people should be considered when designing laying houses to provide suitable conditions for both hens and stockpeople. This will help improve the job satisfaction of stockpeople, which may translate into better care for the hens and may aid in retaining quality staff. Stockpeople must be recognised as vital contributors to hen welfare in the egg industry, and it is important for the egg industry to continue to attract, train and retain skilled stockpeople to ensure that they enjoy their job and are motivated to apply best-practice care for their flocks. Promoting the animal-care aspect of stockmanship in combination with a supportive managerial environment with optimal working conditions may increase the attractiveness of the egg industry as a place to work.
... A similar situation applies to the freerange poultry in other countries. Predation was estimated to be the cause of death for 0.5% (up to 12%) of laying hens and geese in the United Kingdom [3], 6.3% (up to 34%) of broilers in France [4], 6.7% of laying hens in Switzerland [5] cited in [6], up to 14.2% of laying hens in Denmark [7] and 9.5% (up to 23.5%) of laying hens in Germany [8] cited in [6]. ...
... Table 1 shows some of the farm characteristics. 2 Estimation based on Google Maps satellite images and photographs made in the free-range areas. 3 Silver hens are a reverse-cross white layer breed; they have a weight comparable to brown hens, have mostly white and a few brown feathers and lay brown eggs [13]. Table 2 shows date and times of the observations. ...
... None of the hens attacked in the 16 described attacks were visibly ill, impaired, weakened or already dead. In other words: birds of prey attacked hens that were considered to be healthy (attacks [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Sometimes, the initial response of hens was to drop down (attacks 4-8, 10), but most hens tried to escape or fought back (attacks 4-7, 10). ...
On organic and free-range poultry farms, a free-range is provided for animal welfare reasons. However, farmers report sightings of birds of prey and sometimes foxes or other predators within the free-range areas. In addition to seeing actual attacks, they also find chicken carcasses in the free-range, the deaths of which they attribute to predators. In addition, and in contrast to indoor poultry farmers, organic/free-range farmers report hundreds of chickens missing, per flock, when comparing the slaughterhouse arrival numbers with farm mortality records. The farmers assume these missing animals are hens that vanished from the free-range area and that predation is the major cause for their disappearance. If so, predation may impact farm yields. This study investigated whether birds of prey kill chickens on organic/free-range egg production farms and the impact, in terms of numbers of chickens and yield losses. This study was to provide qualitative and quantitative information in support of chicken mortality caused by birds of prey. Data were collected through field observations on organic/free-range farms (n = 11) and an online survey among organic/free-range farmers. Seventy-nine field observations on 11 farms resulted in 141 sightings of birds of prey, mostly common buzzards (Buteo buteo) and northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis). Forty-four dead hens were found, 36 of them were very likely killed by either birds of prey or foxes. Sixteen attacks on hens by goshawk or buzzard were seen. There were no reasons to assume the attacked hens were in a poor condition prior to the attack. From responses to the online survey (n = 27 farms experiencing predation), it was estimated that on average 3.7% of hens of organic/free-range flocks were killed by predators, while total mortality was 12.2%. After calculating missed yield per killed hen, it was roughly estimated that per flock, predation caused yield losses of EUR 5700 on an average organic farm (size 12,700 hens) and EUR 6700 on an average free-range farm (size 25,000 hens).
... Finally, hens' use of the range area has implications beyond freedom of behavioural expression. For example, hens staying close to the pop holes can lead to a build-up in parasitic faecal egg counts (Heckendorn et al., 2009), muddied areas with high traffic can track dirt inside and sparsely distributed hens on the outer range may be more vulnerable to predation (Moberly et al., 2004). ...
... Predation is a risk that is specific to free-range housing systems and is a relatively frequently reported cause of mortality (Moberly et al., 2004;Hegelund et al., 2006;Singh et al., 2015;Bestman and Wagenaar, 2014;Bestman and Ouwejan, 2016), although actual losses from predation can vary (e.g. average of 2% flock loss: Moberly et al., 2004; range of 0-14.2% flock loss: Hegelund et al., 2006; up to 487 birds 'missing' from a single flock: Bestman and Ouwejan, 2016). ...
... Predation is a risk that is specific to free-range housing systems and is a relatively frequently reported cause of mortality (Moberly et al., 2004;Hegelund et al., 2006;Singh et al., 2015;Bestman and Wagenaar, 2014;Bestman and Ouwejan, 2016), although actual losses from predation can vary (e.g. average of 2% flock loss: Moberly et al., 2004; range of 0-14.2% flock loss: Hegelund et al., 2006; up to 487 birds 'missing' from a single flock: Bestman and Ouwejan, 2016). Birds of prey and/or foxes are the most commonly documented threats (Moberly et al., 2004;Bestman and Wagenaar, 2014;Bestman and Ouwejan, 2016), where hens in low densities in the outer parts of the range may be at higher risks of being caught. ...
Free-range laying hen production systems involve providing flocks of hens with the chance to use minimally controlled outdoor areas, rather than keeping them in intensive, environmentally controlled, indoor housing. Such systems are considered more natural and ethical. However, highly productive modern genotypes, selected for cage production, are harder to manage in large flocks and outdoor environments. To sustainably improve free-range housing and management, we must understand how hens behave in these systems, the welfare challenges they face and what modifications will, in practice, adequately address hens’ needs. This chapter reviews the following areas of significance and concern: individual differences in range use, behavioural expression on the range, correlations between ranging and health variables, parasite loads, adequate nutrition, grass impaction, feather pecking and cannibalism.
... From questionnaire surveys carried out in Switzerland, average losses of 6.7 birds per year per farm have been reported, which is about 0.22% of the average number of hens per farm, but this number also includes indoor systems ( Häne et al., 2000). Losses in the United Kingdom have been reported to amount to 1.97% or 170 birds per farm over an average production period of 54 weeks (Moberly et al., 2004). Losses exceeding 20 birds per production period on 9% of the Swiss farms have been reported by Häne et al. (2000) and of 10 birds per year on 73% of the UK farms by Moberly et al. (2004). ...
... Losses in the United Kingdom have been reported to amount to 1.97% or 170 birds per farm over an average production period of 54 weeks (Moberly et al., 2004). Losses exceeding 20 birds per production period on 9% of the Swiss farms have been reported by Häne et al. (2000) and of 10 birds per year on 73% of the UK farms by Moberly et al. (2004). From differences between production and slaughter records on six German free-range farms, Gayer et al. (2004) calculated that predation losses within one laying period ranged from 0.8% to 12.5% (96 to 445 hens) per farm. ...
... No information is available on the question of whether an improved cover of the run actually affects the extent of predation losses. Ground predators, on the other hand, can be controlled relatively easily by good fencing, including an electric fence, and nightly indoor housing ( Bassler et al., 2000;Hörning et al., 2002;Bestman & Fürmetz, 2004), although Moberly et al. (2004) report that in their survey some egg producers regarded fences as ineffective. ...
This review discusses animal welfare effects of providing an outdoor run to laying hens. Compared with barn systems, the provision of an outdoor run leads to higher space allowances, a higher number and diversity of behavioural and physiological stimuli, and freedom to change between different environments with for instance different climatic conditions. Evidence is presented that these factors may have positive welfare effects for the hens, although, due to the complex interaction with other factors, this is not necessarily always the case. Outdoor runs may, at the same time, impose increased welfare risks associated with an increased contact with infectious agents, greater difficulties to maintain good hygienic standards, possibly imbalanced diets and predation threats. Measures to limit these welfare risks and to take full advantage of the potentials of outdoor runs include restriction of group size, keeping cockerels with the hens, hygienic measures including rotation of runs, providing well-dispersed covers, as well as appropriate pullet rearing and breeding strategies. Fully mobile housing systems provide a promising integrated approach to concurrently implement a number of effective measures. However, it is concluded that too little research and not enough resources went into solving the problems presently besetting free-range systems and that it, therefore, would be premature to make a final judgement now on welfare effects of outdoor systems in comparison with pure indoor systems.
... Stokholm et al. (2010) reported mortality due to predation ranged from 0 to 3.7% in Danish organic flocks while indoor flocks experienced no mortality from predators. Losses due to predation in the United Kingdom and Switzerland amounted to 1.97 (Moberly et al. 2004) and 1.4% (Kaufmann-Bart and Hoop, 2009), respectively. Bestman and Wagenaar in 2014 noted an average mortality of 7.8% (all causes) at 60 wk in Dutch organic flocks and found that 40% of the flocks did have mortality due to predation. ...
... Again, feather pecking, and cannibalism can be a significant problem in this system and present an extremely distressful situation for the chickens involved. Predators are essentially only a free-range problem and can exact a significant toll on the flock (Moberly et al., 2004;Stokholm et al., 2010). Besides the physical loss of productive animals, each predator attack will not only be distressful for the individual hen involved but for the flock at large, resulting in "panic smothers" where hens pile up, and ultimately suffocate, to escape from the threat (Bright and Johnson, 2011). ...
Mandating free range husbandry as a requirement for organic egg designation remains a prevailing sentiment within a segment of the organic community. The proponents maintain that such management practice ensures high hen welfare and enhanced wholesomeness of the egg. However, evidence from the field, especially in the European Union (EU), contradicts these assumptions. In many cases, hens allowed outdoor access were more subject to increased injury from predators and from flock mates, disease was more prevalent and generally more severe, and, as a result, higher mortality was routinely observed in these individuals compared with those raised indoors. The safety of eggs from free range hens is also questionable. Outdoor access compromises biosecurity efforts to curtail interaction of hens with rodents and wild birds, increasing the risk of flock Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis infection and consequent production of Salmonella-contaminated eggs. Even more serious, soil contaminated with dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, carcinogenic industrial by-products widespread in the environment, can be ingested by hens foraging outdoors. These compounds will subsequently be deposited into the egg yolks, many times at high levels, creating a serious food safety issue for the consuming public. Such findings provide evidence that hens exposed to a free-range environment may exhibit neither an enhanced welfare nor produce the safe wholesome egg that consumers expect.
... When looking at other agricultural losses reported by farmers, Moberly et al. (2002Moberly et al. ( , 2004b found that free-range chicken and turkey producers generally reported low losses to foxes (average losses of 0% and 0.04% of flocks respectively), with losses being higher overall amongst goose and egg producers (0.5%, on average); this difference was in part due to the time that the birds were on the farm. On average, 0.3% of piglets born outdoors were reported killed by foxes, with losses of up to 5%. ...
... Higher losses to foxes were often associated with higher stock losses generally, suggesting that losses to foxes may have been higher on farms with lower standards of husbandry generally (e.g. Moberly et al. 2004b). ...
... There is some mammals, including endangered species, directly o r evidence that foxes have reduced their fear of humans, indirectly via habitat change456. Moreover, throughout started to use artificial shelters and included garbage and Europe, the red fox poses a range of other potential poultry in their diet [2, 3, 8, 11, 12]. Therefore we described management problems, including the transmission o f basic parameters of red fox ecology in an extensively used diseases, such as rabies and echinococcosis and farmland and we ask particular question: how important is predation on livestock [2, 7, 8]. ...
... Moreover, throughout started to use artificial shelters and included garbage and Europe, the red fox poses a range of other potential poultry in their diet [2, 3, 8, 11, 12]. Therefore we described management problems, including the transmission o f basic parameters of red fox ecology in an extensively used diseases, such as rabies and echinococcosis and farmland and we ask particular question: how important is predation on livestock [2, 7, 8]. However, to date the poultry as a food source to foxes living in extensive majority of studies on red fox were carried out in habitats farmland and does the use of poultry in the diet reduce intensively modified by man, such as, urban areas and the predation pressure on wild birds living in this intensive farmland [for review see: 1, 2, 9, 10]. ...
Studies on red fox Vulpes vulpes biology, including habitat and food preferences have been very popular during recent decades. However, the majority of them were mainly carried out mainly in highly human-modified habitats. In this paper we present data on the diet of the red fox, with special attention to domestic poultry and on den site selection in extensive farmland in Poland. During the years 2006-2008, 632 scats were collected and 82 dens were recorded. 58.5% of dens were situated in under cover (40 in forest, 8 in scrub) and the rest in open areas, such as arable fields and pasture. Fox den entrances occurred significantly more often in N, NE and W directions. Scat analyses revealed a high biomass of rodents (44.6%) and birds (35.0%-mainly poultry). Fox adaptation to use of poultry makes them partially more independent from natural resources. We found that importance of poultry in the red fox diet decreased significantly with distance to the nearest farm buildings.
... Livestock losses tend to be highly variable between individual properties and on the same property over time (Robel et al., 1981;Nass, Lynch & Theade, 1984;Cozza et al., 1996;Heydon & Reynolds, 2000a;Mech et al., 2000;Mazzolli, Graipel & Dunstone, 2002;Moberly et al., 2003;Moberly, White & Harris, 2004b;Treves et al., 2004), suggesting that differences in husbandry and predator management practices, wild and domestic prey density, predator density, and habitat and predator behaviour may significantly affect levels of damage. Livestock characteristics may also affect predation risk. ...
... Husbandry practices known to increase losses include reduced proximity to humans and human activity (Ciucci & Boitani, 1998;Mech et al., 2000;Mazzolli et al., 2002;Ogada et al., 2003; and increased livestock density (Landa et al., 1999;Mech et al., 2000;Moberly et al., 2003), with overstocking possibly leading to a decline in livestock condition. In some circumstances, losses to predators and to other causes have been shown to be highly associated (Moberly et al., 2004b), suggesting that husbandry practices can be particularly important in influencing mortality (but see Graham, Beckerman & Thirgood, 2005). However, although husbandry practices can affect the magnitude of losses on individual properties, these may also be linked to the relative vulnerability of that property within the wider landscape. ...
ABSTRACT • The production of food for human consumption has led to an historical and global conflict with terrestrial carnivores, which in turn has resulted in the extinction or extirpation of many species, although some have benefited. At present, carnivores affect food production by: (i) killing human producers; killing and/or eating (ii) fish/shellfish; (iii) game/wildfowl; (iv) livestock; (v) damaging crops; (vi) transmitting diseases; and (vii) through trophic interactions with other species in agricultural landscapes. Conversely, carnivores can themselves be a source of dietary protein (bushmeat). • Globally, the major areas of conflict are predation on livestock and the transmission of rabies. At a broad scale, livestock predation is a customary problem where predators are present and has been quantified for a broad range of carnivore species, although the veracity of these estimates is equivocal. Typically, but not always, losses are small relative to the numbers held, but can be a significant proportion of total livestock mortality. Losses experienced by producers are often highly variable, indicating that factors such as husbandry practices and predator behaviour may significantly affect the relative vulnerability of properties in the wider landscape. Within livestock herds, juvenile animals are particularly vulnerable. • Proactive and reactive culling are widely practised as a means to limit predation on livestock and game. Historic changes in species' distributions and abundance illustrate that culling programmes can be very effective at reducing predator density, although such substantive impacts are generally considered undesirable for native predators. However, despite their prevalence, the effectiveness, efficiency and the benefit:cost ratio of culling programmes have been poorly studied. • A wide range of non-lethal methods to limit predation has been studied. However, many of these have their practical limitations and are unlikely to be widely applicable. • Lethal approaches are likely to dominate the management of terrestrial carnivores for the foreseeable future, but animal welfare considerations are increasingly likely to influence management strategies. The adoption of non-lethal approaches will depend upon proof of their effectiveness and the willingness of stakeholders to implement them, and, in some cases, appropriate licensing and legislation. • Overall, it is apparent that we still understand relatively little about the importance of factors affecting predation on livestock and how to manage this conflict effectively. We consider the following avenues of research to be essential: (i) quantified assessments of the loss of viable livestock; (ii) landscape-level studies of contiguous properties to quantify losses associated with variables such as different husbandry practices; (iii) replicated experimental manipulations to identify the relative benefit of particular management practices, incorporating (iv) techniques to identify individual predators killing stock; and (v) economic analyses of different management approaches to quantify optimal production strategies.
... Almost as many Sonali birds were lost to predation as to clinical disease. As far as we know, this study seems to be the first to unveil the roles of predators in killing poultry raised in the semi-scavenging system in Bangladesh; however, there are reports in other parts of the world on predation in free-range poultry flocks (Baker and Macdonald, 2000;Heydon and Reynolds, 2000;Kusina et al., 2001;Moberly et al., 2004). Foxes are the main predators of free-range poultry flocks in Britain (Kruuk, 1972;Moberly et al., 2004;White et al., 2000). ...
... As far as we know, this study seems to be the first to unveil the roles of predators in killing poultry raised in the semi-scavenging system in Bangladesh; however, there are reports in other parts of the world on predation in free-range poultry flocks (Baker and Macdonald, 2000;Heydon and Reynolds, 2000;Kusina et al., 2001;Moberly et al., 2004). Foxes are the main predators of free-range poultry flocks in Britain (Kruuk, 1972;Moberly et al., 2004;White et al., 2000). In Zimbabwe, among the predators, dogs, baboons and some nocturnal feral cats were important killers of village chickens (Kusina et al., 2001). ...
In a 1-year-long prospective longitudinal study, we determined the causes of loss of 'Sonali' (male symbol Rhode Island Red x female symbol Fayoumi) chickens at key-rearers' households of the smallholder livestock development project-2 (SLDP-2) area in Bangladesh. A key rearer is a smallholder of chickens in the 'village poultry-production chain' (undertaken by SLDP-2 under the financial assistance of the DANIDA) who rears at least five Sonali and some 'Deshi' (non-descriptive and indigenous) chickens in their homesteads based on semi-scavenging system. The aim of this program is to ameliorate poverty, especially among women. Two co-ordination centers (set at the Potuakhali and Noakhali districts) supervised the development activities. We selected two upazilas (lower administration units) randomly from each of the two districts and in every selected upazila, we selected at random 125 key-rearer households. Incidence rates of loss of Sonali chickens from disease, predation, selling and slaughtering were 0.025, 0.023, 0.081 and 0.039 per bird-month at risk, respectively. The major predators of Sonali chickens in the study area were foxes, a kind of wild cat (Felis chaus), mongooses and human thieves. Colibacillosis (both single and mixed infections) had a contributory role in the death of 28% of dead Sonali birds collected for diagnosis; salmonellosis, Newcastle disease and internal parasites contributed to the next highest (14, 11and 10%) proportional mortalities.
... During this time, they may experience a range of social stressors including feather pecking (55% of UK flocks; Rodenburg et al. 2013), injurious behaviour (Krause et al. 2011), resource competition (Hunniford et al. 2014) and piling (Gray et al. 2020). In addition, environmental stressors, including heat stress (above 30°C; Mignon-Grasteau et al. 2015), predator exposure (Moberly et al. 2004), and the routine disturbances of an industrial farm context, such as stockperson disturbances, alterations to lighting and heating schedules, loud noise and litter changes. Sudden or threatening events trigger a cascade of physiological changes that enable animals to react quickly and cope with immediate challenges. ...
Finding effective ways to monitor laying hen welfare is challenging as UK flock sizes can reach 16,000 birds. Eggs provide potential for welfare monitoring, as they are a daily output with previous evidence of links to stress. We explored the associations between stressors and eggs using two complementary studies. In Study 1, hens experienced social or heat stressors and eggs were scored daily for defects in shell characteristics. All eggs were scored on a three-point scale: 1 (no defect); 2 (minor defects); or 3 (unsuitable for whole egg sale in the UK). Texture defects were higher after stress treatments and were explored further as a promising proxy measure of welfare. In Study 2, eggshell texture from five commercial flocks was scored before versus at the onset of an avian influenza-enforced indoor housing, and scores were correlated with industry data for egg quality. Eggs were more likely to have texture defects after the enforced indoor housing, and manually scored texture correlated significantly with shell strength and shell colour during automated grading. Shell strength was weaker immediately after the enforced indoor housing and eggs were darker. We suggest that eggshell texture could be a useful addition to assessing changes or stresses in a hen’s environment for both research and commercial purposes, but further validation is needed to understand the generalisability of these results to other stressors. Additionally, data already collected in factories, such as shell strength and colour, may provide information on stress and could be valorised for understanding hen welfare.
... This was due a lack of accurate numbers of foxes killing livestock, which might be over-estimated by farmers, and because the stomach contents of foxes indicate that foxes also eat the carcasses of livestock that died of other causes. This makes it difficult to determine how many domestic animals are actually killed by foxes [14]. Moreover, insufficient information on the number of foxes specifically killed due to their predation on livestock makes a utilitarian calculation difficult. ...
Control methods are applied worldwide to reduce predation on livestock by European red foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Lethal methods can inflict suffering; however, moral debate about their use is lacking. Non-lethal methods can also inflict suffering and can unintentionally lead to death, and yet both the welfare consequences and ethical perspectives regarding their use are rarely discussed. The aim of this study was to investigate the animal welfare consequences, the level of humaneness, the ethical considerations and the moral implications of the global use of fox control methods according to Tom Regan’s animal rights view and Peter Singer’s utilitarian view. According to Regan, foxes ought not to be controlled by either lethal or potentially harmful non-lethal methods because this violates the right of foxes not to be harmed or killed. According to Singer, if an action maximises happiness or the satisfaction of preferences over unhappiness or suffering, then the action is justified. Therefore, if and only if the use of fox control methods can prevent suffering and death in livestock in a manner that outweighs comparable suffering and death in foxes is one morally obligated to use them. It is clear that lethal fox control methods and some non-lethal methods are inhumane.
... Insufficient fencing, e.g. no underground fence that can prevent foxes from digging under the fence (Moberly et al., 2004), and insufficient shelters (either artificial or vegetation) where the birds can seek protection (Dal Bosco et al., 2014) are major hazards. Inappropriate outdoor protection including vegetation as well as underdimensioned popholes especially for large flocks will increase the predation risk. ...
This Scientific Opinion considers the welfare of domestic fowl (Gallus gallus) related to the production of meat (broilers) and includes the keeping of day-old chicks, broiler breeders, and broiler chickens. Currently used husbandry systems in the EU are described. Overall, 19 highly relevant welfare consequences (WCs) were identified based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence: 'bone lesions', 'cold stress', 'gastro-enteric disorders', 'group stress', 'handling stress', 'heat stress', 'isolation stress', 'inability to perform comfort behaviour', 'inability to perform exploratory or foraging behaviour', 'inability to avoid unwanted sexual behaviour', 'locomotory disorders', 'prolonged hunger', 'prolonged thirst', 'predation stress', 'restriction of movement', 'resting problems', 'sensory under- and overstimulation', 'soft tissue and integument damage' and 'umbilical disorders'. These WCs and their animal-based measures (ABMs) that can identify them are described in detail. A variety of hazards related to the different husbandry systems were identified as well as ABMs for assessing the different WCs. Measures to prevent or correct the hazards and/or mitigate each of the WCs are listed. Recommendations are provided on quantitative or qualitative criteria to answer specific questions on the welfare of broilers and related to genetic selection, temperature, feed and water restriction, use of cages, light, air quality and mutilations in breeders such as beak trimming, de-toeing and comb dubbing. In addition, minimal requirements (e.g. stocking density, group size, nests, provision of litter, perches and platforms, drinkers and feeders, of covered veranda and outdoor range) for an enclosure for keeping broiler chickens (fast-growing, slower-growing and broiler breeders) are recommended. Finally, 'total mortality', 'wounds', 'carcass condemnation' and 'footpad dermatitis' are proposed as indicators for monitoring at slaughter the welfare of broilers on-farm.
... Increasing numbers of layer chickens kept outdoors has meant a larger number of hens can be vulnerable to predators (e.g., Moberly et al., 2004;Knierim, 2006;Bestman and Bikker-Ouwejan, 2020), with predation being the primary threat recorded across 41 Australian free-range flocks (Singh et al., 2017). Electrified fencing is effective in keeping chickens in as well as predators out, while netting roofing offers additional protection against raptors, which can cause substantial losses (Bestman and Bikker-Ouwejan, 2020). ...
Growth in the free-range and pastured egg industries has increased globally, necessitating improvements in predator control. Some egg producers are turning to the use of livestock guardian dogs (LGD; Canis familiaris) to protect hens from predation. We worked on a property where pastured layer hens were protected by two Maremma LGD that were released from their chicken enclosure for 2–3 nights a week. GPS tracking showed that the dogs were more strongly bonded to people than the chickens, spending most of their time at night (96.1% of location data) close to the farmhouse and only 0.09% near their chicken paddock. Despite this lack of attendance, we found no change in the paddock space use by chickens with or without the dogs present (p=0.999). Furthermore, camera trapping revealed 40 red fox (Vulpes vulpes) events over the 46-day monitoring period, with less fox activity on nights when the LGDs were allowed to roam the property and motion-activated spotlights were also deployed (P=0.048). An online survey of 59 poultry producers found strong belief in the effectiveness of LGDs, although half the respondents (52%) indicated that they were still experiencing predation issues. There was no association with the reported degree of human bonding of their LGDs, but respondents were more likely to report current issues with predators if they owned 100 or more chickens (P=0.031). The present case study as well as the farmer survey have identified that LGDs can be strongly bonded to people. Although there was no evidence of subsequently increased risk of predation, bonding with people could draw LGDs away from the animals they should be defending, with predation risk for poultry likely to depend on how far away LGDs move from their livestock.
... At the same time, reduced stocking density reduces feather pecking and aggression [106]. In addition, considering that the access to outdoor areas for laying hens may increase the risk of predation [107], farmers usually set up fences and henhouses to prevent the invasion of predators [108,109]. On the basis of the Five Freedoms [45], we assess the welfare status of understory laying hen management systems with reference to the behavioural needs and preferences of laying hens and the standards of free-range systems and organic farming in the European Union (highest animal welfare standards in the world [48]), the United Kingdom, Australia and other countries or regions [110][111][112]: first, food and water, and whether the feed is adequate and organic; second, the perch of laying hens, which includes the form of the henhouse, furniture, and indoor stocking density; third, whether drugs and antibiotics are used [113]; fourth, whether stress and fear damage can be avoided or reduced; studies have shown that more space and freedom of movement can reduce stress and fear in laying hens [56]; in addition, the presence of roosters can reduce the fear of laying hens [114]; fifth, whether the laying hens can express normal behaviour; this is mainly reflected in the degree to which the behavioural needs of the laying hens are met. ...
The welfare of laying hens in cage systems is of increasing concern. Represented by the European Union’s ‘End the Cage Age’ initiative, more and more countries have advocated cage-free farming. China, an important country for poultry farming and consumption in the world, is highly dependent on cage systems and lacks confidence in alternative (e.g., free-range) systems. In this context, using China’s abundant woodland resources (including natural forests, plantations, and commercial forests) to facilitate the management of laying hens in a free-range environment may provide highly promising welfare improvement programs. On the basis of the Five Freedoms, we assess the welfare status of understory laying hen management systems with reference to the behavioural needs and preferences of laying hens and the EU standards for free-range and organic production (highest animal welfare standards in the world). The results show that the considered systems meet or even exceed these standards, in terms of key indicators such as outdoor and indoor stocking density, outdoor activity time, and food and drug use. Specifically, the systems provide sufficient organic food for laying hens without using antibiotics. They allow laying hens to avoid beak trimming, as well as to express nesting, foraging, perching, reproductive, dustbathing and other priority behaviours. The presence of roosters and higher use of woodland space allow the laying hens to achieve better feather and bone conditions, thus reducing stress and fear damage. Notably, the predation problem is not yet considered significant. Second, there is evidence that understory laying hen systems are profitable and have been welcomed and supported by farmers and governments in the southwest, south, and north of China. However, whether it can be scaled up is uncertain, and further research is needed. In addition, laying hens in this management system face various risks, such as foot injury, parasitism, and high dependence on consumer markets, which must be considered. Overall, agro-forestry, or accurately, understory poultry raising, provides opportunities and possibilities for free-range laying hens and welfare improvement in China and other countries.
... In the Netherlands, animal losses due to predation were evaluated at ∼3.7% by 61 farmers who responded to an online survey, while an on-farm experiment showed that out of 44 hens killed by predators, 32 deaths were due to birds of prey and dour due to foxes (71). A similar survey concerning fox predation in the UK completed by 58 egg producers (72) showed that <2% of hen mortality was due to fox predation. In all these cases, mortality may have been underestimated since farmers do not record all cases of predation. ...
In free-range and organic production systems, hens can make choices according to their needs and desires, which is in accordance with welfare definitions. Nonetheless, health and behavioral problems are also encountered in these systems. The aim of this article was to identify welfare challenges observed in these production systems in the EU and the most promising solutions to overcome these challenges. It is based on a review of published literature and research projects complemented by interviews with experts. We selected EU specific information for welfare problems, however, the selected literature regarding solutions is global. Free range use may increase the risk of infection by some bacteria, viruses and parasites. Preventive methods include avoiding contamination thanks to biosecurity measures and strengthening animals' natural defenses against these diseases which can be based on nutritional means with new diet components such as insect-derived products, probiotics and prebiotics. Phytotherapy and aromatherapy can be used as preventive and curative medicine and vaccines as alternatives to antibiotics and pesticides. Bone quality in pullets and hens prevents keel deviations and is favored by exercise in the outdoor range. Free range use also lead to higher exposure to variable weather conditions and predators, therefore shadow, fences and guard animals can be used to prevent heat stress and predation respectively. Granting a free range provides opportunities for the expression of many behaviors and yet many hens usually stay close to the house. Providing the birds with trees, shelters or attractive plants can increase range use. Small flock sizes, early experiences of enrichment and personality traits have also been found to enhance range use. Severe feather pecking can occur in free range production systems, although flocks using the outdoor area have better plumage than indoors. While many prevention strategies are facilitated in free range systems, the influence of genetics, prenatal and nutritional factors in free range hens still need to be investigated. This review provides information about practices that have been tested or still need to be explored and this information can be used by stakeholders and researchers to help them evaluate the applicability of these solutions for welfare improvement.
... This analysis used data supplied by the farming industry: losses to predation were generally low in free-range poultry flocks. A positive association between losses to 'other' causes and losses to foxes suggested that poor husbandry was a significant factor contributing to predation losses and that changes in farm management, rather than greater fox control, would be the most costeffective means of reducing economic losses [78] . ...
... Losses to predators (predator not specified) exceeding 20 birds per production period have been reported for 9% of 96 surveyed Swiss free-range farms (each with more than 500 hens; mean 3042 ± 3600 birds per farm; Häne et al. 2000). In Britain, losses to foxes amount to 2 ± 17% (mean ± s.d.) across 50 surveyed farms (35-130 000 hens, median 11 000), with three-quarters of respondents identifying losses to red foxes (Moberly et al. 2004). However, losses could reach up to 100% of small flocks of less than 200 birds (Heydon and Reynolds 2000). ...
Context
Predation of layer chickens is a major issue for free-range egg producers. Using livestock guardian dogs (LGD) to protect free-ranging poultry is a possible option for producers, although there is little published literature regarding how the dogs protect chickens.
Aims
This case study was conducted at a free-range egg production farm in Western Australia, where red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were a common predator of chickens prior to introducing Maremma LGD. We investigated LGD responses to experimental cues that might indicate fox incursion (fox urine and calls).
Methods
Four dogs were GPS tracked and monitored using camera traps. Over the first week, experimental fox cues were set out around the paddock boundaries, alternating with ‘non-cue’ experimental control nights. We recorded whether the LGD altered (1) their space use, (2) activity patterns (movement speed), or (3) behaviour in response to these cues. We also recorded (4) distances between LGD from known sightings of foxes.
Key results
The Maremmas appeared to work independently of each other, covering separate areas. There was no significant difference in overnight home range area by experimental fox cue treatment, but there was a significant (P < 0.001) treatment × dog interaction term for distance moved. Three dogs spent most of their time at night around the chicken shelters and generally increased distances moved on experimental fox cue nights. The fourth dog was more bonded to people and did not alter its movements. Paradoxically, dogs rested more and barked less on experimental fox cue nights; however, we recorded foxes on camera traps placed around the chicken shelters on 17 of the 23 nights of monitoring, and the high background activity level of foxes on this property compromised our experimental control (nights without experimental fox cues). The dogs did not move towards known fox sightings.
Conclusions
The Maremmas in this trial closely guarded the chicken shelters rather than maintaining the entire paddock as a predator-exclusion zone.
Implications
Understanding how guardian dogs behave when challenged by potential predators will help increase producers’ confidence in the efficacy of these dogs as a viable method to protect livestock from predation threat.
... The important positive attributes of free-range (including organic) layer farming are the birds' access to an outdoor range, exposure to natural daylight (sunlight), ability to move freely, increased space to better regulate social interactions, and opportunities for expression of natural behaviours [1,2]. Free-range systems may also have some potential risks such as parasitic infections [3], increased disease exposure [4], heat stress [5], and predation [6,7]. However, welfare benefits such as reduced plumage damage and reduced footpad dermatitis can be seen in individuals that range more [8,9]. ...
Extreme sunlight might be aversive to free-range laying hens, discouraging them from going outside. Range enrichment with artificial shelters may protect hens from sunlight and increase range use. The preferences of 34-40-week-old Hy-Line Brown laying hens for artificial shelters were assessed by counting the number of hens under three densities of individual shelters (three replicates/density) from video recordings for 14 to 17 days for two flocks. The artificial shelters used shade cloth marketed as blocking 50%, 70%, and 90% of ultraviolet light, although other sunlight wavelengths were also reduced. Different sunlight spectral irradiances (ultraviolet radiation (UVAB) (288-432 nm), photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) (400-700 nm), and total solar radiation (TSR) (285 nm-3000 nm), ambient temperature, and relative humidity were recorded with an on-site weather station. There was a significant interaction between sunlight-filtering shelter and time of day (both Flocks, p < 0.0001), i.e., hens preferred shelters with the highest amount of sunlight filtering at most time points. Regression models showed that the most variance in shelter use throughout the day resulted from the ambient temperature in both flocks, while sunlight parameters had different degrees of effect depending on the shelter type and flock. However, fewer hens under the shelters during the midday period suggest that during periods of intense sunlight, hens prefer to remain indoors, and artificial structures might not be sufficient to attract more hens outside.
... Moreover, both predators thrive in fragmented landscapes where apex predators struggle (Beasley et al., 2013;Crooks and Soulé, 1999;Prugh et al., 2009), and the proximity of foxes and coyotes with humans, together with the decline of wolf populations across the years (Berger et al., 2001;Flagstad et al., 2003;Jansson et al., 2012;Ripple et al., 2013;Wayne et al., 1992) has allowed an increase in numbers of the two species in densely urbanized areas. A well-aimed management strategy (i.e., "predator control") is thus needed in order to avoid possibly dangerous interactions with humans and their pets (Alexander and Quinn, 2011;Baker and Timm, 1998;Lukasik and Alexander, 2011), and to reduce the conflict with human activities as much as possible (Moberly et al., 2004) (Ritchie and Johnson, 2009;Thorn et al., 2012). ...
Human activities severely impact the distribution and behaviour of apex predators in numerous terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, with cascading effects on several species. Mesopredator outbreaks attributable to the removal of an apex predator have often been recorded and described in the literature as “mesopredator release”. During recent decades several examples of the phenomenon have been observed and studied in many different parts of the world. In this paper, we quantitatively reviewed the existing literature on mesopredator release using two software packages (VOSviewer and CiteSpace) to investigate patterns and trends in author keywords through occurrences and temporal analyses, and creating relative network maps. The results showed that even though the general scientific interest in mesopredator release has increased in recent decades, the vast majority of studies focus on canid species, leaving many other species or entire taxa (e.g., reptiles) understudied and under-described. The connection between invasive species and mesopredator release has only recently been more extensively explored and also the effects of apex predators declining in aquatic ecosystems are still only partially investigated. Due to the increasing effect of biological invasions, overfishing, and either the decline or the rise of apex predators in different parts of the world, we expect an even higher increase in interest and number of published documents on the subject. We also encourage widening the research focus beyond canids to include other important taxa.
... In most cases, Type 1 harms also include those associated with animal transport, usually by land or air. Type 2 harms include lethal control of bird predators (e.g., red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in the United Kingdom [249]), and egg-laying birds being slaughtered for meat at the end of their lives. Here, we assume that all egg-laying animals are ultimately slaughtered for meat or to produce fertilizer and other "non-meat" products. ...
Ethical food choices have become an important societal theme in post-industrial countries. Many consumers are particularly interested in the animal welfare implications of the various foods they may choose to consume. However, concepts in animal welfare are rapidly evolving towards consideration of all animals (including wildlife) in contemporary approaches such as “One Welfare”. This approach requires recognition that negative impacts (harms) may be intentional and obvious (e.g., slaughter of livestock) but also include the under-appreciated indirect or unintentional harms that often impact wildlife (e.g., land clearing). This is especially true in the Anthropocene, where impacts on non-human life are almost ubiquitous across all human activities. We applied the “harms” model of animal welfare assessment to several common food production systems and provide a framework for assessing the breadth (not intensity) of harms imposed. We considered all harms caused to wild as well as domestic animals, both direct effects and indirect effects. We described 21 forms of harm and considered how they applied to 16 forms of food production. Our analysis suggests that all food production systems harm animals to some degree and that the majority of these harms affect wildlife, not livestock. We conclude that the food production systems likely to impose the greatest overall breadth of harms to animals are intensive animal agriculture industries (e.g., dairy) that rely on a secondary food production system (e.g., cropping), while harvesting of locally available wild plants, mushrooms or seaweed is likely to impose the least harms. We present this conceptual analysis as a resource for those who want to begin considering the complex animal welfare trade-offs involved in their food choices.
... Iqbal and Pampori, 2008Moberly et al., 2004Bestman and Bikker-Ouwejan, 2020 Missing eggs or chicks Snakes Hawks Domesticated Dogs Aboe et al., 2006Ajala et al., 2007 ...
Due to consumer demand and changing welfare standards on health, ecology, equity, and safety concepts, poultry production has changed markedly over the past 20 years. One of the greatest changes to poultry production standards is now offering poultry limited access to the outdoors in alternative and organic poultry production operations. Although operations allowing access to the outdoors is still only a small portion of commercial poultry production, it may impact the gastrointestinal (GIT) health of the bird in different ways than birds raised under conventional management systems. The present review describes current research results in alternative systems by identifying how different poultry production operations (diet, environmental disruptive factors, diseases) impact the ecology and health of the GIT. Various research efforts will be discussed that illustrate the nutritional value of free-range forages and how forages could be beneficial to animal health and production of both meat and eggs. The review also highlights the need for potential interventions to limit diseases without using antibiotics. These alternatives could enhance both economics and sustainability in organic and free-range poultry production.
... They did not perceive increased predation by foxes or problems with getting the chickens inside at the end of the day, which many of the other farmers expected to occur. This is in accordance with Moberly and White (2004) who did not find a relationship between fox predation and surrounding land use (e.g., forestry or arable). Expectations and experience did match regarding the damage that chickens can do to newly established SRCW. ...
This paper focuses on systems producing short rotation coppice willows (SRCW) in chickens’ free-range areas. We aim to map chicken farmers’ motivation to implement SRCW, and to assess the economic viability of these systems. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 free-range chicken farmers. Farmers agreed that chickens would prefer SRCW over grassland, which could benefit chicken welfare. They expected establishing an SRCW system would be labor intensive, and doubted if it would be a profitable investment. Some concerns of farmers might be taken away by exchanging information with farmers with SRCW experience. A partial budget analysis was performed to calculate the net present value (NPV) of six different scenarios, differing in the type of chickens, in whether the produced biomass was sold or valorized on-farm and in harvest pattern, all over a 23-yr period. The NPV was positive but low for all scenarios. A sensitivity analysis showed that changes in biomass yield, wood chip price, a price premium for poultry products and current fuel price were most likely to influence the NPV. A risk analysis revealed that NPVs were positive in the majority of the modeled cases. Scenarios in which biomass was used for on-farm heat production showed the highest risk of a negative NPV. A price premium for poultry products may be most effective at increasing profitability, but may only be feasible for farms selling directly to consumers. Establishing a solid market for biomass energy, including guaranteed demand and availability of appropriate machinery for cultivation, may mitigate farmers’ concerns.
... The heads of the other 2 beheaded subjects have never been found. All of these aspects of the crime scene suggest the behavior expression of a fox (Fleming et al. 2016, Moberly et al. 2004. Indeed foxes usually remove parts of the body, mainly the head, in order to eat them later on (Kaczensky et al. 1998). ...
The present case study concerns a case of predation of 4 individuals of captive pink flamingo in Emilia Romagna Region, Northeastern Italy. The pink flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus) is a species included in the Red List of Threatened Species established by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) which lists species in danger of extinction. During the Winter of 2013, 4 flamingos (2 in the Comacchio area, and 2 from Argenta and Codigoro oases - Ferrara province) were found dead some of them headless, with their bodies severely bitten. At first, a fox (Vulpes vulpes) was suspected to be the predator responsible for the killing and the birds were taken to the laboratory for further investigations. The investigations included: field observations, study of the predator behaviour, necropsy examinations, assessment of the intercanine distance, and genetic analysis on the predator's traces. The intercanine distance indicated that the predator could not have been a fox. The analysis of salivary DNA samples enabled us to establish that the predator was in fact a dog. This case highlights the importance of co-operation among the various branches of forensic sciences and the great usefulness of the roles filled by other veterinary forensic experts involved in solving crime.
... Besides this intrinsic benefit, high use of the outdoor area has been associated with additional welfare benefits such as better plumage (Mahboub et al., 2004), reduced keel bone fractures (Richards et al., 2012), or lower risk of feather pecking (Green et al., 2000;Lambton et al., 2010). Even though access to an outdoor area may increase predation (Moberly et al., 2004) and parasitic risk (Permin et al., 1999), it is perceived by consumers as an important factor for the welfare of laying hens (Bennett and Blaney, 2003;Heng et al., 2012), which may ultimately determine their purchasing decisions. ...
Here we present preliminary results of a larger ongoing study in which
we compare the behavior of laying hens maintained under different
production conditions. For this part of the study, data were collected
by video footage in 7 single tier aviary commercial farms with and
without access to an outdoor park. Flock sizes ranged between 6,000
to18,000 birds. The lines used were Bovan brown, ISA brown, and
Lohman white. Video recordings took place from 7.00 to 9.00, 11.00 to
13.00 and 17.00 to 19.00 for morning, midday and afternoon periods.
Video sequences were imported into the software The Observer for
visualization and analysis. From the recordings, behavioral time budgets
and frequency of transitions, defined as the number of behavioral
changes per unit of time, were obtained by continuous focal sampling
of 3 randomly chosen hens in each video sequence. Data were standardized
according to sequence duration. Means per farm, week and time
period were calculated and used for statistical analysis, a mixed model
repeated measures ANOVA (SAS, V 9.1). Results indicate differences
in time budgets across layer line and housing system (P < 0.01), but no effect of time period was detected (P > 0.05). Interactions across
factors were non significant (P > 0.05). Lohman whites had the highest
proportion walking and foraging whereas standing was most prominent
in Bovan and ISA brown. Problematic behaviors such as aggressive
pecks, threats and feather pecking were unusual events for all lines. The
differences according to systems were important with higher frequencies
of standing and foraging observed in aviaries without access to
parks, and higher proportions of resting and less standing and foraging
observed in free range. Behavioral transitions varied according to hen
type and housing system only (P < 0.05). In conclusion, across strains
the Lohman white hens were the most active, however no differences
were detected related to problematic behaviors such as aggressive or
pecking behaviors. Contrary to expectations, birds with access to an
outdoor park were less active when indoors as compared with birds in
aviaries without access to parks.
Key Words: laying hens, behavior, aviary systems
... Free-range egg production has been associated with a number of challenges including production gap, nutrient dilution from pasture consumption, range management, biosecurity and losses due to predation, cannibalism, grass impaction, parasites and disease [14][15][16][17]. Education and training are required to achieve dissemination of sound scientific knowledge to the farmers. ...
Baseline information on demographics and practices on semi-intensive free-range egg farms with an outdoor stocking density of ≤1500 hens/hectare in Australia is presented. Free-range egg production is changing the structure of the egg industry in Australia and a broad variety and tiers of free-range systems have emerged due to lack of concrete legislative standards on outdoor stocking densities in the past. Information was extracted from a pre-existing online free-range poultry survey dataset, consisting of a total of 79 questions related to nutrition, pasture management, welfare and health, animal housing, environmental impact and economics. Forty-one free-range egg farms, with an outdoor stocking density of ≤1500 hens/hectare, were identified in the dataset from all major Australian states. Two types of semi-intensive free-range housing systems were documented: mobile (modified caravan/trailer) housing (56%), and fixed sheds (44%). Seventy-two percent of respondents reported >75% of the hens in the flock used the outdoor range. All respondents reported ingestion of range components by hens in the form of vegetation, insects, stones and grit. Up to 10% mortality was reported by 40% respondents with predation (34%), cannibalism (29%), heat stress (24%) and grass impaction (19.5%) as major causes. Biosecurity on farms was sub-optimal with 8 of the 10 actions implemented by <50% respondents. Customer demand, consumer sentiment and welfare were the major factors for farmers moving into free-range egg production. This study resulted in identification of current practices and key challenges on semi-intensive free-range egg farms. Applied research and communication of results to farmers is highly recommended to ensure optimum health and welfare of free-range laying hens and sustained egg production.
... Besides this intrinsic benefit, high use of the outdoor area has been associated with additional welfare benefits such as better plumage (Mahboub et al., 2004), reduced keel bone fractures (Richards et al., 2012), or lower risk of feather pecking (Green et al., 2000;Lambton et al., 2010). Even though access to an outdoor area may increase predation (Moberly et al., 2004) and parasitic risk (Permin et al., 1999), it is perceived by consumers as an important factor for the welfare of laying hens (Bennett and Blaney, 2003;Heng et al., 2012), which may ultimately determine their purchasing decisions. ...
The aim of this study was to explore the factors influencing patterns of space use of commercial free-range laying hens and their relation to welfare indicators. Three free-range laying hen flocks were studied during one production cycle by collecting spatial locations on 150 individually tagged hens per flock. At the end of production, welfare and morphometric measures were collected. The results indicated that use of the outdoor area was lower during midday (P < 0.05), but remained stable across age periods (P > 0.05). Tagged hens were classified according to their use of the outdoor area (heavy, medium, light, or never) per age period. A total of 49.5% were never observed using the outdoor area, which was higher than any other category (P < 0.05). In addition, the early experience of the hens using the outdoor area during the first 16 wk (20 to 36 wk) determined the level of use of the outdoor area at later ages (P < 0.05). Most use of space parameters did not vary according to age period (P > 0.05); only activity center indoors increased (P < 0.05), while mean distance from the hen house tended to increase (P = 0.053). However, birds with a higher frequency of use of the outdoor area had larger home ranges and activity centers (r = 0.956, r = 0.964 P < 0.05, respectively) and showed lower plumage damage (r = -0.337, P < 0.05) and a lower incidence of footpad dermatitis (r = -0.307, P < 0.05). On the contrary, birds showing higher total walked distance indoors showed a higher incidence of footpad dermatitis (r = 0.329, P < 0.01). We conclude that there exist individual differences in the use of the outdoor area, with early experience (20 to 36 weeks) during the production period being the most relevant factor affecting outdoor area use. Birds visiting the outdoor area more frequently also used larger areas. In addition, individual patterns of space use had some relevance on the incidence on foot pad dermatitis and plumage condition.
... The red fox: Foxes are snared for two main reasons. Firstly they are alleged to be a threat to livestock (mainly lambs and poultry), and secondly they are seen as a threat to game birds in shooting areas Moberly et al. 2004a). Red foxes are found throughout the British mainland and lack specific habitat requirements, though they are found at lower densities in moorland, mountains and sand dunes (Harris & Yalden 2008). ...
... However, there was a positive association between losses due to other causes and chicken predation. The results suggest that changes in farm management would be the most cost-effective means of reducing fox predation, rather than greater fox control (Moberly et al. 2004b). Across Britain as a whole, the total cost of fox predation per annum was £653,000 to egg producers, £221,000 to turkey producers and £440,000 to goose producers. ...
... The red fox: Foxes are snared for two main reasons. Firstly they are alleged to be a threat to livestock (mainly lambs and poultry), and secondly they are seen as a threat to game birds in shooting areas Moberly et al. 2004a). Red foxes are found throughout the British mainland and lack specific habitat requirements, though they are found at lower densities in moorland, mountains and sand dunes (Harris & Yalden 2008). ...
... Other studies also reported mortality caused by predators. These studies focused on broilers [17] or they presented their results differently [18,19]. Therefore, it is not possible to compare these results to our results. ...
Simple Summary
Data on animal health and welfare and farm management during rearing and laying periods were collected from 49 flocks of organic laying hens in the Netherlands to establish how farms performed in terms of animal health and welfare and which factors affected health and welfare.
Abstract
From 2007–2008, data on animal health and welfare and farm management during rearing and laying periods were collected from 49 flocks of organic laying hens in the Netherlands. Our aim was to investigate how organic egg farms performed in terms of animal health and welfare and which farm factors affected this performance. The flocks in our study were kept on farms with 34 to 25,000 hens (average 9,300 hens). Seventy-one percent of the flocks consisted of ‘silver hybrids’: white hens that lay brown eggs. Fifty-five percent of the flocks were kept in floor-based housing and 45% of the flocks in aviaries. No relation was found between the amount of time spent outdoors during the laying period and mortality at 60 weeks. Flocks that used their outdoor run more intensively had better feather scores. In 40% of the flocks there was mortality caused by predators. The average feed intake was 129 g/day at 30 weeks and 133 g/day at 60 weeks of age. The average percentage of mislaid eggs decreased from three at 30 weeks to two at 60 weeks. The average mortality was 7.8% at 60 weeks. Twenty-five percent of the flocks were not treated for worms in their first 50 weeks. Flubenol© was applied to the flocks that were treated. Ten percent of the flocks followed Flubenol© instructions for use and were wormed five or more times. The other 65% percent were treated irregularly between one and four times. Sixty-eight percent of the flocks showed little or no feather damage, 24% showed moderate damage and 8% showed severe damage. The feather score was better if the hens used the free-range area more intensely, the laying percentage at 60 weeks was higher, and if they were allowed to go outside sooner after arrival on the laying farm. In 69% of the flocks, hens had peck wounds in the vent area: on average this was 18% of the hens. Keel bone deformations were found in all flocks, on average in 21% of the birds. In 78% of the flocks, an average of 13% of the hens had foot-sole wounds, mostly a small crust. Combs were darker in flocks that used the range area more intensively. More fearful flocks had lighter combs. We conclude that organic farms are potentially more animal friendly than other poultry systems based on the animal welfare benefits of the free range areas. However, we also observed mortality rates, internal parasites, keel bone deformities, and foot sole lesions on organic farms that were comparable to or worse than in other husbandry systems. It is unclear whether these ‘remaining’ problems can be attributed to housing or if they are the result of keeping high productive genotypes in an artificial environment. Organic farms use the same high productive genotypes as other husbandry systems.
... Sargeant 1978;Burbidge and McKenzie 1989;Lovari and Parigi 1995;Saunders et al. 1995;Priddel and Wheeler 1997;Harding et al. 2001;Tryjanowski et al. 2002;Jarnemo et al. 2004;Dexter and Murray 2009;Mahon 2009;Kinnear et al. 2010;Pieron and Rohwer 2010). The fox also causes problems in agricultural production through predation on livestock (Saunders et al. 1995;Greentree et al. 2000;Heydon and Reynolds 2000;White et al. 2000;Moberly et al. 2003Moberly et al. , 2004aMoberly et al. , 2004b. Foxes also carry diseases such as echinococcosis, mange and rabies (Little et al. 1998;Simpson 2003;Holmala and Kauhala 2006;König et al. 2008). ...
Context
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) predation has an impact on populations of many species throughout its range worldwide, and as such, the red fox is the target of control programs.
Aims
We investigated the potential for participatory landscape management to reduce the impact of fox predation on a major prey species, lambs.
Methods
The present study monitored fox-management programs already operating across 4.5 million hectares of regional New South Wales to compare the impact of varying (frequency and spatial coverage) control effort on lamb survival.
Key results
The frequency and timing of fox control was correlated with lamb survival. Lamb survival was higher in areas where fox baiting was carried out twice a year, in autumn and late winter/spring. Spatial coverage of the control program was also positively correlated with lamb survival. Properties that had near neighbours (up to 2.5 km away) participating in group fox-control programs had higher survival of lambs than properties that did not.
Conclusions
These results support the development of a high level of group participation in fox-control programs that considers both spatial extent and frequency of baiting programs. They also support a movement away from the reactionary, short-term practice of baiting small areas to protect vulnerable prey.
Implications
Coordinated group-baiting programs are likely to deliver improved lamb survival and should be promoted in areas where ongoing control programs for foxes are necessary.
... The electric fence excluded all but the largest male foxes, but needed to be maintained and fully powered to be effective. Our losses due to predation at one site were greater than the average reported for free-range farms in the South West of England (average 0.08%, Moberley et al., 2004), but well within the range reported. ...
The commercial, welfare and environmental impacts of rearing small colonies of free-range chickens in newly planted woodland at two sites in the UK, during the first 2 years of the enterprise, were investigated. Newly planted rather than established trees were used so that commercially viable species could be planted in a way that would suit the management of the chicken enterprise, and small colonies were used so that farmers wishing to diversify could buy into the system progressively. It was anticipated that marketing a high specification product would provide an immediate income, whilst waiting for the future investment in trees to grow.
... The major predators reported by the smallholders included eagles, crows, dogs, foxes, jackals, mongooses, rats and wild cats. Their density in number and frequency of attacks varied depending on the geographical locations and habitats surrounding the households (Kusina et al., 2001;Moberly et al., 2004). Flying predators like crows and eagles appeared to be the important ones, particularly for the small chicks starting to scavenge and forage themselves. ...
We determined the flock sizes and rates of loss caused by different factors in broody-hen chicks (BHC) up to 60 days of age on 600 randomly selected smallholdings in Bangladesh. The smallholders were beneficiaries of a village poultry production chain called 'Smallholder Livestock Development Project-2' (SLDP-2) which was undertaken with the financial assistance of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). For estimating survival time of BHC, we observed chicks in 80 smallholdings. SLDP-2 aims at ameliorating poverty among women by poultry rearing at village level; in total, 104,000 key rearers, constituting 96% of all of the beneficiaries of the SLDP-2 area, were enrolled in 26 upazilas (a lower administrative unit of Bangladesh). A key rearer is a smallholder who rears at least five 'Sonali' (RIR x Fayoumi) and some indigenous (desi) chickens in a semi-scavenging system. Sonali chickens are supplied from the development project, and have higher egg production while the broodiness of the desi hens is exploited to get chicks hatched for future stocks; thus, the chicks hatched and reared to 60 days old at key rearers' households are called BHC. In this study 32% of the smallholders had BHC each month. At the beginning of a month, the median number of chicks in a flock was 8, and the mean survival time was 50.5 days. Incidence rates of loss of BHC from disease, predation, selling and slaughtering were 0.102, 0.086, 0.009 and 0.002 per chick-month at risk, respectively. The major predators were crows, mongooses and eagles with incidence rates of loss being 0.018, 0.016 and 0.010 per chick-month at risk, respectively. Colibacillosis (both single and mixed infections) contributed to the death of 21% of dead BHC collected; Newcastle disease and salmonellosis contributed to the next highest (14 and 12%) proportional mortalities.
Local attitudes towards carnivores often reflect the degree of damage they are perceived to cause. Consequently, understanding the interactions between people and these species is essential to conservation efforts. This study investigated local perceptions of three Cerrado canid species and current chicken management practices, to identify the potential damage they cause and how this relates to peoples’ attitudes towards these species. Results from structured interviews at 50 ranches in Goiás, Brazil, highlighted that general knowledge about Cerrado canids differed significantly by species, with interviewees unable to correctly answer questions about the hoary fox Lycalopex vetulus and crab-eating fox Cerdocyon thous in comparison to the maned wolf Chrysocyon brachyurus . Chicken coops were identified as the most effective method for preventing predation, yet only 44% of respondents employed this method. Using a perceived predation measure, interviewees reported chicken predation by all three Cerrado canids even though most of these events were stated to occur during the day, outside the species’ active periods. Reported predation events were a strong predictor of attitude. Participants who experienced predation events reported they did not like having a Cerrado canid on their property. However, 86% of the respondents agreed that Cerrado canids should nevertheless be protected. Our findings support the need to incorporate the human dimension in canid and broader carnivore conservation issues.
Birds include over 10 000 species, about half of which are passerine or 'perching' birds. Birds may be carnivores, omnivores, or herbivores. All birds, including raptors, need constant access to fresh drinking water. Many birds are generally social. Some appear motivated to come together in large flocks that are hard to recreate in human homes. Humans may be seen as predators, and their presence may cause significant stress. Some diseases are common to a variety of bird species, several of which affect their respiratory systems. Breeding can also alter birds' susceptibility to diseases, including nutritional problems. The best methods of euthanasia of birds are usually sedation or anaesthesia if needed, followed by the injection of an overdose of pentobarbitone into a vein. Behavioural signs may be observed at the flock level or performed by individuals. Many birds produce alarm calls in response to threats; and some alarm calls may differentiate terrestrial versus aerial predators.
The purpose of this text is to provide a broad overview of wildlife demography and explain how demographic approaches shed light on wildlife conservation and management issues. First, we summarize the main interactions between humans and wildlife and briefly review the history of research on wildlife demography and modern tools for wildlife demography. In a comparative perspective, we then show how the diversity of wildlife life cycles and demography is organized on a slow-fast continuum and how the theory of exploited populations can be used to understand different sensitivities to extra sources of mortality along this continuum. We then present some key aspects of variation in demographic parameters such as environmental variation and density-dependence. In a general discussion we will briefly present what we think are the dominant trends for future research on wildlife demography.
The higher proximity among humans, domestic animals and wildlife favours disease spill-over both from wildlife to domestic animals and vice versa, which is a potential risk for the extinction of wildlife populations and could be influencing the emergence and/or re-emergence of zoonotic diseases. The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) is the most abundant and widely distributed carnivore worldwide and is known to be carrying many infectious diseases. Among these diseases, domestic dogs are known to be source of canine distemper virus (CDV), canine parvovirus (CPV) and Echinococcus granulosus to wild carnivores and human being. Populations of domestic dogs inhabiting urban areas can be the source of infection of directly transmitted pathogens, since in these areas a high density of domestic dogs can facilitate the maintenance of these infections to both domestic and wild carnivore populations. In addition, the knowledge of the diseases present in the domestic dog populations in close proximity to wildlife is essential for conservation planning and for control of both zoonotic diseases and diseases of conservation concern.
This thesis explores the effect of urbanization on the epidemiology of CDV, CPV, and E granulosus in domestic dogs and wild carnivores of the Coquimbo region of Chile as for example, chilla (L. griseus) and culpeo (L. culpaeus) foxes and assess the risk factors that could be facilitate disease transmission between canid inhabiting urban and rural areas.
The first of the chapters containing original data, Chapter 3, describe the demography of dogs in the study area, indicating that urban sites have a greater population and a higher density of domestic dogs, a high growth rate and therefore a high turnover of susceptible than rural areas, which can be of relevance for the differences in diseases transmission patterns between these sites. Chapter 4 describe the degree of interaction between wild and domestic carnivores and its effect on interespecific disease transmission; indicating that in the study area there are many opportunities for domestic/wild carnivores interactions, as for example livestock predation by carnivores, by approaching to peridomestic environments, facilitating in this scenario the transmission of CDV, CPV and also E. granulosus by predating on livestock contaminated with cyst echinococcosis. Chapter 5 indicate that urban areas hold domestic dog populations with higher CDV seroprevalence than rural sites and probably these areas are the source of infection to rural sites. In contrast, a more stable CPV seroprevalence was found between urban and rural areas, indicating that possibly this pathogen follow an endemic state across the study area. Chapter 6 describe the factors for E. granulosus prevalence in domestic dogs, livestock and human being, suggesting that more cases of E. granulosus in livestock and in humans are found in provinces of the Coquimbo region with higher percentage of rural population; however, and unexpectedly, more cases of E. granulosus in domestic dogs were found in urban areas, although analysis of risk factors indicated that those domestic dogs inhabiting in the borders of urban areas, were at greater risk of being infected with E. granulosus than those in the centre of these areas. The results of this study exemplify how three pathogens are found in urban areas which can be source of infection to domestic and wild carnivores in the study area.
Human-carnivore conflict has been recognized as one of the main threats to carnivore conservation. When small livestock or poultry are available, small carnivores will likely prey upon them. Centinela - a rural area located in Southern Chile where chillas (Lycalopex griseus Gray) and small farmers coexist- was chosen as a study site. To understand potential conflicts we conducted interviews to assess local knowledge, experiences, and attitudes toward this fox and small stock management. Almost a third of the interviewed people reported the loss of poultry during the last year due to chillas, which was confirmed by dietary analysis in a parallel study. Consequently, most research participants (67.4 %) had negative attitudes toward the chilla. Management appeared to be related to poultry losses, since no losses were reported when poultry was confined in henhouses, suggesting that continuous confinement was an effective measure to prevent the conflict. The negative attitudes are further reflected in that most people reported to have killed at least one chilla.
Legislative and assurance scheme requirements for standard and alternative indoor and outdoor broiler and turkey production systems are described.Generally, health and welfare are protected to various extents by a series of input requirements, largely related to stocking density, light, environmental control parameters, environmental enrichment, mutilations and growth rate.Outcome measures (usually related to physical well-being) highlight flocks that perform poorly, and success depends on the effectiveness of the input and output measures, the reporting structure and any remedial action taken.Alternative systems represent a low market share of broiler and turkey production in the European Union (approximately 10 and 30%, respectively) and generally production costs more.Free range and organic systems are largely considered to have the potential to provide good living conditions and reduce environmental pollution.However, concerns have been raised over bird health (Campylobacter infection), welfare (higher foot lesions and breast blisters, lack of outdoor ranging), product quality and consumers' willingness to pay.Research shows that breed suitability is one of the largest factors in determining welfare in alternative systems, particularly for broiler chickens.More robust, hardy breeds with lower growth rates should be used; these birds are better suited to a wide range of environmental parameters and diets with lower energy density.The quality of the diet (particularly in relation to indispensible amino acids and protein balance) and the free range environment (particularly in relation to the provision of natural cover outdoors) are also highly important for both broilers and turkeys.The meat from slow growth broiler breeds is more suited to the whole bird market (as opposed to portioned or further processed) and generally contains less fat and more protein than from conventional breeds.Consumers tend to be unable to differentiate chicken.
The design and management of different housing systems affect poultry welfare. In order to compare wellbeing in different systems, two main indicators of poor welfare have been used in this paper: contact dermatitis for meat birds and mortality for laying hens. The former is important since broilers may suffer from it for much of the later part of their short lives; the latter because it is generally preceded by suffering due to morbidity. Other welfare indicators are also important, of course, and some of them have been considered alongside these two. Indoor systems, especially laying cages, provide the safest welfare protection but extensive systems,
e.g.
free-range, provide more freedom and allow the widest behavioural repertoire. However, free-range systems are generally the most difficult to manage and pose the greatest welfare risks, which can sometimes be serious - even causing death. A possible superior safer approach is suggested.
As welfare is a multidimensional concept, its assessment should be a multidisciplinary process, providing a comprehensive assessment of animal welfare in any given system. The different measurable aspects of welfare may be turned into welfare indicators and assessed in a scientific manner. Assessment of welfare may combine different approaches that include the assessment of the production system and measurement of animal-based welfare indicators. With both approaches, however, risk managers face difficulties related to the availability of resources for implementing regulations and training staff. Most animal-based welfare indicators have the advantage that they can be measured whatever the production system; they relate to the animal's experience of its own state. It is essential to confirm the reliability of the measures and their robustness to ensure valid welfare assessment, especially for a science-based management approach. Many welfare indicators, even those measured at the individual level, are expressed at group level, as a proportion of the animals. This allows benchmarking and following of trends over time. The decision on what is or is not acceptable from a welfare point of view is an ethical or managerial one. The advantage of a graded welfare indicator is that it allows different thresholds to be set by different people, countries or organisations, depending on the purpose of the assessment. The development of a set of harmonised international welfare indicators for global trade is also discussed.
The present article discusses goose farming on late medieval English demesnes. The research is based on over 2,700 manorial (demesne) accounts from several eastern counties, including Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridgeshire, Huntingdonshire and parts of the Peterborough hinterland. The paper discusses various strategies employed by lords and their reeves, chronological dynamics and geographic differences in rearing, disposal and consumption patterns. Finally, the place of the goose in the livestock trade is discussed. These aspects are linked to larger economic and ecological processes within the shifting environment of late medieval England.
This paper reviews the existing body of scientific literature relevant to organic poultry production, in order to assess, and where possible quantify, the key issues affecting welfare. The review consists of three parts, covering health-related welfare issues in organic poultry production systems (breed suitability; nutrition; feed contribution from the range, range use and group size), health-related welfare issues for organic laying hens (feather pecking; endo-parasites and ecto-parasites), and health-related welfare issues for organic broilers (foot, hock and breast health). The evidence suggests that most health-related welfare issues are not specific to organic farms, but maintaining good health and welfare on organic farms can be challenging. There are many organic farms that do not have major problems, suggesting that husbandry (knowledge and technical skills) is crucial in managing welfare issues. There is also considerable variation in farming systems within the organic sector (ranging in farm size, housing and range quality, capacity to produce home grown feed, opportunities for pasture rotation etc.) which can be a constraint to solving welfare problems, particularly where managerial input has to be spread across a diversity of enterprises. It is recommended that efforts should be made to make existing knowledge more accessible to those involved in organic livestock production. This should include mechanisms for regular updating, and take account of the fact that data from published research may lag behind the levels of performance being achieved by the most able producers. Topics for further research were identified including subjects that have had little previous research, such as the catching and disposal of spent organic laying hens, management of parent flocks and keel bone breakages.
ABSTRACT • Wild mammals have a long history of association with the human food chain, with some being the source for domesticated animals and others being considered traditionally as game species. Wild mammals are of negligible importance in terms of overall energy flows in agricultural ecosystems in Britain, but some wild mammals can have detrimental effects on the human food chain through predation, competition and disease transmission. • Understanding these ecological processes at the level of populations and individuals can assist with devising appropriate management strategies to reduce human–wildlife conflict over limited resources. There remains a dearth of reliable information on the economic impacts of wild mammals on human food production, although the available quantified evidence suggests that the impacts are generally minor and localized, and are far outweighed by the wider public benefits associated with wild mammals. • Greater public awareness of environmental and animal welfare issues, together with changes to rural communities resulting from human population movements, are changing the social landscape of interactions between people and wild mammals in the British countryside, and leading to an increase in more ambivalent attitudes towards wild mammals than has typically been the case in the past. • Reform of agricultural policy is placing greater emphasis on the management of the land for biodiversity and environmental protection. While the benefits deriving from many previous agri-environment schemes have been mixed, there is increasing evidence that an emphasis on targeted and coordinated management at the landscape scale can enhance success. This type of approach is essential if some of the major threats facing declining wild mammal populations, such as population fragmentation, are to be overcome. • There is an increasing divergence between regulation of agricultural ecosystems for food production and disease minimization and regulation of the land for biodiversity production via agri-environment schemes. The resolution of these tensions at the policy level will have major implications for future interactions between wild mammals and the human food chain.
EUROPEAN Council Regulation 834/2007 prohibits the use of supplementary amino acids such as DL-methionine and lysine hydrochloride in the diets of organic livestock. As a result, organic poultry diets cannot be formulated as close to the birds' amino acid requirements as in conventional diets. This results in the inclusion of excessive protein to achieve the required levels of essential amino acids. As the protein content is expensive, it can result in diets that are marginal or even deficient in essential amino acids being formulated, resulting in production prooblems and potential welfare issues for the birds.
Current EU organic regulations allow up to 5 per cent of the plant-derived ingredients to have not been grown organically. This does help poultry nutritionists alleviate some of the adverse aspects of supplementary amino acid exclusion by using ingredients such as maize gluten, which is not available organically. However, from January 1, 2012, all plant ingredients in organic diets must have been grown organically.
This short communication reports an episode of poor feathering in organic turkeys associated with amino acid deficiency.
Since the production type was organic, the breed placed on the farm was a slower-growing Kelly bronze variety. The birds were placed on August 24, 2010. The poult start was poorer than standard, …
Duck rearing is an important component of sustainable living in poor rural communities, especially as a source of subsistence. A study was conducted on 118 households (N = 1,373 Jinding ducks, Anas platyrhynchus) from December 2002 to February 2004 on Hatia Island in Bangladesh with the aim of identifying the factors that limit the health and production of Jinding ducks. Overall duck mortality was 29.3%, with disease (19.7%) being a more significant factor than predation (9.6%; p = 0.001). Duck mortality also varied significantly among study zones (p < 0.001). Common diseases were duck plague (21.1%) and duck cholera (32.1%). Helminth infection was prevalent, with endemic trematode (Prosthogonimus spp., Trichobilharzia spp., Echinostoma spp.) and nematode (Cyathostoma bronchialis, Amidostomum anseris, Heterakis gallinarum, Capillaria spp., and Echinuria spp.) infections and epidemic cestode infections due to Hymenolepsis setigera. The median egg production rate per duck per household was 93 for a 6-month laying period. The odds of diminished egg production (average ≤ 93 eggs per duck per household for a 6-month laying period) was 25.4 times higher in ducks that were kept in traditional duck houses (p < 0.001) and 14.2 times higher in ducks that experienced delays in the onset of sexual maturity (days 191 and 280; p < 0.001). Ducks that were provided snails for a shorter period of time over the laying period were 18.2 times more likely to produce fewer eggs than their longer fed peers (p = 0.002). In conclusion, duck mortalities due to diseases and predation and parasitic infections appear to be common constraints on household duck production on Hatia Island. Additionally, improving duck housing and providing longer nutritional supplementation with snails increased the production capabilities of household-raised Jinding ducks on Hatia Island.
A flock of approximately 15,000 ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) was evaluated for a sudden increase in mortality and acute neurological signs after having been previously diagnosed 3 wk earlier with a chronic respiratory disease of undetermined etiology. Approximately 25 live birds were displaying neurological signs including circling, ataxia, and obtunded behavior and 50 birds were dead. Three birds with neurological signs were submitted for evaluation. Extensive subcutaneous hemorrhage over the head and penetrating puncture wounds through the skull and into the brain were found. Trauma from a wild predatory mammal, most likely the long-tailed weasel (Mustela frenata) that had invaded the pheasant house and expressed surplus killing behavior was determined to be the cause of the acute neurological signs and mortality. The relationship of the chronic respiratory disease to the predation episode was not determined but it is possible that pheasants with severe respiratory disease may have had increased susceptibility to predation.
This scientific opinion focuses on the welfare of laying hens, pullets and layer breeders on farm. The most relevant husbandry systems used in Europe are described. For each system, highly relevant welfare consequences were identified, as well as related animal-based measures (ABMs), and hazards leading to the welfare consequences. Moreover, measures to prevent or correct the hazards and/or mitigate the welfare consequences are recommended. The highly relevant welfare consequences based on severity, duration and frequency of occurrence are bone lesions, group stress, inability to avoid unwanted sexual behaviour, inability to perform comfort behaviour, inability to perform exploratory or foraging behaviour, isolation stress, predation stress, resting problems, restriction of movement, skin disorders and soft tissue lesions and integument damage. The welfare consequences of non-cage compared to cage systems for laying hens are described and minimum enclosure characteristics are described for laying hens, pullets and layer breeders. Beak trimming, which causes negative welfare consequences and is conducted to reduce the prevalence and severity of pecking, is described as well as the risks associated with rearing of non-beak-trimmed flocks. Alternatives to reduce sharpness of the beak without trimming are suggested. Finally, total mortality, plumage damage, wounds, keel bone fractures and carcass condemnations are the most promising ABMs for collection at slaughterhouses to monitor the level of laying hen welfare on farm. Main recommendations include housing all birds in non-cage systems with easily accessible, elevated platforms and provision of dry and friable litter and access to a covered veranda. It is further recommended to implement protocols to define welfare trait information to encourage progress in genetic selection, implement measures to prevent injurious pecking, rear pullets with dark brooders and reduce male aggression in layer breeders.
Predation by coyotes (Canis latrans) on livestock continues to plague producers in the United States. Agricultural interests are concerned about coyote predation because sheep inventories in the U.S. have declined >85% in the past 60 years, with a 25% decline between 1991 and 1996, This decline in sheep numbers has been attributed to low economic returns among producers, with coyote predation cited as a major causative factor. Generalizations about the magnitude and nature of depredations can be misleading because of the varied nature of sheep operations, including size of operations, differences in management, and environmental circumstances surrounding individual operations. Coyote depredation rates appear to be influenced by sheep management practices, coyote biology and behavior, environmental factors, and depredation management programs, Most nonlethal depredation control techniques fall within the operational purview of the producers. The major controversy regarding depredation management focuses on programs that remove coyotes to prevent or curtail predation on domestic stock, especially on public lands. Differences in the magnitude, nature, and history of problems caused by coyotes, as well as the circumstances in which they occur, dictates a need for a variety of techniques and programs to resolve problems. The resolution of coyote depredation upon livestock remains controversial for producers, resource managers, and the general public. Because various segments of society attach different values to coyotes, resolution of depredations should use management programs that integrate the social, legal, economic, and biological aspects of the animals and the problem. Preferred solutions should involve procedures that solve problems as effectively, efficiently, and economically as possible in the least intrusive and most benign ways. Predation management requires a partnership among producers and wildlife managers to tailor programs to specific damage situations so the most appropriate techniques can be selected. This paper attempts to clarify the issues surrounding depredation management, synthesize past and current research, and provide information to resource managers associated with coyote depredation management. This synthesis integrates current understandings of coyote biology and behavior, the nature of depredations upon sheep producing enterprises, and the merits of various depredation control strategies and techniques.
Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are believed to have an economic impact on farming through predation on lambs, poultry and game. Investigation of the causes behind variation in the impact of predation between farms is required to improve management of these problems. A questionnaire survey of sheep farmers was combined with field data on relative fox population abundance to investigate some of the factors associated with both the occurrence and scale of perceived fox predation in Britain. Reported lamb losses to foxes were generally low but there was a large range in perceived levels of predation, from 0.0008 to 0.26 lambs per ewe, with 59% of respondents reporting that they had lost at least one lamb to a fox at their most recent lambing. Flock size was an important factor determining perceived fox predation. Fox predation was more likely to have occurred on larger farms, but, when it did, fewer lambs were perceived lost per ewe. Various other non-management characteristics, including regional location, had an influence on fox predation. Fox abundance was positively associated with perceived predation. Indoor lambing was an important preventive measure against fox predation. However, the effect of fox control on livestock predation was difficult to determine because of potential reactive behaviour by farmers to lamb losses. The analyses indicate that multivariate rather than univariate techniques should be used in the assessment of predator impacts and in making management recommendations. The identification of farm characteristics associated with fox predation, such as location and indoor lambing, enables the potential identification of problem farms where preventive management should be targeted.
Hens displayed a greater readiness to emerge from a familiar covered box into an unfamiliar outdoor area when the outdoor area contained familiar feeders, even though the birds had free access to food in their home pens. Emergence latencies decreased with repeated testing. Birds also spent more time in the outdoor area when feeders were present, though they tended not to move past the feeder which was nearest the box. Birds which had been exposed to an enriching stimulus (traffic cones) in their home pens tended to leave the box earlier than those which had not, though this was not dependent on the actual presence of cones in the outdoor area. This suggests that a more complex home environment can influence birds' responses to novel environments. Furthermore, the order of emergence into the paddock was not significantly influenced by social rank. Birds which had been regularly exposed to the outside environment during the rearing process displayed little or no fear of the outdoor area as adults. In contrast, regular handling had little effect on birds' readiness to enter the outdoor area. Regular exposure to the outside environment also reduced birds' underlying fearfulness (measured by tonic immobility), both in small experimental groups and in a larger free-range flock. Individual birds from small groups or from single cages took longer to move past unfamiliar birds than they did to move past familiar birds (even those of higher rank), and took longer to move past an increasing number of unfamiliar birds. However, birds in a free-range house displayed a wide range of movements, and very little aggression, suggesting that any inhibition of movement within the house was not due to "pecking pressure" from other birds. Birds displayed greater readiness to enter into and disperse in the outdoor area when other birds were already present in the area. This was not dependent on the familiarity of birds in the outdoor area. A larger number of birds in the outdoor area increased the attractiveness of the outdoor area to other birds. The introduction of cover into an outside area had a limited effect on increasing the attractiveness of the outdoor area to domestic fowl, though this was not reflected in the birds' vigilance behaviour. It was concluded that birds find the outside environment aversive due to its fear-evoking properties (such as the fear of predation), and to the large discrepancy between the inside and outside environments. Possible implications of the present findings for free-range systems are discussed.
During springtime 1997 management, egg-production and state of health of fifty free-range poultry flocks from fourty farms were examined, the results were compared with data collected in 1993/94. The hygienic situation in thirty-four farms was acceptable. Thirty-five farms had desinfection mats, which were not always clean and wet enough, and separate clothes for entering the poultry houses. The pen had usually a paved forecourt (concrete, asphalt, gravel, roost) and paddocks for rotation. Near the houses, up to 10 m from the paved part, they were without grass, with deep holes. Egg production data of eighteen flocks were registered. During twelve months 228 - 357 (mean = 290) eggs were layed by the average hen. The rate of mortality was 0 - 32 % (mean = 7.2 %). The 32 % - mortality in one flock was caused by cannibalism and raptors. In seven flocks the level of the titers against IBV was induced probably by boostering with field IB-Virus. Bacteriological examination of droppings showed that Salmonella group D was present in one flock. Titers against Salmonella enteritidis were found in seven non-vaccinated flocks by ELISA. The detection rate of endoparasites was relatively low, nineteen flocks were free. Ectoparasites were not detected. In fourteen flocks there was cannibalism, in twenty-eight feather pecking.
Fox culling practices in three contrasting rural regions (1280-2320 km2) of Britain were investigated by questionnaire surveys of landowners and tenant farmers. Between 50 and 52% of all farmers identified in each region contributed to the survey (total number of replies = 1123). Fox culling was widespread in all regions, with 70-95% of farmers involved either directly or indirectly as hosts. Motivation for culling foxes and the methods employed reflected regional variation in agricultural and game-shooting interests. Social factors associated with fox-hunting for sport also played an important role in one region. The contribution to the total fox cull made by communally organized groups operating over large tracts of farmland, and the efforts of individual farmers at a local scale, also varied regionally. The numbers of foxes culled were close to published estimates of annual productivity in British fox populations. Deliberate culling was therefore likely to be the chief cause of fox mortality in these regions. The marked differences in culling practices between these regions provide a strong case that the impact of culling on fox population dynamics must be assessed for regions of this size, as well as at a more local scale. Studies at a national scale (e.g. the whole of Britain) are probably of little biological or sociological significance. The success of different interest groups in achieving their aims, and the consequences of any change in culling practices must also be considered at a similar geographical scale.
The behaviour of broilers reared at pasture from 4 to 12 weeks of age on a low density diet supplied either indoors or outdoors, was compared with that of birds reared inside on deep litter. This single study found few differences in behaviour. Activity levels of birds outside were initially greater, but from six weeks of age lying increased to comparable levels in all groups.
Surprisingly little use was made of the extra space and facilities such as perches at pasture. It is proposed that the main reason for this was leg weakness as 80 per cent of the birds had a detectable gait abnormality at seven weeks of age. There was no evidence of reduced motivation to extend the behavioural repertoire, as, for example, ground pecking remained at significantly higher levels in the outdoor groups because it could also be performed from a lying posture.
Fox culling practices in three contrasting rural regions (1280–2320 km2) of Britain were investigated by questionnaire surveys of landowners and tenant farmers. Between 50 and 52% of all farmers identified in each region contributed to the survey (total number of replies = 1123). Fox culling was widespread in all regions, with 70–95% of farmers involved either directly or indirectly as hosts. Motivation for culling foxes and the methods employed reflected regional variation in agricultural and game-shooting interests. Social factors associated with fox-hunting for sport also played an important role in one region. The contribution to the total fox cull made by communally organized groups operating over large tracts of farmland, and the efforts of individual farmers at a local scale, also varied regionally. The numbers of foxes culled were close to published estimates of annual productivity in British fox populations. Deliberate culling was therefore likely to be the chief cause of fox mortality in these regions. The marked differences in culling practices between these regions provide a strong case that the impact of culling on fox population dynamics must be assessed for regions of this size, as well as at a more local scale. Studies at a national scale (e.g. the whole of Britain) are probably of little biological or sociological significance. The success of different interest groups in achieving their aims, and the consequences of any change in culling practices must also be considered at a similar geographical scale.
1. A national monitoring scheme for recording the abundance of foxes and badgers in Britain would have to utilize a technique or techniques that could detect a wide range of animal densities in structurally different habitats. Furthermore, the likely reliance on volunteers for data collection means that these techniques must be easily applied by people with different levles of field expertise.
2. Direct methods that rely on counts of the animals themselves (e.g. capture‐mark‐recapture, radio‐tracking, spotlight counts) are generally unsuitable because of cost, manpower and licensing requirements, are not readily applied to all habitats and cannot easily be used by volunteers. However, density estimates derived from capture‐mark‐recapture and radio‐tracking methods are likely to represent the benchmark against which other estimates of abundance are measured.
3. The number of foxes killed per unit area is currently collated by non‐governmental organisations for some patterns of land use, e.g. game estates. No such data are available for badgers, as this species is legally protected in Britain. However, the applicability of hunting statistics for monitoring fox abundance is limited by differences in culling effort, the non‐independence of different culling practices applied in the same region, possible future changes in the legal status of different culling methods and changes in the ratio of land where foxes are and are not culled.
4. Indirect methods that rely on counts of the signs of the animals (e.g. droppings, breeding refugia) are less expensive than direct methods, can be applied to the range of habitats found in Britain and can easily be used by volunteers. To date, indirect methods have been utilised to derive estimates of relative animal density or the density of social groups. However, the major factor currently limiting the use of indirect methods is that their relationship with absolute animal density has not been validated. The preliminary results of two projects quantifying the use of field signs as a measure of absolute fox and badger abundance suggest that indirect methods could be applicable for monitoring changes in fox and badger numbers at a national scale.
A questionnaire survey of 220 farmers, and interviews with 13 Masters of packs of foxhounds, in the county of Wiltshire, UK, were undertaken to answer questions on whether farmers perceived the red fox, Vulpes vulpes, to be a pest, and on pest control methods. Farmers’ opinions regarding the need for fox control were often contradictory and not directly governed by their own interests. Although two-thirds did not consider the fox to be a personal pest, most believed that foxes should be controlled everywhere, because they were too numerous. Far fewer believed foxes responsible for actually taking domestic livestock. Where farmers’ opinions of the fox were influenced by personal stock loss, their main concern was chickens, which were generally kept on a non-commercial scale. The evidence is that, over the whole county, hunting with hounds makes an insignificant contribution (5%) to total mortality (through `control efforts'), most being shot. A greater density of foxes was reported shot when there was a perceived pest problem, where lamb or gamebird losses were reported, or when a farmer farmed stock. Where the farmer considered shooting to be effective or humane, a greater density of foxes was also shot. The Hunt was less responsive to these situations, paying fewer visits to farms where the fox was considered a pest, or where the farmer welcomed the Hunt, hunting being more likely to occur on farms reporting fewer foxes, less livestock farming and fewer fox pest problems. It is likely that these farms presented fewer incompatibilities with, or physical access problems for, the Hunt. Most farmers, even on farms where foxes were considered a pest, tolerated, rather than encouraged, hunting on their land. Evidence from hunting farmers suggests that hunting is considered primarily as recreation, and secondarily as a method of controlling foxes.
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