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Training and performance characteristics among Norwegian International Rowers 1970–2001
Abstract
This study quantified changes in training volume, organization, and physical capacity among Norwegian rowers winning international medals between 1970 and 2001. Twenty-eight athletes were identified (27 alive). Results of physiological testing and performance history were available for all athletes. Twenty-one of 27 athletes responded to a detailed questionnaire regarding their training during their internationally competitive years. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) increased 12% (6.5+/- 0.4 vs. 5.8+/-0.2 L min(-1)) from the 1970s to the 1990s. Similarly, 6-min ergometer rowing performance increased almost 10%. Three major changes in training characteristics were identified: (1) training at a low blood lactate (< 2 mM) increased from 30 to 50 h month(-1) and race pace and supra-maximal intensity training (approximately 8-14 mM lactate) decreased from 23 to approximately 7 h month(-1); (2) training volume increased by approximately 20%, from 924 to 1128 h yr(-1); (3) altitude training was used as a pre-competition peaking strategy, but it is now integrated into the winter preparation program as periodic 2-3-week altitude camps. The training organization trends are consistent with data collected on athletes from other sports, suggesting a "polarized" pattern of training organization where a high volume of low intensity training is balanced against regular application of training bouts utilizing 90%-95% of VO2 max.
... al. 2020;Wilson et al. 2020). Det er derfor ligeledes interessant at undersøge om det ydre load kan reduceres, uden at reducere den ro specifikke traening, da det vil kunne resultere i en øget specifik traeningsmaengde, som ville kunne erstatte den alternative crosstraening, som normalvis udgør 20-30% af traeningsmaengden (intern kommunikation med Danmarks Rocenter (DRC) -bilag 1); Fiskerstrand & Seiler, 2004;Seiler, 2010 Fysiologiske parametre og praestationsevnen i roning Den høje VO2-max, der er målt blandt roere, afspejler arbejdskravene til et stort og staerkt hjerte, som primaert opnås gennem genetiske faktorer og flere år med en polariseret traeningstilgang med stor maengde og varierende traeningsintensiteter (Plews & Laursen 2017;Fiskerstrand & Seiler, 2004;Seiler, 2010;Laursen, 2010;Röhrken et al. 2020). Team Danmark (TD) har bl.a. ...
... al. 2020;Wilson et al. 2020). Det er derfor ligeledes interessant at undersøge om det ydre load kan reduceres, uden at reducere den ro specifikke traening, da det vil kunne resultere i en øget specifik traeningsmaengde, som ville kunne erstatte den alternative crosstraening, som normalvis udgør 20-30% af traeningsmaengden (intern kommunikation med Danmarks Rocenter (DRC) -bilag 1); Fiskerstrand & Seiler, 2004;Seiler, 2010 Fysiologiske parametre og praestationsevnen i roning Den høje VO2-max, der er målt blandt roere, afspejler arbejdskravene til et stort og staerkt hjerte, som primaert opnås gennem genetiske faktorer og flere år med en polariseret traeningstilgang med stor maengde og varierende traeningsintensiteter (Plews & Laursen 2017;Fiskerstrand & Seiler, 2004;Seiler, 2010;Laursen, 2010;Röhrken et al. 2020). Team Danmark (TD) har bl.a. ...
... Det kan taenkes at have betydet at roerne er blevet i stand til at arbejde ved en højere supramaksimal intensitet under testen, eller har kunnet opretholde en given supramaksimal intensitet i laengere tid, da dette muligvis har kunnet mindske hullet mellem OBLA og den supramaksimale praestationsintensitet (se "aerob kapacitet" i Bilag 2). Dette taenkes dog at vaere usandsynligt, da det normalvis kraever lange perioder af traening før man ser vaesentlige forbedringer i den aerobe kapacitet i veltraenede og elite populationer (Issurin, 2019;Fiskerstrand & Seiler, 2004). ...
... However, literature on optimal training organization for elite/world-class rowers is sparse, 6 making the study of successful athletes' training characteristics crucial for understanding performance enhancement. [6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] From 1893 to 2019, the finishing times of Olympic and World Rowing Championship medalwinning boats have decreased by ∼0.7 s annually. 15 This continued improvement is partly attributed to the increased training volume, selection of appropriate training methods, and optimization of TID. 6 Accordingly, data of elite Norwegian rowers showed an increase in annual training volume from the 1970s (∼924 h), 1980s (∼966 h) to the 1990s (∼1128 h), and an increased emphasis on low intensity training (LIT). ...
... 15 This continued improvement is partly attributed to the increased training volume, selection of appropriate training methods, and optimization of TID. 6 Accordingly, data of elite Norwegian rowers showed an increase in annual training volume from the 1970s (∼924 h), 1980s (∼966 h) to the 1990s (∼1128 h), and an increased emphasis on low intensity training (LIT). 10 Training data of elite/world-class rowers shows average weekly training volume is 13-23 h, with 52-68% being conducted on water or via ergometer rowing and 79% -95% being at LIT with blood lactate concentration of ≤2 mmol·L-1. 1,6,10,16 In endurance sports, three primary compositions for TID are employed to enhance performance: (i) polarized, (ii) pyramidal, and (iii) threshold. ...
... 10 Training data of elite/world-class rowers shows average weekly training volume is 13-23 h, with 52-68% being conducted on water or via ergometer rowing and 79% -95% being at LIT with blood lactate concentration of ≤2 mmol·L-1. 1,6,10,16 In endurance sports, three primary compositions for TID are employed to enhance performance: (i) polarized, (ii) pyramidal, and (iii) threshold. 17,18 Based on a threezone intensity framework, 12 a polarized TID is characterized by 75-80% LIT (<2 mmol·L-1), 0-5% moderate intensity training (MIT) (2-4 mmol·L-1), and 15-20% high intensity training (HIT) (>4 mmol·L-1). ...
To describe the training volume, rowing intensity and performance measures of world-class Chinese rowers during the 2018-19 season. Six world-class Chinese male rowers (age: 28.2 ± 3.2 years; height: 1.93 ± 0.02 m; body mass: 94.7 ± 3.9 kg) participated in the study. The training volume in different modalities and intensities were recorded over 44 weeks. To evaluate rowing performance, rowers completed four 2,000 m and 5,000 m maximum effort time trials and two incremental step tests. Total training time for the season was 907 hours, which consisted of 67.5% of rowing training, 16.9% of strength training, 15.2% of warm-up and flexibility, and 0.4% of non-specific endurance training. The rowing training intensity distribution (TID) was 87.0% performed at low intensity (LIT), 8.4% at moderate intensity (MIT), and 4.6% at high intensity (HIT). There was no significant difference in average weekly rowing training volume (distance) at LIT across four phases (p = 0.12), as well as rowing training at MIT (p = 0.07) and HIT (p = 0.97). The fourth 2000 m time trials performance significantly improved from the first trial (-6.4s, p = 0.02). The fourth 5000 m time trial performance was significantly improved from the first (-13.4s, p = 0.02,) and second trial (-14.1s, p = 0.01). The final-step mean power output (W) in the second incremental step test improved significantly (p=0.04). In the 2018-19 season, China’s world-class rowers conducted considerable LIT rowing. The training volume distribution and rowing TID were similar in all phases.
... Sometimes, sport federations recommend a certain model, often involving 5 or 7 different zones of exercise intensity, in order to simplify the terminology employed in connection with coaching and assessment. As also illustrated in Figure 1, 3-, 5-and 7-zone models utilize numerous different parameters for categorization [39][40][41]. Figure 1. The classification of zones and associated physiological adaptations associated with a model that distinguishes between moderate, heavy, and very heavy exercise intensity [31,[42][43][44][45][46][47]. ...
... Our search of the scientific literature dealing with retrospective quantification of TID yielded 34 articles involving 437 elite athletes (see Figure 2). Eleven single-case analyses [13,15,16,18,20,22,55,69,[79][80][81] investigations with n>20 reported 28 TIDs [10,24,27,28,41,53,83,84]. The mean age of all athletes involved was 26±4 years (with 5 articles not providing this information). ...
... In all but two studies [17,41], a three-zone TID could be extracted or constructed. ...
... It has also been suggested that a polarized training model may be a more enjoyable method of training while maintaining a lower potential of overreaching/overtraining (11,14,16). Specifically, poorly designed/implemented training programs have resulted in: decreased physical performance, general fatigue, loss of motivation, insomnia, change in appetite, irritability, restlessness, anxiety, body weight loss, loss of concentration, and feelings of depression (1). ...
... Rather than define endurance training zones by percent V _ O 2 max, like the traditional 5 zone system, the polarized training model zones are defined by physiological markers of ventilatory thresholds, blood lactate levels, ratings of perceived exertion, and some new work suggest heart rate variability might also be useful (6,7,21,22). These measures are used because more traditional means for defining exercise intensity, such as heart rate and percent V _ O 2 max, Evidence for a Polarized Training Model adapt with training (move relative to %V _ O 2 max), whereas blood lactate and ventilator threshold are believed to stay relatively constant with respect to the CV stressors that result/stimulate meaningful training CV endurance performance adaptations (10,11,22). Therefore, these training models are defined by percent of total training time spent in each training zone during a microcycle and/or mesocycle; Table 1 reports these distributions for each CV endurance training model (16,17,22,23). ...
... Edgett et al. (8) in 2013 reported a randomized crossover experiment, where subjects worked out at 3 different intensities (73% V _ O 2 max, 100% V _ O 2 max, and 133% V _ O 2 max) on 3 separate visits, separated by 1-2 weeks. Edgett et al. controlled for total work performed on a bike at ;700 kJ, by changing the number of intervals performed on each visit (11,9, and 6 1-minute intervals, respectively) in the 8 college-aged recreationally active men who participated. Interestingly, the relationship between training intensity and PGC-1a was not linear but an inverted "U:" at 73% V _ O 2 max PGC-1a levels were ;4 6 1 (AU), 100% it was ;9 6 2, and at 133% it was ;4 6 1 (data estimated from bar graphs) (8). ...
Hydren, JR and Cohen, BS. Current scientific evidence for a polarized cardiovascular endurance training model. J Strength Cond Res 29(12): 3523-3530, 2015-Recent publications have provided new scientific evidence for a modern aerobic or cardiovascular endurance exercise prescription that optimizes the periodization cycle and maximizes potential endurance performance gains in highly trained individuals. The traditional threshold, high volume, and high-intensity training models have displayed limited improvement in actual race pace in (highly) trained individuals while frequently resulting in overreaching or overtraining (physical injury and psychological burnout). A review of evidence for replacing these models with the proven polarized training model seems warranted. This review provides a short history of the training models, summarizes 5 key studies, and provides example training programs for both the pre-and in-season periods. A polarized training program is characterized by an undulating nonlinear periodization model with nearly all the training time spent at a "light" (#13) and "very hard" ($17) pace with very limited time at "hard" (14-16) or race pace (6-20 Rating of Perceived Exertion [RPE] scale). To accomplish this, the polarization training model has specific high-intensity workouts separated by one or more long slow distance workouts, with the exercise intensity remaining below ventilatory threshold (VT) 1 and/or blood lactate of less than 2 mM (A.K.A. below race pace). Effect sizes for increasing aerobic endurance performance for the polarized training model are consistently superior to that of the threshold training model. Performing a polarized training program may be best accomplished by: going easy on long slow distance work-outs, avoiding "race pace" and getting after it during interval workouts. KEY WORDS threshold, high-intensity interval training, high volume training, V _ O 2 max, blood lactate, periodization
... Training Intensity Zones A three-zone training model was applied to quantify TID (15,17). The following three intensity zones were established based on a 200-m all-out effort. ...
... Correlations indicate that the improvements by group in terms of swimming performance were linked to the distribution of high or moderate intensity according to POL for t100m and PYR for t800c. On the other hand, the low correlations found with the low intensity distribution; would not mean less importance in terms of the inclusion of the LIT in training programs; since the low intensity stimulates the adaptive and physical restoration processes (14,15). Hence, the swim performance changes within-group arose due to the intensity linked with the specific speed required to each competitive event; HIT to sprint (t100c) and MIT for endurance (t800c): with sufficient physical restoration training of LIT. ...
... In the last decades fascinating training methodologies that challenge traditional periodization have emerged. In the sport of swimming, examples are Ultra-Short Race-Pace Training (24) and polarized volume distribution (9,15). It is prudent to remember that the athletes studied by Fiskerstrand & Seiler, (15) were elite athletes in the fullness of their competitive potential, which is not the case of swimmers near puberty such as those included in the present study. ...
This study aimed to analyze modifications in swimming performance, maximal oxygen uptake, heart rate, and anthropometric variables after a 12-weeks of training involving a pyramidal or polarized training intensity distribution. 12 volunteer female swimmers were recruited from a nationally competitive program. They were divided into a control group (21.58 ± 2.93 kg/m²; 166.50 ± 2.08 cm; 59.70 ± 7.19 kg) and experimental group (20.46 ± 2.19 kg/m²; 166.20 ± 4.32 cm; 54.24 ± 3.10 kg). The control group performed a pyramidal training intensity distribution and the experimental group performed a polarized training intensity distribution. Pre and post measures included body composition, maximal oxygen uptake, 100m (t100c) and 800m (t800c) freestyle performance. Pyramidal distribution significantly decreased t800c, fat mass and increased maximal oxygen uptake and fat free mass. Polarized distribution decreased t100c, fat mass and increased maximal oxygen uptake and fat free mass. The modifications in t100c were significantly higher in polarized distribution and t800c higher in pyramidal as well as the decreases in fat mas and the increases in fat free mass. The results demonstrated that the pyramidal and polarized training intensity distributions produced different improvements in swimming performance, body compositions and maximal oxygen uptake of female adolescent swimmers.
... For decades, scientists and coaches have been seeking to identify the optimal dose-response relationship between various compositions of endurance training (i.e., exercise intensity, volume, frequency and its distribution over time) and performance outcome [1][2][3][4][5][6] . Interestingly, research in this area has almost exclusively highlighted the interaction of scheduled training routines and performance outcome but off-training activities are often overseen in elite athletes. ...
... In fact, healthy and physically active males ( V O 2max 54 ± 7 mL•min −1 •kg −1 ) can benefit from a high amount of habitual physical activity combined with prescribed endurance training 11 . However, little is known about the off-training activities of elite athletes such as rowers, who invest a substantial percentage (approximately 82%) of their waking time per year into off-training routines 6 such as recovery procedures, activities of daily living (including sitting, lying, working, studying, active and passive transportation, and possibly additional exercise) and social engagements, with the remaining 18% invested into scheduled training. A recent pilot study of 11 national elite rowers concluded that rowers display considerable sedentary (< 1.5 metabolic equivalents (MET)) off-training behavior of more than 11.5 h•day −1 , while at the same time engaging in 0.51 ± 0.44 h of activity of more than 6 MET on weekdays 9 . ...
... Differences from different training data collection approaches, such as time in zone vs. session goal, as demonstrated by Sylta et al. 19 have little influence, but if training analysis is solely based on prescription instead of measurements (e.g. 6,27,28 ) this may lead to an unclear reporting of either scheduled or actual training regarding volume and intensity. ...
Training studies in elite athletes traditionally focus on the relationship between scheduled training (TRAIN) and performance. Here, we added activities outside of scheduled training i.e., off-training (OFF) contributing to total training (TOTAL) to evaluate the contribution of OFF on performance. Eight elite rowers recorded OFF and TRAIN during waking hours for one season (30–45 weeks) with multisensory smartwatches. Changes in performance were assessed via rowing ergometer testing and maximum oxygen uptake (V˙O2max). Based on 1-Hz-sampling of heart rate data during TRAIN and OFF (> 60% maximum heart rate (HRmax), the volume, session count, intensity, training impulse (TRIMP), and training intensity distribution were calculated. OFF altered volume, TRIMP, and session count by 19 ± 13%, 13 ± 9%, and 41 ± 67% (p < 0.001). On an individual level, training intensity distribution changed in 3% of the valid weeks. Athletes exercised 31% of their weekly volume below 60% HRmax. Low to moderate intensities dominated during OFF with 87% (95% CI [79, 95]); however, in some weeks high-intensity activities > 89% HRmax during OFF amounted to 21 min·week⁻¹ (95% CI [4, 45]). No effect of OFF on changes of performance surrogates was found (0.072 > p > 0.604). The integration of OFF substantially altered volume, TRIMP, and session count. However, no effect on performance was found.
... Extreme training loads are required for elite-athlete success, especially in endurance sports [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. At the elite/ professional level, peak training volumes can exceed 30 h/ week in weight-supported endurance sports such as swimming, cycling, triathlon and rowing [1][2][3][4], resulting in substantial exercise energy expenditures (EEE). ...
... Extreme training loads are required for elite-athlete success, especially in endurance sports [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. At the elite/ professional level, peak training volumes can exceed 30 h/ week in weight-supported endurance sports such as swimming, cycling, triathlon and rowing [1][2][3][4], resulting in substantial exercise energy expenditures (EEE). Furthermore, performance constraints of many sports also favor an ideal power (or force) to weight ratio [9][10][11], incentivizing body mass/composition manipulations via adjustment of energy intake (EI) [12][13][14]. ...
... Another key real-world elite athlete consideration is an appreciation of the absolute EEEs implemented by elite/ professional endurance athletes compared to typical study designs, as highlighted in Table 2. For example, training volumes can approach ~ 30 h/week in endurance sports such as swimming, cycling, and rowing [1][2][3][4]. This volume of training can easily project (depending on body mass, exercise intensity and mode of exercise) to at least ~ 20,000-35,000 kcal/week for just EEE (~ 2500-5000 kcal/day of EEE at ~ 500-1000 kcal/h). ...
The symptom similarities between training-overload (with or without an Overtraining Syndrome (OTS) diagnosis) and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) are significant, with both initiating from a hypothalamic–pituitary origin, that can be influenced by low carbohydrate (CHO) and energy availability (EA). In this narrative review we wish to showcase that many of the negative outcomes of training-overload (with, or without an OTS diagnosis) may be primarily due to misdiagnosed under-fueling, or RED-S, via low EA and/or low CHO availability. Accordingly, we undertook an analysis of training-overload/OTS type studies that have also collected and analyzed for energy intake (EI), CHO, exercise energy expenditure (EEE) and/or EA. Eighteen of the 21 studies (86%) that met our criteria showed indications of an EA decrease or difference between two cohorts within a given study (n = 14 studies) or CHO availability decrease (n = 4 studies) during the training-overload/OTS period, resulting in both training-overload/OTS and RED-S symptom outcomes compared to control conditions. Furthermore, we demonstrate significantly similar symptom overlaps across much of the OTS (n = 57 studies) and RED-S/Female Athlete Triad (n = 88 studies) literature. It is important to note that the prevention of under-recovery is multi-factorial, but many aspects are based around EA and CHO availability. Herein we have demonstrated that OTS and RED-S have many shared pathways, symptoms, and diagnostic complexities. Substantial attention is required to increase the knowledge and awareness of RED-S, and to enhance the diagnostic accuracy of both OTS and RED-S, to allow clinicians to more accurately exclude LEA/RED-S from OTS diagnoses.
... Training of competitive rowers generally includes rowing (ergometer and boat), non-specific endurance training like cycling or cross-country skiing, resistance training, and additional training like stretching or yoga. The volume of training increased over the decades to 1128 (1104-1200) h/year in Norwegian rowers (16) and we can assume that most elite rowers train around 25 h/week (16,44). There are two reasons or "justifications" for these high volumes: First, the development of rowing technique and crew efficiency requires sufficient time. ...
... Training of competitive rowers generally includes rowing (ergometer and boat), non-specific endurance training like cycling or cross-country skiing, resistance training, and additional training like stretching or yoga. The volume of training increased over the decades to 1128 (1104-1200) h/year in Norwegian rowers (16) and we can assume that most elite rowers train around 25 h/week (16,44). There are two reasons or "justifications" for these high volumes: First, the development of rowing technique and crew efficiency requires sufficient time. ...
... Secondly, the attempt to optimize aerobic endurance performance through volume-based training; i.e., adaption of the cardio-respiratory system and in particular of the skeletal muscle via mitochondrial biogenesis (24). Indeed, there is clear evidence that endurance performance increases with training volume in rowers (16), runners (14), and that very high volumes at low intensity can prepare for world records in high intensity exercise Mechanical power output, heart rate, blood lactate, oxygen uptake, respiratory ratio, and calculated energy expenditure at first and second lactate threshold in 11 elite rowers during rowing ergometer testing. LT1 and LT2: Lactate threshold 1 and 2 according to (12); [Lac]: blood lactate concentration; VO 2 : oxygen consumption; VO 2 max: percent of maximum oxygen consumption; RER: respiratory exchange ratio; AEE: activity related energy expenditure; CHO and LIP: percentage of carbohydrates and fat, respectively, contributing to AEE. ...
Olympic rowing in its current form is a high-intensity boat race covering a distance of 2000 m with fastest race times ranging ~5.5-7.5 min, depending on boat class, sex, and environmental factors. To realize such race times, rowers need strength and endurance, which is physiologically evident in an oxidative Adaption of the skeletal muscles, a high aerobic capacity, and the ability to contribute and sustain a relatively high percentage of anaerobic energy for several minutes. Anthropometrically, male and female rowers are characterized by relatively large body measurements. Biomechanics & Physiology: The sitting position of the rower, the involvement of a large muscle mass and the structure of the rowing cycle, consisting of drive and recovery phase where the rower slides back and forth on a sliding seat, affect the cardiovascular and the respiratory system in a unique manner. In Addition to these physiological and anthropometric characteristics, this brief review outlines the extreme metabolic implications of the sport during racing and training and mentions rarely-discussed topics such as established testing procedures, summarizes data on training intensity distribution in elite rowing and includes a short section on heat stress during training and racing in hot and humid conditions expected for the Olympic Games 2021 in Tokyo.
... Many successful athletes in typical endurance sports supplement their sport-specific training with alternative activity forms, so called cross-training [110][111][112][113]. Arguments supporting the inclusion of such non-specific training include injury prevention, aerobic capacity benefits, strengthening "weak links", and avoidance of training monotony [113,114]. ...
... The training organization models outlined in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s are still valid, as we and others have systematically quantified the training of successful endurance athletes in a range of sports and reported a "polarized" (i.e., significant proportions of both high-and low-intensity training and a smaller proportion of threshold training) [122,123] or pyramidal (i.e., most training is at low intensity, with gradually decreasing proportions of threshold and high-intensity training) intensity distribution [124]. Modern endurance training practice among elite performers in numerous sports [110][111][112][125][126][127][128][129][130][131][132] is dominated by frequent sessions and high total volumes of low intensity training combined with smaller volumes of high intensity training organized as 2-4 "key workouts" in most training weeks. This training organization also holds true for well-trained and worldleading middle-distance runners [10,16,17,133], although 800-m runners apply a greater proportion of training at higher intensities than 1500-m runners (see Sect. 6.3). ...
... While training volume in typical endurance sports can be quantified in a straightforward manner using number of sessions, hours and kilometers, quantification of training intensity is more complicated. In scientific studies of elite endurance athletes, 3-or 5-zone intensity scales have been developed based on either external work rates (running pace or types of training), internal physiological responses (VO 2 , blood lactate and/or heart rate ranges) or how the training was perceived [62,[110][111][112][125][126][127][128][129]. These previously developed scales are not applicable for middle-distance runners because (1) parts of their training are performed at considerably higher intensities, and (2) middle-distance athletes exhibit physiological training responses different from aerobic endurance athletes (e.g., higher blood lactate levels). ...
Despite an increasing amount of research devoted to middle-distance training (herein the 800 and 1500 m events), information regarding the training methodologies of world-class runners is limited. Therefore, the objective of this review was to integrate scientific and best practice literature and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite middle-distance performance. Herein, we describe how well-known training principles and fundamental training characteristics are applied by world-leading middle-distance coaches and athletes to meet the physiological and neuromus-cular demands of 800 and 1500 m. Large diversities in physiological profiles and training emerge among middle-distance runners, justifying a categorization into types across a continuum (400-800 m types, 800 m specialists, 800-1500 m types, 1500 m specialists and 1500-5000 m types). Larger running volumes (120-170 vs. 50-120 km·week −1 during the preparation period) and higher aerobic/anaerobic training distribution (90/10 vs. 60/40% of the annual running sessions below vs. at or above anaerobic threshold) distinguish 1500-and 800-m runners. Lactate tolerance and lactate production training are regularly included interval sessions by middle-distance runners, particularly among 800-m athletes. In addition, 800-m runners perform more strength, power and plyometric training than 1500-m runners. Although the literature is biased towards men and "long-distance thinking," this review provides a point of departure for scientists and practitioners to further explore and quantify the training and development of elite 800-and 1500-m running performance and serves as a position statement for outlining current state-of-the-art middle-distance training recommendations.
... Depending on the specific quantification approach (i.e., categorizing the distribution of whole sessions vs. minute for minute time-in-zone), about 80-90% of endurance training is performed at low intensity (below the first lactate or ventilatory turn point), while the remaining 10-20% is performed at higher intensity [2,7,14,18,22]. While the interaction between training volume and intensity distribution is well described at an annual and monthly level in rowing [1][2][3][4][5], cross-country (XC) skiing [7,8,[24][25][26], road cycling [9][10][11][12], long-distance running [13][14][15][16][20][21][22][23], swimming [17][18][19] and triathlon [27][28][29], corresponding information for prescription and execution of individual endurance training sessions are sparse. ...
... This study shows that many of the best practitioners within endurance sports supplement their LIT sessions in the specific modalities with cross-training, in line with previous studies [1,7,8,25]. The application of cross-training differs substantially across sports, not only because of movement constraints and associated load management, but also for seasonal reasons. ...
Background
Our scientific understanding of the mechanistic and practical connections between training session prescriptions, their execution by athletes, and adaptations over time in elite endurance sports remains limited. These connections are fundamental to the art and science of coaching.
Objective
By using successful Norwegian endurance coaches as key informants, the aim of this study is to describe and compare best practice session models across different exercise intensities in Olympic endurance sports.
Methods
Data collection was based on a four-step pragmatic qualitative study design, involving questionnaires, training logs from successful athletes, and in-depth and semi-structured interviews, followed by negotiation among researchers and coaches to assure our interpretations. Twelve successful and experienced male Norwegian coaches from biathlon, cross-country skiing, long-distance running, road cycling, rowing, speed skating, swimming, and triathlon were chosen as key informants. They had been responsible for the training of world-class endurance athletes who altogether have won > 370 medals in international championships.
Results
The duration of low-intensity training (LIT) sessions ranges from 30 min to 7 h across sports, mainly due to modality-specific constraints and load tolerance considerations. Cross-training accounts for a considerable part of LIT sessions in several sports. Moderate (MIT)- and high-intensity training (HIT) sessions are mainly conducted as intervals in specific modalities, but competitions also account for a large proportion of annual HIT in most sports. Interval sessions are characterized by a high accumulated volume, a progressive increase in intensity throughout the session, and a controlled, rather than exhaustive, execution approach. A clear trend towards shorter intervals and lower work: rest ratio with increasing intensity was observed. Overall, the analyzed sports implement considerably more MIT than HIT sessions across the annual cycle.
Conclusions
This study provides novel insights on quantitative and qualitative aspects of training session models across intensities employed by successful athletes in Olympic endurance sports. The interval training sessions revealed in this study are generally more voluminous, more controlled, and less exhaustive than most previous recommendations outlined in research literature.
... The method is commonly viewed in the context of athletic performance and has been a staple of training programs for high-level endurance athletes for over a century [2,3]. It is deemed critical for success in sports and events such as middle-and longdistance running [2,4], cycling [5], swimming [6], rowing [7], and cross-country skiing [8]. A central tenet of interval training in an athletic context is to accumulate a greater volume of work at a higher intensity than could be achieved There is no common definition of "high-intensity interval training" (HIIT) despite its widespread use. ...
... Nevertheless, Rønnestad et al. demonstrated that when training programs were matched for total volume and intensity, 3 weeks of repeated sprint interval sessions [3 sets (13 × 30-s intervals at maximal sustainable intensity, with 15 s recovery) with 3 min between sets] improved V O 2 max , maximal aerobic power, and 20-min cycling power in elite male cyclists (mean V O 2 max of 73 ± 4 mL kg −1 min −1 ), and this did not occur with RPE-matched longer interval sessions (4 × 5-min intervals at maximal sustainable intensity with 2.5 min recovery) [73]. While this type of high-volume repeated, short-interval training has been used for decades [2], it may not be commonly employed in endurance training programs [4,7,37,74], and thus might represent a stimulus for further performance enhancement in this population. ...
Interval training is a simple concept that refers to repeated bouts of relatively hard work interspersed with recovery periods of easier work or rest. The method has been used by high-level athletes for over a century to improve performance in endurance-type sports and events such as middle- and long-distance running. The concept of interval training to improve health, including in a rehabilitative context or when practiced by individuals who are relatively inactive or deconditioned, has also been advanced for decades. An important issue that affects the interpretation and application of interval training is the lack of standardized terminology. This particularly relates to the classification of intensity. There is no common definition of the term “high-intensity interval training” (HIIT) despite its widespread use. We contend that in a performance context, HIIT can be characterized as intermittent exercise bouts performed above the heavy-intensity domain. This categorization of HIIT is primarily encompassed by the severe-intensity domain. It is demarcated by indicators that principally include the critical power or critical speed, or other indices, including the second lactate threshold, maximal lactate steady state, or lactate turnpoint. In a health context, we contend that HIIT can be characterized as intermittent exercise bouts performed above moderate intensity. This categorization of HIIT is primarily encompassed by the classification of vigorous intensity. It is demarcated by various indicators related to perceived exertion, oxygen uptake, or heart rate as defined in authoritative public health and exercise prescription guidelines. A particularly intense variant of HIIT commonly termed “sprint interval training” can be distinguished as repeated bouts performed with near-maximal to “all out” effort. This characterization coincides with the highest intensity classification identified in training zone models or exercise prescription guidelines, including the extreme-intensity domain, anaerobic speed reserve, or near-maximal to maximal intensity classification. HIIT is considered an essential training component for the enhancement of athletic performance, but the optimal intensity distribution and specific HIIT prescription for endurance athletes is unclear. HIIT is also a viable method to improve cardiorespiratory fitness and other health-related indices in people who are insufficiently active, including those with cardiometabolic diseases. Research is needed to clarify responses to different HIIT strategies using robust study designs that employ best practices. We offer a perspective on the topic of HIIT for performance and health, including a conceptual framework that builds on the work of others and outlines how the method can be defined and operationalized within each context.
... Therefore, to successfully cope with such high demands, water sport athletes (WSA) invest many hours of training per minute of competition [10]. For example, international medal-winning rowers spent ~ 1100-1200 h of training per year [11]; if these rowers practiced continuously for the 52 weeks of the year, this would represent an average of ~ 23 weekly hours of training. Therefore, the allocated time should be devoted towards optimal and time-efficient training activities [12]. ...
... Similar to the surface type, only 4 out of 26 of the included studies in this meta-analyses used a tapering approach. This is considered an important programming variable for PJT [175] and competitive performance [176][177][178], particularly after interventions involving a large volume-load of training, commonly occurring for WSA [7][8][9][10][11]. Moreover, some PJT interventions involved up to ~ 28,000 total jumps. ...
Background A growing body of literature is available regarding the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on measures of physical fitness (PF) and sport-specific performance (SSP) in-water sports athletes (WSA, i.e. those competing in sports that are practiced on [e.g. rowing] or in [e.g. swimming; water polo] water). Indeed, incoherent findings have been observed across individual studies making it difficult to provide the scientific community and coaches with consistent evidence. As such, a comprehensive systematic literature search should be conducted to clarify the existent evidence, identify the major gaps in the literature, and offer recommendations for future studies. Aim To examine the effects of PJT compared with active/specific-active controls on the PF (one-repetition maximum back squat strength, squat jump height, countermovement jump height, horizontal jump distance, body mass, fat mass, thigh girth) and SSP (in-water vertical jump, in-water agility, time trial) outcomes in WSA, through a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized controlled studies. Methods The electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to January 2022. According to the PICOS approach, the eligibility criteria were: (population) healthy WSA; (intervention) PJT interventions involving unilateral and/or bilateral jumps, and a minimal duration of ≥ 3 weeks; (comparator) active (i.e. standard sports training) or specific-active (i.e. alternative training intervention) control group(s); (outcome) at least one measure of PF (e.g. jump height) and/or SSP (e.g. time trial) before and after training; and (study design) multi-groups randomized and non-randomized controlled trials. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was used to compute the meta-analyses, reporting effect sizes (ES, i.e. Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Certainty or confidence in the body of evidence for each outcome was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE), considering its five dimensions: risk of bias in studies, indirectness, inconsistency, imprecision, and risk of publication bias. Results A total of 11,028 studies were identified with 26 considered eligible for inclusion. The median PEDro score across the included studies was 5.5 (moderate-to-high methodological quality). The included studies involved a total of 618 WSA of both sexes (330 participants in the intervention groups [31 groups] and 288 participants in the control groups [26 groups]), aged between 10 and 26 years, and from different sports disciplines such as swimming, triathlon, rowing, artistic swimming, and water polo. The duration of the training programmes in the intervention and control groups ranged from 4 to 36 weeks. The results of the meta-analysis indicated no effects of PJT compared to control conditions (including specific-active controls) for in-water vertical jump or agility (ES = − 0.15 to 0.03; p = 0.477 to 0.899), or for body mass, fat mass, and thigh girth (ES = 0.06 to 0.15; p = 0.452 to 0.841). In terms of measures of PF, moderate-to-large effects were noted in favour of the PJT groups compared to the control groups (including specific-active control groups) for one-repetition maximum back squat strength, horizontal jump distance, squat jump height, and countermovement jump height (ES = 0.67 to 1.47; p = 0.041 to < 0.001), in addition to a small effect noted in favour of the PJT for SSP time-trial speed (ES = 0.42; p = 0.005). Certainty of evidence across the included studies varied from very low-to-moderate. Conclusions PJT is more effective to improve measures of PF and SSP in WSA compared to control conditions involving traditional sport-specific training as well as alternative training interventions (e.g. resistance training). It is worth noting that the present findings are derived from 26 studies of moderate-to-high methodological quality, low-to-moderate impact of heterogeneity, and very low-to-moderate certainty of evidence based on GRADE. Trial registration The protocol for this systematic review with meta-analysis was published in the Open Science platform (OSF) on January 23, 2022, under the registration doi https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/NWHS3 (internet archive link: https://archive.org/details/osf-registrations-nwhs3-v1).
... Therefore, to successfully cope with such high demands, water sport athletes (WSA) invest many hours of training per minute of competition [10]. For example, international medal-winning rowers spent ~ 1100-1200 h of training per year [11]; if these rowers practiced continuously for the 52 weeks of the year, this would represent an average of ~ 23 weekly hours of training. Therefore, the allocated time should be devoted towards optimal and time-efficient training activities [12]. ...
... Similar to the surface type, only 4 out of 26 of the included studies in this meta-analyses used a tapering approach. This is considered an important programming variable for PJT [175] and competitive performance [176][177][178], particularly after interventions involving a large volume-load of training, commonly occurring for WSA [7][8][9][10][11]. Moreover, some PJT interventions involved up to ~ 28,000 total jumps. ...
Background: A growing body of literature is available regarding the effects of plyometric jump training (PJT) on measures of physical fitness (PF) and sport-specific performance (SSP) in water sports athletes (WSA, i.e., those competing in sports that are practiced on [e.g., rowing] or in [e.g., swimming; water polo] water). Indeed, incoherent findings have been observed across individual studies making it difficult to provide the scientific community and coaches with consistent evidence. As such, a comprehensive systematic literature search should be conducted to clarify the existent evidence, identify the major gaps in the literature, and offer recommendations for future studies.
Aim: To examine the effects of PJT compared with active/specific-active controls on the PF (one-repetition maximum back squat strength, squat jump height, countermovement jump height, horizontal jump distance, body mass, fat mass, thigh girth) and SSP (in-water vertical jump, in-water agility, time trial) outcomes in WSA, through a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized controlled studies.
Methods: The electronic databases PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to January 2022. According to the PICOS approach, the eligibility criteria were: (population) healthy WSA; (intervention) PJT interventions involving unilateral and/or bilateral jumps, and a minimal duration of ≥3 weeks; (comparator) active (i.e., standard sports training) or specific-active (i.e., alternative training-intervention) control group(s); (outcome) at least one measure of PF (e.g., jump height) and/or SSP (e.g., time-trial) before and after training; and (study design) multi-groups randomized and non-randomized controlled trials. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. The DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model was used to compute the meta-analyses, reporting effect sizes (ES, i.e., Hedges’ g) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). Statistical significance was set at p ≤0.05. Certainty or confidence in the body of evidence for each outcome was assessed using Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE), considering its five dimensions: risk of bias in studies, indirectness, inconsistency, imprecision, and risk of publication bias.
Results: A total of 11,028 studies were identified with 26 considered eligible for inclusion. The median PEDro score across the included studies was 5.5 (moderate-to-high methodological quality). The included studies involved a total of 618 WSA of both sexes (330 participants in the intervention groups [31 groups] and 288 participants in the control groups [26 groups]), aged between 10 to 26 years, and from different sports disciplines such as swimming, triathlon, rowing, artistic swimming, and water polo. The duration of the training programs in the intervention and control groups ranged from 4 to 36 weeks. Results of the meta-analysis indicated no effects of PJT compared to control conditions (including specific-active controls) for in-water vertical jump or agility (ES = -0.15 to 0.03; p = 0.477 to 0.899), nor for body mass, fat mass, and thigh girth (ES = 0.06 to 0.15; p = 0.452 to 0.841). In terms of measures of PF, moderate-to-large effects were noted in favour of the PJT groups compared to the control groups (including specific-active control groups) for one-repetition maximum back squat strength, horizontal jump distance, squat jump height, and countermovement jump height (ES = 0.67 to 1.47; p = 0.041 to <0.001), in addition to small effect noted in favour of the PJT for SSP time-trial speed (ES = 0.42; p = 0.005). Certainty of evidence across the included studies varied from very low-to-moderate.
Conclusions: PJT is more effective to improve measures of PF and SSP in WSA compared to control conditions involving traditional sport-specific training as well as alternative training interventions (e.g., resistance training). It is worth noting that the present findings are derived from 26 studies of moderate-to-high methodological quality, low-to-moderate impact of heterogeneity, and very low-to-moderate certainty of evidence based on GRADE.
... Most world-leading marathon runners train 500-700 h year −1 , while most corresponding track runners are in the range 450-600 h year −1 [15, 40-43, 54, 73, 76, 79, 87, 94]. The relatively broad ranges in training volume are also present in other endurance sports [132,[144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153] and are likely explained by individual differences in mechanical training load tolerance, intensity distribution, risk willingness, training age/career stage, application of cross-training, genetics and perhaps also psychological factors. The present training volume observations are in line with other studies of top-class long-and middle-distance athletes [19-21, 27, 28, 34], but a larger proportion of middle-distance training is devoted to strength, power, and plyometric training (particularly in 800-m runners) [34]. ...
... The present training volume observations are in line with other studies of top-class long-and middle-distance athletes [19-21, 27, 28, 34], but a larger proportion of middle-distance training is devoted to strength, power, and plyometric training (particularly in 800-m runners) [34]. Successful endurance athletes in cross-country skiing, biathlon, cycling, triathlon, swimming, and rowing train considerably more (800-1200 h per year) [132,[144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153]. This is likely explained by the fact that LDR is a weight-bearing exercise where rapid plyometric muscle actions put high loads on muscles and tendons during each step. ...
In this review we integrate the scientific literature and results-proven practice and outline a novel framework for understanding the training and development of elite long-distance performance. Herein, we describe how fundamental training characteristics and well-known training principles are applied. World-leading track runners (i.e., 5000 and 10,000 m) and marathon specialists participate in 9 ± 3 and 6 ± 2 (mean ± SD) annual competitions, respectively. The weekly running distance in the mid-preparation period is in the range 160–220 km for marathoners and 130–190 km for track runners. These differences are mainly explained by more running kilometers on each session for marathon runners. Both groups perform 11–14 sessions per week, and ≥ 80% of the total running volume is performed at low intensity throughout the training year. The training intensity distribution vary across mesocycles and differ between marathon and track runners, but common for both groups is that volume of race-pace running increases as the main competition approaches. The tapering process starts 7–10 days prior to the main competition. While the African runners live and train at high altitude (2000–2500 m above sea level) most of the year, most lowland athletes apply relatively long altitude camps during the preparation period. Overall, this review offers unique insights into the training characteristics of world-class distance runners by integrating scientific literature and results-proven practice, providing a point of departure for future studies related to the training and development in the Olympic long-distance events.
... Their performance is widely understood in terms of the model of Joyner and Coyle (2), which integrates the sustained ability to produce ATP aerobically and convert muscular work to power/speed. Beyond the well-documented favorable effect of doing a larger volume of training, often exceeding 1000 h·yr −1 in some elite athletes, there is clear evidence of a historical trend toward more lower-intensity training and of a dose-response relationship between the training load and subsequent performance (3)(4)(5)(6). Expressed simply, successful athletes attempt to optimize the adaptive effects (improved performance) while mitigating side effects (fatigue, injury, overreaching, overtraining syndrome) of their training regimes (7). ...
... Around the turn of the 21st century, taking advantage of improved methods of monitoring training, several observational reports emerged that elite endurance athletes, in a number of sporting disciplines, were apparently self-selecting for a TID dominated by a high (70%-90%) percentage of training below the lactate/ventilatory threshold (zone 1), a very low percentage (<10%) of training between the first and second lactate/ ventilatory thresholds (zone 2), and a limited amount (10%-20%) of training at intensities in excess of the second lactate/ ventilatory thresholds (zone 3) (3,4,6,8,9,(12)(13)(14)(15). Regardless of the specific details by different coaching groups, this organizational pattern can be understood in terms of three intensity zones anchored by the two thresholds. ...
... Innovative recovery systems also have an impact on the athletic performance of combat fighters [8]. It is not a surprise then that some athletes spend 17% of their waking time in training [9]. Exceptional engagement in training might be particularly important for judo since it is a very demanding type of physical activity that requires the involvement of the entire body and a modifiable set of technical-tactical skills [10,11]. ...
... Judo is a very demanding type of sport that requires the involvement of the entire body and a modifiable set of technical and tactical skills [9]. Judo athletes often engage in 20 h of intense training per week [26], which might result in the development of overtraining syndrome [11] and further leads to an elevated risk of developing an injury. ...
Elite judo athletes undergo vigorous training to achieve outstanding results. In pursuit of achieving competitive success, the occurrence of injuries amongst judo athletes is not rare. The study aimed to perform a knee flexors and extensors isokinetic torque analysis in elite female judo athletes. Fifty-eight elite female judo athletes of the Serbian national team (21.02 ± 3.11 years; 62.36 ± 11.91 kg, 165.04 ± 10.24 cm, training experience 12.72 ± 2.98 years) volunteered to participate in this study. The range of motion (ROM) was set at 90⁰. Testing was performed in a concentric-concentric mode for the testing speed of 60 ⁰/s. Five maximal voluntary contractions of knee extensors and knee flexors muscle groups were measured for both legs. The obtained data showed a statistically significant difference in absolute torque values among different categories as heavier athletes demonstrated higher values. Post hoc analysis showed a significant difference between weight categories, as heavier athletes demonstrated higher values, while no significant differences in normalized torque values for different weight categories were observed. The implementation of new elements and training modalities may improve performance and prevent lateral asymmetry, thus reducing the risk of injury.
... Rowing training is mainly focused on improving aerobic capacity (Rämson et al., 2008;, and an increase in prolonged low-intensity endurance rowing training sessions has been observed during the last decades (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;). It appears that endurance training below anaerobic threshold (AnT) is the mainstay of success in rowing (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;Mäestu et al., 2005). ...
... Rowing training is mainly focused on improving aerobic capacity (Rämson et al., 2008;, and an increase in prolonged low-intensity endurance rowing training sessions has been observed during the last decades (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;). It appears that endurance training below anaerobic threshold (AnT) is the mainstay of success in rowing (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;Mäestu et al., 2005). However, in response to high-volume low-intensity rowing training sessions, some athletes may not be able to maintain sufficient energy intake (Rämson et al., 2008;Kurgan et al., 2018), which can lead to a negative energy homeostasis in these athletes (Jürimäe et al., 2011). ...
Purpose: This study examined selected myokine responses to an endurance rowing training session, and whether metabolic demands of the acute aerobic rowing exercise together with training volume, aerobic capacity, and body composition variables affect potential exercise-induced changes in the myokine levels in female rowers.
Methods: Fifteen national level female rowers [18.3 ± 1.6 years; 172.0 ± 5.0 cm, 67.5 ± 8.8 kg; maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max): 47.2 ± 7.9 ml.min.⁻¹ kg⁻¹] performed a 1-h rowing ergometer exercise at the intensity of 70% of VO2max [distance: 12.1 ± 1.1 km; energy expenditure (EE): 639 ± 69 kcal; heart rate (HR): 151 ± 7 beats.min⁻¹] followed by a 30-min recovery period. Venous blood samples were collected before and after exercise, and analyzed for irisin, fibroplast growth factor-21 (FGF-21), and follistatin conentrations.
Results: Plasma irisin and FGF-21 concentrations were increased (by 8%; p = 0.013 and by 13%; p < 0.0001, respectively) immediately after the aerobic rowing exercise. Follistatin was significantly increased (by 11%; p = 0.001) only after the first 30 min of recovery. Exercise metabolic demand variables such as distance covered and total EE were correlated with the pre-to-post-exercise increases in FGF-21 concentrations (r = 0.52; p = 0.047 and r = 0.68; p = 0.005, respectively). Exercise-induced increases in irisin levels were related to aerobic capacity as measured by VO2max (r = 0.53; p = 0.041) and training stress as measured by weekly training volume (r = 0.54; p = 0.039) in female rowers.
Conclusion: Acute negative energy balance induced by a single endurance rowing training session elicited significant increases in irisin, FGF-21, and follistatin levels in national level female rowers. While exercise-induced increases in FGF-21 levels were associated with exercise metabolic demand measures, exercise-induced increases in irisin concentrations were related to aerobic capacity and training stress measures in female rowers.
... THR consists of > 35% training in Z2, with the remaining distributed between Z1-Z3 [93]. In the last decade, there has been preferential adoption of POL [43] in detriment of THR [26,44,66,97]. Observational studies indicate that most world-class endurance [88] and recreational runners [61] use POL as well as middle distance and long distance runners [8,9,48], swimmers [32] and cyclists [28], with progressive abandonment of THR TID. ...
Conflicting evidence exists regarding the superiority of Polarized Training (POL) vs other training intensity distribution models. Compare POL vs threshold (THR) training on V̇O 2 max, endurance capacity (EC) and mitochondrial function. Fifteen male Wistar rats (336.1 ± 30.4 g) were divided in: POL ( n = 5), THR ( n = 5) or control (CON; n = 5) groups. V̇O 2 max (indirect calorimetry) and EC (treadmill exhaustion test) were determined at baseline four and eight-weeks of training. POL consisted of 80% running volume at 60%V̇O 2 max and 20% at 90%V̇O 2 max while THR trained only at 75%V̇O 2 max. Both protocols were isocaloric and performed 5d/week. All animals were housed in cages with access to running wheel to allow ad libitum activity. After training, animals were sacrificed and left ventricle (LV) myocardium, diaphragm, tibialis anterior and soleus muscles were collected for high-resolution respirometry, biochemical and histological analysis. There were no baseline differences between groups. After training V̇O 2 max and EC were similar between POL and THR even though THR V̇O 2 max was higher compared to CON. After training, there were also no significant differences in OXPHOS or any of the other major mitochondrial function markers assessed between POL and THR in any of the tissues analyzed. The expression of MFN1, MFN2, PGC-1α, TFAM, DRP1, OPA1 and TOM20 as well as the activity of citrate synthase were also similar between POL and THR in all tissues. There were no significant differences in endurance performance or markers of bioenergetic function between POL and THR after eight-weeks of training.
... This transition was recorded during 3-4-decade duration and explained the reasons for better performance by athletes, which increased by 10-20 percent in a particular sport. This training transition was seen for skaters in 38 years and rowers in 31 years [25,26]. This shift of spending more time in the low-intensity zone helped keep these elite athletes safe from the risk of injuries. ...
Background: Endurance sports demand a finely-tuned balance between training intensity and volume to optimize athletic performance. Training Intensity Distribution has become a critical training parameter in endurance sports, potentially eliciting superior physiological adaptations and improving overall performance outcomes. Training intensity distribution influences the body's aerobic and anaerobic energy systems, enhancing endurance performance. So, the study aims to explore the best training intensity distribution for elite athletes.Methods: We searched three electronic databases for original research articles. After analyzing the resultant original articles, studies were included if they met the following criteria: a) participants were endurance sport athletes; b) studies analyzed training intensity distribution in the form of interventions only; c) studies were published in peer-reviewed journals and d) studies analyzed training programs with a duration of 4 weeks or longer. The selected studies were then assessed using the PEDro scale.Results: During the search of the three electronic databases, we found 10 articles. Six favored polarized training, whereas one favored pyramidal training. Two showed that low-intensity dominant training is better, and one said that a transition from pyramidal to polarized training as the competition approaches is better. The mean PEDro scale rating is 4.9.Conclusion: Based on the research, both pyramidal and polarized training intensity distributions have merits and can be effective in different contexts. Ultimately, the choice between pyramidal and polarized training intensity distribution should consider individual athlete characteristics, sport-specific requirements, training phase, and other contextual factors.
... Considering that the endurance training volume of elite rowers is already near the maximum, 24 particularly from an energy expenditure perspective, 25 improving muscle strength could provide an opportunity for further enhancing performance. Particularly in light of the 2028 Los Angeles Olympics where the race distance will be reduced to 1500 m, maximizing boat speed and start performance is expected to become even more critical. ...
This study aimed to identify dynamic free-weight exercises for strength training and testing that are strong determinants
of specific rowing ergometer performance measures in elite female rowers. Methods: A cross-sectional study examined the
association between 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) power clean (PC1RM), 1RM bench row (BR1RM), 1RM back squat
(SQ1RM), 1RM bench press (BP1RM), and 1RM deadlift (DL1RM) with peak stroke power (PSP) and 2000-m (P 2000m ) and
5000-m time-trial average power (P5000m ) in 17 heavyweight elite female rowers. Results: Significant correlations were found
between SQ1RM, DL1RM, and PC1RM with all rowing performance measures (r = .56–.86, all P < .05). BR1RM correlated
significantly with PSP and P 2000m (r = .52 and .55, P < .01 and .05), and BP1RM with PSP only (r = .55, P < .01). PC1RM and
either DL1RM (R2 = 77%, P < .01) or SQ1RM (R2 = 76%, P < .01) were the greatest contributors to PSP. DL1RM and SQ1RM
together provided the greatest explained variance for P2000m (R2 = 72%, P < .01) and P5000m (R2 = 60%, P < .05). Conclusion:
SQ1RM, DL1RM, and PC1RM were the strongest determinants of rowing ergometer performance in elite female rowers and are
recommended for training and testing rowing-specific strength.
... Observational studies have shown that endurance athletes following a structured training program tend to accumulate large training volumes, the majority of which is accumulated at a low intensity, with a smaller portion at higher intensity [1,2]. There are several methods used to describe the different intensity zones/domains [2][3][4][5]. ...
Background
Endurance athletes tend to accumulate large training volumes, the majority of which are performed at a low intensity and a smaller portion at moderate and high intensity. However, different training intensity distributions (TID) are employed to maximize physiological and performance adaptations.
Objective
The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review and network meta-analysis of individual participant data to compare the effect of different TID models on maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and time-trial (TT) performance in endurance-trained athletes.
Methods
Studies were included if: (1) they were published in peer reviewed academic journals, (2) they were in English, (3) they were experimental or quasi-experimental studies, (4) they included trained endurance athletes, (5) they compared a polarized (POL) TID intervention to a comparator group that utilized a different TID model, (6) the duration in each intensity domain could be quantified, and (7) they reported VO2max or TT performance. Medline and SPORTDiscus were searched from inception until 11 February 2024.
Results
We included 13 studies with 348 (n = 296 male, n = 52 female) recreational (n = 150) and competitive (n = 198) endurance athletes. Mean age ranged from 17.6 to 41.5 years and VO2max ranged from 46.6 to 68.3 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, across studies respectively. Based on the time in heart rate zone approach, there was no difference in VO2max (SMD = − 0.06, p = 0.68) or TT performance (SMD = − 0.05, p = 0.34) between POL and pyramidal (PYR) interventions. There were no statistically significant differences between POL and any of the other TID interventions. Subgroup analysis showed a statistically significant difference in the response of VO2max between recreational and competitive athletes for POL and PYR (SMD = − 0.63, p < 0.05). Competitive athletes may have greater improvements to VO2max with POL, while recreational athletes may improve more with a PYR TID.
Conclusions
Our results indicate that the adaptations to VO2max following different TID interventions are dependent on performance level. Athletes at a more competitive level may benefit from a POL TID intervention and recreational athletes from a PYR TID intervention.
... In the triathletes group, POL increased power at ventilatory thresholds, maximal aerobic power (Pmax) and VO 2 max [12]. Similarly, in rowers, VO 2 max and 6-min ergometer rowing performance increased were observed as a result of POL [13]. In winter sports, the beneficial effect of POL has also been demonstrated. ...
This study compared the impact of two polarized training programs (POL) on aerobic capacity in well-trained (based on maximal oxygen uptake and training experience) female cyclists. Each 8-week POL program consisted of sprint interval training (SIT) consisting of 8–12 repetitions, each lasting 30 seconds at maximal intensity, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) consisting of 4–6 repetitions, each lasting 4 minutes at an intensity of 90–100% maximal aerobic power, and low-intensity endurance training (LIT) lasting 150–180 minutes with intensity at the first ventilatory threshold. Training sessions were organized into 4-day microcycles (1st day—SIT, 2nd day—HIIT, 3rd day—LIT, and 4th day—active rest), that were repeated throughout the experiment. In the first POL program, exercise repetitions during SIT and HIIT training were performed with freely chosen cadence above 80 RPM (POLFC group, n = 12), while in the second POL program with low cadence 50–70 RPM (POLLC group, n = 12). Immediately before and after the 8-week POL intervention, participants performed an incremental test to measure maximal aerobic power (Pmax), power achieved at the second ventilatory threshold (VT2), maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), maximal pulmonary ventilation (VEmax), and gross efficiency (GE). Moreover, participants performed VO2max verification test. Analysis of variance showed a repeated measures effect for Pmax (F = 21.62; η² = 0.5; p = 0.00), VO2max (F = 39.39; η² = 0.64; p = 0.00) and VEmax (F = 5.99; η² = 0.21; p = 0.02). A repeated measures x group mixed effect was demonstrated for Pmax (F = 4.99; η² = 0.18; p = 0.03) and VO2max (F = 6.67; η² = 0.23; p = 0.02). Post-hoc Scheffe analysis showed that increase in Pmax were statistically significant only in POLLC group. The Friedman test showed that VT2 differed between repeated measures only in the POLLC group (χ² = 11; p = 0.001; W = 0.917). In conclusion, it was found that POL program where SIT and HIIT were performed at low cadence was more effective in improving aerobic capacity in well-trained female cyclists, than POL with SIT and HIIT performed at freely chosen cadence. This finding is a practical application for athletes and coaches in cycling, to consider not only the intensity and duration but also the cadence used during various interval training sessions.
... Training prescription typically relies on three key variables: frequency, volume, and intensity. The interaction of these variables can be used to quantify the training intensity distribution (TID) of an athlete [1]. To prescribe training intensity and calculate TID, various zones (Z) are typically determined by exercise testing. ...
Background
Various studies have shown that the type of intensity measure affects training intensity distribution (TID) computation. These conclusions arise from studies presenting data from meso- and macrocycles, while microcycles, e.g., high-intensity interval training shock microcycles (HIIT-SM) have been neglected so far. Previous literature has suggested that the time spent in the high-intensity zone, i.e., zone 3 (Z3) or the “red zone”, during HIIT may be important to achieve improvements in endurance performance parameters. Therefore, this randomized controlled trial aimed to compare the TID based on running velocity (TIDV), running power (TIDP) and heart rate (TIDHR) during a 7-day HIIT-SM. Twenty-nine endurance-trained participant were allocated to a HIIT-SM consisting of 10 HIIT sessions without (HSM, n = 9) or with (HSM + LIT, n = 9) additional low-intensity training or a control group (n = 11). Moreover, we explored relationships between time spent in Z3 determined by running velocity (Z3V), running power (Z3P), heart rate (Z3HR), oxygen uptake (Z3V˙O2) and changes in endurance performance.
Results
Both intervention groups revealed a polarized pattern for TIDV (HSM: Z1: 38 ± 17, Z2: 16 ± 17, Z3: 46 ± 2%; HSM + LIT: Z1: 59 ± 18, Z2: 14 ± 18, Z3: 27 ± 2%) and TIDP (Z1: 50 ± 8, Z2: 14 ± 11, Z3: 36 ± 7%; Z1: 62 ± 15, Z2: 12 ± 16, Z3: 26 ± 2%), while TIDHR (Z1: 48 ± 13, Z2: 26 ± 11, Z3: 26 ± 7%; Z1: 65 ± 17, Z2: 22 ± 18, Z3: 13 ± 4%) showed a pyramidal pattern. Time in Z3HR was significantly less compared to Z3V and Z3P in both intervention groups (all p < 0.01). There was a time x intensity measure interaction for time in Z3 across the 10 HIIT sessions for HSM + LIT (p < 0.001, pη² = 0.30). Time in Z3V and Z3P within each single HIIT session remained stable over the training period for both intervention groups. Time in Z3HR declined in HSM from the first (47%) to the last (28%) session, which was more pronounced in HSM + LIT (45% to 16%). A moderate dose–response relationship was found for time in Z3V and changes in peak power output (rs = 0.52, p = 0.028) as well as time trial performance (rs = − 0.47, p = 0.049) with no such associations regarding time in Z3P, Z3HR, and Z3V˙O2.
Conclusion
The present study reveals that the type of intensity measure strongly affects TID computation during a HIIT-SM. As heart rate tends to underestimate the intensity during HIIT-SM, heart rate-based training decisions should be made cautiously. In addition, time in Z3V was most closely associated with changes in endurance performance. Thus, for evaluating a HIIT-SM, we suggest integrating a comprehensive set of intensity measures.
Trial Registration Trial register: Clinicaltrials.gov, registration number: NCT05067426.
... Peaking is a superior, biological state characterized by perfect health, a quick adaptability to training stimuli and a very good rate of recovery [3]. From a psychological point of view, peaking is a state of readiness for action. ...
Sports nutrition is a topic that is often misinterpreted and sometimes abused. The often-used "shot-gun" method to meeting caloric needs by simply increasing caloric intake disregarding nutrient source is scientifically contrary to the need for a more careful study of the nutritional requirements of rowers.
Rowing by itself is a very demanding sport as typical training sessions use exercise intensities that range from very low submaximal work to short term supramaximal efforts. The intake in calories should take into account also the type of race that the athlete will afford.
In the case of the rower Giovanni Ficarra who won, in 16 months, three world competitions in the three different rowing disciplines, his dietary needs and training schedule significantly changed according to the type of competition, to be prepared for the extreme load of physical effort required to get the podium in such different conditions. This article in intended to provide recommendation for both coaches and athletes that are approaching rowing in its whole meaning and disciplines as Giovanni Ficarra did.
... In THR training, volume in Z2 is emphasized (> 35%), with the remaining volume distributed between Z1 and Z3 [11]. THR was, until recently, the predominant endurance training model [12][13][14][15]. However, recent evidence suggesting the superiority of POL has led to its preferential adoption [16] by high-level [7] and recreational athletes [17] alike. ...
Background
Polarized training intensity distribution (POL) was recently suggested to be superior to other training intensity distribution (TID) regimens for endurance performance improvement.
Objective
We aimed to systematically review and meta-analyze evidence comparing POL to other TIDs on endurance performance.
Methods
PRISMA guidelines were followed. The protocol was registered at PROSPERO (CRD42022365117). PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched up to 20 October 2022 for studies in adults and young adults for ≥ 4 weeks comparing POL with other TID interventions regarding VO2peak, time-trial (TT), time to exhaustion (TTE) or speed or power at the second ventilatory or lactate threshold (V/P at VT2/LT2). Risk of bias was assessed with RoB-2 and ROBINS-I. Certainty of evidence was assessed with GRADE. Results were analyzed by random effects meta-analysis using standardized mean differences.
Results
Seventeen studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 437 subjects). Pooled effect estimates suggest POL superiority for improving VO2peak (SMD = 0.24 [95% CI 0.01, 0.48]; z = 2.02 (p = 0.040); 11 studies, n = 284; I² = 0%; high certainty of evidence). Superiority, however, only occurred in shorter interventions (< 12 weeks) (SMD = 0.40 [95% CI 0.08, 0.71; z = 2.49 (p = 0.01); n = 163; I² = 0%) and for highly trained athletes (SMD = 0.46 [95% CI 0.10, 0.82]; z = 2.51 (p = 0.01); n = 125; I² = 0%). The remaining endurance performance surrogates were similarly affected by POL and other TIDs: TT (SMD = – 0.01 [95% CI -0.28, 0.25]; z = − 0.10 (p = 0.92); n = 221; I² = 0%), TTE (SMD = 0.30 [95% CI – 0.20, 0.79]; z = 1.18 (p = 0.24); n = 66; I² = 0%) and V/P VT2/LT2 (SMD = 0.04 [95% CI -0.21, 0.29]; z = 0.32 (p = 0.75); n = 253; I² = 0%). Risk of bias for randomized controlled trials was rated as of some concern and for non-randomized controlled trials as low risk of bias (two studies) and some concerns (one study).
Conclusions
POL is superior to other TIDs for improving VO2peak, particularly in shorter duration interventions and highly trained athletes. However, the effect of POL was similar to that of other TIDs on the remaining surrogates of endurance performance. The results suggest that POL more effectively improves aerobic power but is similar to other TIDs for improving aerobic capacity.
... Shifting to the person perspective, it is noteworthy that athletes spend a substantial portion-up to 80%-of their waking time in off-training activities [25]. Thus, there is an impact of athletes' lifestyles on overall wellness and wellbeing [26]. ...
In elite sports, athletic excellence demands meticulous performance preparation and a sound health status. This paper overviews the current propositions and applications of pervasive computing and data analytics and our vision on how they should be used in future frameworks to contribute to the optimal balance of athletes’ performance and health requirements. Two main areas will be discussed. The first area is Sports Performance Optimization, in which we consider interesting recent advancements in data analytics for performance improvement, equipment design, and team member recruitment and selection. We will also briefly discuss how the betting industry has been relaying and developing sports analytics. The second area is Athlete’s Wellness and Wellbeing, which will discuss how wearables and data analytics have been used to assess physical activity and sedentary behavior profiles, sleep and circadian rhythm, nutrition and eating behavior, menstrual cycles, and training/performance readiness. In the final part of this paper, we argue that a critical issue for managers to enhance their decision making is the standardization of acquired information and decision-making processes, while introducing an adaptable, personalized approach. Thus, we present and discuss new theoretical and practical approaches that could potentially address this problem and identify precision medicine as a recommended methodology. This conceptualization involves the integration of pervasive computing and data analytics by employing predictive models that are constantly updated with the outcomes from monitoring tools and athletes’ feedback interventions. This framework has the potential to revolutionize how athletes’ performance and well-being are monitored, assessed, and optimized, contributing to a new era of precision in sports science and medicine.
... Training volume and intensity distribution are crucial parameters characterizing sports training. Endurance athletes typically train from 500 hours per year (~10h per week) (distance runners) [37][38][39][40][41][42][43] to over 1,000 hours per year (~20h per week) (rowing, swimming, cycling, triathlon) [21,22,[44][45][46][47][48][49][50] in order to reach an international level. The adolescent road cyclists in the present study trained approximately for 7.9 hours per week during PrPe. ...
Background: Road cycling is one of the most extreme endurance sports. Professional road cyclists typically train ~20 hours per week and cover ~600 km a week. The longest 1-day race in men’s cycling can be up to 300 km while the longest multiple-stage races can last up to 21 days. Twenty to seventy accelerations are performed during a race, exceeding maximal aerobic power. Training is a crucial component of athletes’ preparation for competitions. Therefore, strong emphasis should be on recording the applied training loads and monitoring how they influence aerobic and anaerobic fitness, as well as performance. The aim of the study was to analyze the training loads in the preparatory period and their effects on aerobic and anaerobic fitness in adolescent road cyclists. Materials and Methods: The study involved 23 highly trained/national elite male road cyclists. Of them, 16 athletes (age: 16.21.1 years; training experience: 5.02.1 years) fully completed all components of the study. Aerobic fitness was measured using cardiopulmonary exercise testing (graded exercise test to exhaustion), while anaerobic fitness was evaluated using the 30-second modified Wingate anaerobic test. Each recorded training session time was distributed across training and activity forms as well as intensity zones. Results: The endurance training form used in the preparatory period was characterized by low-volume (~7.7h×wk-1), nonpolarised (median polarization index 0.15) pyramidal intensity distribution (zone1~68%; zone2~26%; zone3~1% total training volume). Endurance (specific and non-specific) and strength training forms accounted for ~95% and ~5% (respectively) of the total training time. Conclusion: Low-volume, non-polarised pyramidal intensity distribution training is probably not an effective stimulus for improving physical fitness in adolescent road cyclists. Disregarding high-intensity exercises in training programs for adolescent cyclists may result in stagnation or deterioration of physical fitness.
... Participation in events such as these requires arduous, all-consuming and sustained preparatory programs. For example, elite rowers habitually train for around 30 h per week, with this training predominantly rowing specific, complemented by nonspecific endurance (e.g., running, swimming or cycling), resistance and mobility training (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;Tran et al., 2015;Winkert et al., 2022). Similarly high training volumes have been reported for other endurance athletes, including cyclists, runners and triathletes (Areta, 2020;Etxebarria et al., 2019;Haugen et al., 2022;Solli et al., 2017;Van Erp et al., 2019). ...
The Constrained Model of Total Energy Expenditure predicts that increased physical activity may not influence total energy expenditure, but instead, induces compensatory energetic savings in other processes. Much remains unknown, however, about concepts of energy expenditure, constraint and compensation in different populations, and it is unclear whether this model applies to endurance athletes, who expend very large amounts of energy during training and competition. Furthermore, it is well-established that some endurance athletes consciously or unconsciously fail to meet their energy requirements via adequate food intake, thus exacerbating the extent of energetic stress that they experience. Within this review we A) Describe unique characteristics of endurance athletes that render them a useful model to investigate energy constraints and compensations, B) Consider the factors that may combine to constrain activity and total energy expenditure, and C) Describe compensations that occur when activity energy expenditure is high and unmet by adequate energy intake. Our main conclusions are as follows: A) Higher activity levels, as observed in endurance athletes, may indeed increase total energy expenditure, albeit to a lesser degree than may be predicted by an additive model, given that some compensation is likely to occur; B) That while a range of factors may combine to constrain sustained high activity levels, the ability to ingest, digest, absorb and deliver sufficient calories from food to the working muscle is likely the primary determinant in most situations and C) That energetic compensation that occurs in the face of high activity expenditure may be primarily driven by low energy availability i.e., the amount of energy available for all biological processes after the demands of exercise have been met, and not by activity expenditure per se.
... For example, whether polarized or pyramidal training is more favorable to induce optimal endurance performance improvements is still not elucidated. Although successful endurance athletes complete a particularly large part of their training volume in the LiT zone (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;Guellich et al., 2009;Seiler, 2010), LiT is frequently performed at slightly higher real training intensities than intended, resulting in a bottom-up-shift towards ThT (Seiler, 2010;Röhrken et al., 2020). In turn, intended HiT is also shifting top-down towards ThT. ...
Introduction: Low-intensity endurance training is frequently performed at gradually higher training intensities than intended, resulting in a shift towards threshold training. By restricting oral breathing and only allowing for nasal breathing this shift might be reduced.
Methods: Nineteen physically healthy adults (3 females, age: 26.5 ± 5.1 years; height: 1.77 ± 0.08 m; body mass: 77.3 ± 11.4 kg; VO2peak: 53.4 ± 6.6 mL·kg⁻¹ min⁻¹) performed 60 min of self-selected, similar (144.7 ± 56.3 vs. 147.0 ± 54.2 W, p = 0.60) low-intensity cycling with breathing restriction (nasal-only breathing) and without restrictions (oro-nasal breathing). During these sessions heart rate, respiratory gas exchange data and power output data were recorded continuously.
Results: Total ventilation (p < 0.001, ηp ² = 0.45), carbon dioxide release (p = 0.02, ηp ² = 0.28), oxygen uptake (p = 0.03, ηp ² = 0.23), and breathing frequency (p = 0.01, ηp ² = 0.35) were lower during nasal-only breathing. Furthermore, lower capillary blood lactate concentrations were found towards the end of the training session during nasal-only breathing (time x condition-interaction effect: p = 0.02, ηp ² = 0.17). Even though discomfort was rated marginally higher during nasal-only breathing (p = 0.03, ηp ² = 0.24), ratings of perceived effort did not differ between the two conditions (p ≥ 0.06, ηp ² = 0.01). No significant “condition” differences were found for intensity distribution (time spent in training zone quantified by power output and heart rate) (p ≥ 0.24, ηp ² ≤ 0.07).
Conclusion: Nasal-only breathing seems to be associated with possible physiological changes that may help to maintain physical health in endurance athletes during low intensity endurance training. However, it did not prevent participants from performing low-intensity training at higher intensities than intended. Longitudinal studies are warranted to evaluate longitudinal responses of changes in breathing patterns.
... Multiweek intensified training has also been demonstrated to induce short-term mitochondrial and glycemic dysfunction (Flockhart et al., 2021). However, exercise typically makes up ≤ 17% of total daily hours even in elite athletes (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004) and results in increased insulin sensitivity for up to 16 h afterwards (Borghouts and Keizer, 2000) attenuating the prospect that acute hyperglycaemia during exercise is driving these elevation in 24-hour glucose values. In an initial controlled analysis of a progressive intensified training program, mitochondrial dysfunction, and acute signs of dysglycemia were discovered (Flockhart et al., 2021). ...
In exercise science, the crossover effect denotes that fat oxidation is the primary fuel at rest and during low-intensity exercise with a shift towards an increased reliance on carbohydrate oxidation at moderate to high exercise intensities. This model makes four predictions: First, >50% of energy comes from carbohydrate oxidation at ≥60% of maximum oxygen consumption (VO2max), termed the crossover point. Second, each individual has a maximum fat oxidation capacity (FATMAX) at an exercise intensity lower than the crossover point. FATMAX values are typically 0.3–0.6 g/min. Third, fat oxidation is minimized during exercise ≥85%VO2max, making carbohydrates the predominant energetic substrate during high-intensity exercise, especially at >85%VO2max. Fourth, high-carbohydrate low-fat (HCLF) diets will produce superior exercise performances via maximizing pre-exercise storage of this predominant exercise substrate. In a series of recent publications evaluating the metabolic and performance effects of low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF/ketogenic) diet adaptations during exercise of different intensities, we provide findings that challenge this model and these four predictions. First, we show that adaptation to the LCHF diet shifts the crossover point to a higher %VO2max (>80%VO2max) than previously reported. Second, substantially higher FATMAX values (>1.5 g/min) can be measured in athletes adapted to the LCHF diet. Third, endurance athletes exercising at >85%VO2max, whilst performing 6 × 800 m running intervals, measured the highest rates of fat oxidation yet reported in humans. Peak fat oxidation rates measured at 86.4 ± 6.2%VO2max were 1.58 ± 0.33 g/min with 30% of subjects achieving >1.85 g/min. These studies challenge the prevailing doctrine that carbohydrates are the predominant oxidized fuel during high-intensity exercise. We recently found that 30% of middle-aged competitive athletes presented with pre-diabetic glycemic values while on an HCLF diet, which was reversed on LCHF. We speculate that these rapid changes between diet, insulin, glucose homeostasis, and fat oxidation might be linked by diet-induced changes in mitochondrial function and insulin action. Together, we demonstrate evidence that challenges the current crossover concept and demonstrate evidence that a LCHF diet may also reverse features of pre-diabetes and future metabolic disease risk, demonstrating the impact of dietary choice has extended beyond physical performance even in athletic populations.
... Previous studies indicate that a high training volume is necessary for success in endurance performance. 29,43,44 However, the use of greater or lesser training volume will be affected by several factors (eg, training phases over a season, age, and athletes training status, etc), and for that reason, both volume and TID should be evaluated and understood in combination. 15 Finally, 2 BP interventions 28,37 used a pyramidal TID approach, while 2 studies 30,36 used a polarized TID approach. ...
Unlabelled:
A well-planned periodized approach endeavors to allow road cyclists to achieve peak performance when their most important competitions are held.
Purpose:
To identify the main characteristics of periodization models and physiological parameters of trained road cyclists as described by discernable training intensity distribution (TID), volume, and periodization models.
Methods:
The electronic databases Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched using a comprehensive list of relevant terms. Studies that investigated the effect of the periodization of training in cyclists and described training load (volume, TID) and periodization details were included in the systematic review.
Results:
Seven studies met the inclusion criteria. Block periodization (characterized by employment of highly concentrated training workload phases) ranged between 1- and 8-week blocks of high-, medium-, or low-intensity training. Training volume ranged from 8.75 to 11.68 h·wk-1 and both pyramidal and polarized TID were used. Traditional periodization (characterized by a first period of high-volume/low-intensity training, before reducing volume and increasing the proportion of high-intensity training) was characterized by a cyclic progressive increase in training load, the training volume ranged from 7.5 to 10.76 h·wk-1, and pyramidal TID was used. Block periodization improved maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), peak aerobic power, lactate, and ventilatory thresholds, while traditional periodization improved VO2max, peak aerobic power, and lactate thresholds. In addition, a day-by-day programming approach improved VO2max and ventilatory thresholds.
Conclusions:
No evidence is currently available favoring a specific periodization model during 8 to 12 weeks in trained road cyclists. However, few studies have examined seasonal impact of different periodization models in a systematic way.
... These data were in line with the ECOs reported by elite international triathletes (Olaya-Cuartero and Cejuela, 2021), but higher than those reported by elite national triathletes (Saugy et al., 2016), amateur longdistance triathletes ( TID followed by this triathlete was mainly polarized. Several previous studies have shown the effectiveness of polarized TID in elite endurance athletes (Billat et al., 2001;Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;Sperlich, 2014, 2015). It is also observed a pyramidal TID in the first part of the season. ...
There is a growing interest in the scientific literature for reporting top-class endurance athletes training programs. This case study reports on the training program of a world-class male triathlete preparing to compete in the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. A macrocycle of 43 weeks is presented. The triathlete performed 14.74 ± 3.01 h of weekly endurance training volume. Training intensity distribution (TID) was 81.93% ± 6.74%/7.16% ± 2.03%/10.91% ± 6.90% for zones 1 (low intensity, <VT1), 2 (moderate intensity, VT1-VT2) and 3 (high intensity, >VT2) respectively. Pyramidal TID model is observed during the initial stages of the periodization and Polarized TID model is observed at the end of the macrocycle. The triathlete’s peak ⩒O2 was increased by 20% on cycling and by 14% on running. Peak power was increased by 3.13% on cycling test and peak speed by 9.71% on running test. Finally, the triathlete placed 12th in Olympic distance and 10th in Mixed Relay in Tokyo 2020 Olympic games.
... To maximize performance and to prepare for racing, rowers train 15-30 h per week. Rowing clearly dominates their training routine, but unspecific endurance training, resistance training, and stretching complement the program (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004;Tran et al., 2015). Training intensity distribution, commonly accessed by a three-zone model, has been reported to follow a pyramidal distribution, with~85% low intensity training,~12% threshold training, and~3% spent at high intensities (Plews et al., 2014;Treff et al., 2017). ...
Purpose: Elite rowers have large body dimensions, a high metabolic capacity, and they realize high training loads. These factors suggest a high total energy requirement (TER), due to high exercise energy expenditure (EEE) and additional energetic needs. We aimed to study EEE and intensity related substrate utilization (SU) of elite rowers during rowing (EEEROW) and other (EEENON-ROW) training.
Methods: We obtained indirect calorimetry data during incremental (N = 174) and ramp test (N = 42) ergometer rowing in 14 elite open-class male rowers (body mass 91.8 kg, 95% CI [87.7, 95.9]). Then we calculated EEEROW and SU within a three-intensity-zone model. To estimate EEENON-ROW, appropriate estimates of metabolic equivalents of task were applied. Based on these data, EEE, SU, and TER were approximated for prototypical high-volume, high-intensity, and tapering training weeks. Data are arithmetic mean and 95% confidence interval (95% CI).
Results: EEEROW for zone 1 to 3 ranged from 15.6 kcal·min⁻¹, 95% CI [14.8, 16.3] to 49.8 kcal·min⁻¹, 95% CI [48.1, 51.6], with carbohydrate utilization contributing from 46.4%, 95% CI [42.0, 50.8] to 100.0%, 95% CI [100.0, 100.0]. During a high-volume, a high-intensity, or a taper week, TER was estimated to 6,775 kcal·day⁻¹, 95% CI [6,651, 6,898], 5,772 kcal·day⁻¹, 95% CI [5,644, 5,900], or 4,626 kcal∙day⁻¹, 95% CI [4,481, 4,771], respectively.
Conclusion: EEE in elite open-class male rowers is remarkably high already during zone 1 training and carbohydrates are dominantly utilized, indicating relatively high metabolic stress even during low intensity rowing training. In high-volume training weeks, TER is presumably at the upper end of the sustainable total energy expenditure. Periodized nutrition seems warranted for rowers to avoid low energy availability, which might negatively impact performance, training, and health.
... The POL concept consists of combined training at low and high intensities, or a gradual reduction of the training volume from LIT to THR and HIT in a pyramid shape [10]. Some studies show that LIT has a positive effect on performance, even if the intensity is much lower than in corresponding competitions [13][14][15]. LIT sessions lead to profound adaptations in skeletal muscle and supporting systems, including increases in the mitochondrial content and respiratory capacity of muscles. Due to the increase in mitochondria, exercise at the same intensity results in a disturbance in homeostasis that is smaller in trained than in untrained muscles. ...
To improve performance in endurance sports, it is important to include both high-intensity and low-intensity training, but there is neither a universally accepted practice nor clear scientific evidence that allows reliable statements about the predominance of a specific training method. This randomized controlled trial compared the effects of a polarized training model (POL) to a low-intensity training model (LIT) on physiological parameters and mountain bike cross-country Olympic (XCO) race performance in eighteen competitive XCO athletes (17.9 ± 3.6 years). The superiority of one of the two methods could not be shown in this study. The results did not show statistically significant differences between POL and LIT, as both interventions led to slight improvements. However, a small tendency toward better effects for POL was seen for cycling power output during the race (4.4% vs. –2.2%), at the 4 mmol/L (6.1% vs. 2.8%) and individual anaerobic lactate threshold (5.1% vs. 2.3%), and for maximal aerobic performance (4.4% vs. 2.6%), but not for maximal efforts lasting 10 to 300 s. Despite the lack of significant superiority in this and some other studies, many athletes and coaches prefer POL because it produces at least equivalent effects and requires less training time.
... Consequently, HRST may increase training load (i.e., duration 3 RPE) and thus fatigue levels to a greater extent, if performed 2-3 times per week (70), particularly for competitive endurance athletes who will already typically perform .10 hours per week of highly repetitive activity (29,76,81). High training loads have been found to contribute to increased risk of injury in endurance sports (13,48,59,67). ...
Nugent, FJ, Flanagan, EP, Darragh, I, Daly, L, and Warrington, GD. The effects of high-repetition strength training on performance in competitive endurance athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 37(6): 1315-1326, 2023-The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of high-repetition strength training (HRST) on performance in competitive endurance athletes. The methodology followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis protocol. A search of databases was performed until December 2020. Inclusion criteria were (a) competitive endurance athletes, (b) ≥4 weeks HRST intervention, (c) control or comparison group, (d) outcome measures of performance (either physiological or time trial performance), and (e) all experimental designs. Quality assessment was performed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. Of the 615 studies retrieved, 11 studies were included (216 subjects) and 9 studies provided sufficient data for the meta-analysis (137 subjects). The PEDro scale score had a mean of 5 of 10 points (range: 3-6). There was no significant difference between the HRST and control groups (g = 0.35; 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.38 to 1.07; p = 0.35) or HRST and low-repetition strength training (LRST) groups (g = 0.24; 95% CI = -0.24 to 0.72; p = 0.33). The findings of this review and meta-analysis indicate that HRST does not result in improved performance over a 4- to 12-week period, and the results seem to be similar to LRST. The majority of studies involved recreational endurance athletes and had a mean duration of 8 weeks, which is a limitation of the findings. Future intervention studies should be > 12 weeks in duration and involve well-trained endurance athletes (maximal oxygen uptake [V̇o2max] of >65 ml·kg-1·min-2).
... To prepare for rowing races, elite athletes spend about 1,128 200) h/year [median (min-max)] for training, corresponding to approximately 23.5 (23.0-25.0) h/week, mainly consisting out of rowing, unspecific endurance and strength training (Fiskerstrand and Seiler, 2004). Rowing training is associated with an outstanding metabolic demand (Winkert et al., 2021) and very different training intensity distributions in international rowing have been reported (Treff et al., 2017(Treff et al., , 2021b. ...
Background: Metabolic stress is high during training and competition of Olympic rowers, but there is a lack of biomedical markers allowing to quantify training load on the molecular level. We aimed to identify such markers applying a complex approach involving inflammatory and immunologic variables.
Methods: Eleven international elite male rowers (age 22.7 ± 2.4 yrs.; VO2max 71 ± 5 ml·min⁻¹·kg⁻¹) of the German National Rowing team were monitored at competition phase (COMP) vs. preparation phase (PREP), representing high vs. low load. Perceived stress and recovery were assessed by a Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ-76 Sport). Immune cell activation (dendritic cell (DC)/macrophage/monocytes/T-cells) was evaluated via fluorescent activated cell sorting. Cytokines, High-Mobility Group Protein B1 (HMGB1), cell-free DNA (cfDNA), creatine kinase (CK), uric acid (UA), and kynurenine (KYN) were measured in venous blood.
Results: Rowers experienced more general stress and less recovery during COMP, but sports-related stress and recovery did not differ from PREP. During COMP, DC/macrophage/monocyte and T-regulatory cells (Treg-cell) increased (p = 0.001 and 0.010). HMGB1 and cfDNA increased in most athletes during COMP (p = 0.001 and 0.048), while CK, UA, and KYN remained unaltered (p = 0.053, 0.304, and 0.211). Pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β (p = 0.002), TNF-α (p < 0.001), and the chemokine IL-8 (p = 0.001) were elevated during COMP, while anti-inflammatory Il-10 was lower (p = 0.002).
Conclusion: COMP resulted in an increase in biomarkers reflecting tissue damage, with plausible evidence of immune cell activation that appeared to be compensated by anti-inflammatory mechanisms, such as Treg-cell proliferation. We suggest an anti-inflammatory and immunological matrix approach to optimize training load quantification in elite athletes.
... Dieser Trend lässt sich für viele Ausdauerdisziplinen auch im Längsschnitt nachweisen. Umfangreiche Langzeitstudien liegen derzeit beispielsweise für Eislauf (Orie, Hofman, Koning & Foster, 2014), Skilanglauf (Seiler & Kjerland, 2006), Radsport (Lucia et al., 2001) und Rudern (Fiskerstrand & Seiler, 2004) (Meyer, 2003). Diese Verteilung entspricht einem normalen Ruhewert (Kroidl, 2015). ...
Die Arbeit beleuchtet den Einsatz algorithmischer Datenbearbeitungen bei sportwissenschaftlichen Spiroergometrien aus praktischen und theoretischen Gesichtspunkten. Die aktuelle Verbreitung von algorithmischen Datenbearbeitungen aus Breath-by-Breath Untersuchungen wird über die Ergebnisse eines Fragebogens und einer systematischen Literaturübersicht dargestellt. Zudem erfolgt die Analyse der durch Algorithmen verursachten Messwertvarianzen der Sauerstoffaufnahme in diskontinuierlichen Belastungsuntersuchungen, bei Jugendlichen und im submaximalen Belastungsbereich.
... Training load variables such as volume, frequency, and intensity distribution play an important role in maximizing physical capacity and performance. 32 Several studies indicate that a high training volume is necessary for success in endurance performance, 16,33,34 although Costill et al 35 did not observe additional improvements in performance after a period of increased volume training in collegiate male swimmers. However, the requirement for greater or lesser training volume will be influenced by several factors, including recent training history, current fitness levels, and the distribution of the training intensity over the total volume. ...
A well-planned periodized approach allows swimmers to achieve peak performance at the major national and international
competitions. Purpose: To identify the main characteristics of endurance training for highly trained swimmers described by the
training intensity distribution (TID), volume, and periodization models. Methods: The electronic databases Scopus, PubMed,
and Web of Science were searched using a comprehensive list of relevant terms. Studies that investigated the effect of the
periodization of training in swimming, with the training load (volume, TID) and periodization reported, were included in the
systematic review. Results: A total of 3487 studies were identified, and after removal of duplicates and elimination of papers
based on title and abstract screening, 17 articles remained. A further 8 articles were excluded after full text review, leaving a final
total of 9 studies in the systematic review. The evidence levels were 1b for intervention studies (n = 3) and 2b for (observational)
retrospective studies (n = 6). The sprint swimmers typically followed a polarized and threshold TID, the middle-distance
swimmers followed a threshold and pyramidal TID, and the long-distance swimmers primarily followed a pyramidal TID. The
periodization model identified in the majority of studies selected is characterized by wave-like cycles in units like mesocycles to
promote physiological adaptations and skill acquisition. Conclusions: Highly trained swimmers follow a training volume and
TID based on their primary event. There is a need for further experimental studies on the effects of block and reverse
periodization models on swimming performance. Although observational studies of training have limited evidence, it is unclear
whether a different training/periodization approach would yield better results.
Background
Rowing is a strength-endurance sport. The Olympic race distance of 2,000-m (2k) requires extensive aerobic and anaerobic energy system contributions, along with sustained high force output.
Aim(s)
The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between rowing ergometer (erg) performance and the force-time curve characteristics of a counter-movement jump (CMJ), and to determine if rowing-related low back pain (LBP) affected these relationships.
Methods
Athletes completed a 2k time trial at the 2023 USRowing Atlantic City Indoor National Championships as well as a CMJ on force plates. Data from the 2k ( n = 27) time trial was analyzed to determine significant relationships between CMJ force-time characteristics and 2k rowing ergometer performance. Partial correlations were used to determine the effects rowing-related LBP has on the relationship between 2k erg and CMJ force-time curve characteristics.
Results
Positive Take-off Impulse had the strongest correlation with 2k erg performance ( r = 0.71, p < 0.001). Jump height was not significantly related to 2k erg performance ( r = −0.13, p = 0.518). Current LBP changed the relationship for Concentric Mean Force ( r = 0.74, p < 0.001).
Conclusion
Positive Take-off Impulse has a strong, positive relationship to 2k erg performance. CMJ variables related to impulse and force should be monitored longitudinally to see if changes in these variables coincide with improved 2k rowing erg performance and the assessment of neuromuscular fatigue. Coaches can utilize these findings to individualize strength and power training for potential 2k erg performance improvements.
Purpose: This study systematically reviewed the literature on elite rowers' training intensity distribution (TID), volume, periodization, physiological determinants, and performance characteristics. Methods: Three electronic databases (Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science) were searched using relevant terms. Studies investigating and detailing training load (TID, volume, and periodization) in elite rowers were included. Results: Nine studies (n=82 participants) met the inclusion criteria. Training volume varied between 10–31 hours (h) per week, typically between 14–20 h per week. The pyramidal TID pattern, which involves a progressive reduction in training volume from Zone 1 (intensity at or below lactate threshold [LT1]) to Zone 2 (intensity between LT1 and LT2, corresponding to blood lactate levels between 2 and 4 mmol·L−1), and Zone 3 (intensity above LT2), was most commonly used by elite rowers. Flexible seasonal TIDs, whereby the combined training in Zones 2 and 3 approached or exceeded 20%, and Zone 1 training comprised more than 50%. Flexible TIDs were associated with greater improvements in physiological determinants and performance. Elite rowers typically employed a traditional periodization model, progressively transitioning from pyramidal towards a polarized TID model as they moved from preparation to competition phases. Conclusions: Elite rowers most commonly adopted a seasonal pyramidal model with variable volume. No evidence suggests that a particular TID or periodization model has a significant advantage. Conversely, TID models do not seem to differentiate training adaptations in rowing training, but specific TID percentages might.
Aim of this study was to investigate changes in blood sugar level after aerobic workout on rowing ergometer. Tested group consisted of Slovak rowers (n: 6, average age: 22.2±4.9 years, average height: 183.5±4.0 cm, average weight: 79.5±6.0 kg). Group undertook 4 tests: lactate curve, glycaemic profile, rowing exercise at intensity of anaerobic threshold (IANT) and rowing exercise at intensity of aerobic threshold (IAT). Blood sugar level was measured during 120 min. intervals before workout and after workout with Accu-Chek Active unit. We used nonparametric Wilcoxon signed-rank test (p<0.05) for dependent files for evaluation of the results. Results have shown that the difference between average fluctuation of blood sugar during 120 minutes post-and pre-workout is not significant. Difference of glycaemia (by 2.2 mmol.l-1 , 46% resp.) immediately before and after the IANT test was significant (p<0.05). Difference of glycaemia (by 0.4 mmol.l-1 , 7% resp.) immediately before the IAT test and after the test was not significant. Introduction Researchers nowadays mostly study glycaemic response to exercise in people with diabetes mellitus. This field of study in relationship with healthy people is relatively new and unexplored. We present this article regarding effect of aerobic workout on rowing ergometer on blood sugar level. Blood sugar level (glycaemia) represents concentration of glucose in blood. Referential values of glycaemia after not eating (fasting for at least 8 hours) are 3.8-6.6 mmol.l-1 in capillary blood. Stable blood sugar level is secured by autoregulation, hormonal and neural mechanisms. These mechanisms provide balance of glucose transport from blood plasma to cells and back. The most important is hormonal regulation. Katabolic hormones (glucagon, catecholamines, thyroxin and somatostatin) increase blood sugar level and anabolic hormone (insulin) reduces glycaemia. Insulin reduces blood sugar level by letting the glucose enter muscle and fat cells through their membranes (Bucci, 1983). Lowered blood glucose level which can occur between eating or as response to physical activity, evokes secretion of glucagon and glycogenolysis. Around 60% of glucose produced by liver to maintain blood sugar level comes from glycogen stores and rest comes from glucose synthesised from lactate, pyruvate, glycerol and amino acids including alanine (Hultman, Nilsson, 1971). Liver glycogen is primarily responsible for stabilization of glycaemia. On the other hand, muscle glycogen is source of energy for muscle work. Blood glucose is main source of energy for central nervous system and low level of blood sugar causes decrease of neural activity with increased irritation and decreased concentration (Benardot, 2012). Blood sugar level can be measured by very accurate laboratory test. However, more common testing is with blood glucose meters-machines designed for self-monitoring of blood sugar level (Fábryová, 2012). Longer lasting aerobic physical activity uses energetic sources if there is enough oxygen uptake. Energy demands in working muscle during this type of physical activity are rising and body is trying to cover these demands by breakdown of glycogen and triglycerides of fat tissue. The main source of energy during initial minutes of activity is glucose from muscle glycogen stores and later glucose from liver, where glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis takes place. Free fat acids from fat tissue start to breakdown after several hours of physical activity and they begin to be the main source of energy. Aerobic physical activity doesn't lead to gains of muscle mass but improves cardiovascular fitness (Pelikánová, Bartoš, 2010). Rowing is considered strength-endurance sport. Structure of movement is cyclic. According to Schickhofer (2010) rowing competition is 2000 meters long and lasts from 5 min 40 s to 9 min with frequency of 200-250 strokes per minute depending on boat class. Aerobic threshold doesn't take big role in competition, however it is very important indicator of training intensity-elite rowers undertake up to 50 hours of training at aerobic threshold (Fikerstand, Seiler, 2004). Anaerobic threshold represents pace equivalent to middle 3 minutes of 2000 m rowing competition. Several studies (Ingham et al., 2002, Womack, 1996) suggest that anaerobic threshold performance correlates with 2000 m performance on rowing ergometer. Energy for 2000 m rowing race is created by aerobic and anaerobic system.
The present review examines retrospective analyses of training intensity distribution (TID), i.e., the proportion of training at moderate (Zone 1, Z1), heavy (Z2) and severe (Z3) intensity by elite-to-world-class endurance athletes during different phases of the season. In addition, we discuss potential implications of our findings for research in this field, as well as for training by these athletes. Altogether, we included 175 TIDs, of which 120 quantified exercise intensity on the basis of heart rate and measured time-in-zone or employed variations of the session goal approach, with demarcation of zones of exercise intensity based on physiological parameters. Notably, 49% of the TIDs were single-case studies, predominantly concerning crosscountry skiing and/or the biathlon. Eighty-nine TIDs were pyramidal (Z1 > Z2 > Z3), 65 polarized (Z1 > Z3 > Z2) and 8 "threshold" (Z2 > Z1 = Z3). However, these relative numbers varied between sports and the particular phases of the season. In 91% (n = 160) of the TIDs >60% of the endurance exercise was of low intensity. Regardless of the approach to quantification or phase of the season, cyclists and swimmers were found to perform a lower proportion of exercise in Z1 (<72%) and higher proportion in Z2 (>16%) than athletes involved in the triathlon, speed skating, rowing, running, crosscountry skiing or biathlon (>80% in Z1 and <12% in Z2 in all these cases). For most of the athletes their proportion of heavy-to-severe exercise was higher during the period of competition than during the preparatory phase, although with considerable variability between sports. In conclusion, the existing literature in this area does not allow general conclusions to be drawn. The methods utilized for quantification vary widely and, moreover, contextual information concerning the mode of exercise, environmental conditions, and biomechanical aspects of the exercise is often lacking. Therefore, we recommend a more comprehensive approach in connection with future investigations on the TIDs of athletes involved in different endurance sports.
The maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) and critical power (CP) represent the transition from heavy to severe domain and present important relationship with aerobic performance. Due the difficults on determination of these intensities, physiological index derived from incremental tests has been used in estimation. The muscle deoxihemoglobin ([HHb]BP) derivated of near infrared spectroscopy (NIRs) report the muscle oxygen extraction, which present a plateau in response during incremental test, identifying a break point ([HHb]BP), that has been associated with some index of second physiological transition and MLSS. This association, however, has not yet been determined in rowing, sport in which index of second physiological transition overestimated the MLSS. The aim of the present study was to compare the MLSS and CP intensities with the [HHb]BP in vastus lateralis muscle in incremental test with (INC3min) and without (INC1min) recovery in rowing ergometer. In addition, to verify their correlation with performance. Fourteen rowers (age: 26 ± 13 years; body mass: 81.0 ± 7.6 kg; height: 1.82 ± 0.05 m; 2000m time: 415 ± 18 s) performed: I) anthropometric assessment; II) INC3min, with initial load of 130 W and 30 W exercise steps of 3-min and 30 s of passive recovery; III) MLSS determination, through 30-min constant load tests; IV) INC1min, with initial load of 130 W and 30 W exercise steps of 1-min without recovery and V) CP determination through 500, 1000, 2000 and 6000m tests. The vastus lateralis muscle oxygenation was measured by NIRs for determination of [HHb]BP in INC3min ([HHb]BP3min) and INC1min ([HHb]BP1min), that was compared with power of MLSS, CP and first and second physiological transition indexes derivate of blood lactate, heart rate, ventilation and performance tests. The data were expressed as mean and ± SD. The comparison were performed using ANOVA one-way. Pearson correlation with confidence intervals of 95%, mean difference (Δ) and typical error of estimate (TEE) for such indexes with significance level of p < 0.05. The [HHb]BP1min (204 ± 29W) and [HHb]BP3min (207 ± 29W) showed low correspondence from each other (Δ: -3.4%; TEE: 13.2%; r = 0.51), overestimated the MLSS (Δ: 8.4 and 13.1%; TEE: 15.3 and 15.6%) and underestimated the CP (Δ: -20.4% and -17.4%; TEE: 12.3% and 10.5%). The CP was higher than MLSS (Δ: 37.6%; TEE: 10.8%; p < 0.01). The 18 second transition indexes overestimated MLSS (Δ: 12.5 to 44.9%; TEE: 5.6 to 14.3%), while LL2,0 (186 ± 27 W) and VT1 (193 ± 18 W) presented the smallest TEE (11.0 and 9.5%) and Δ (-2.3 and 4.0%), respectively, with magnitudes from trivial to medium. The time (r = -0.87) and mean power (r = 0.86) of 1000m test showed a very large correlation with MLSS. The [HHb]3min and [HHb]1min presented low correlations with performance tests. In conclusion, despite the [HHb]3min and [HHb]1min did not show significant diferences from MLSS, it was observed high variability with high TEE and mean difference that suggest a small correspondence between these indexes. In addition, the CP was higher than [HHb]BP and MLSS. Taking into account the better association of first physiological transition index with the MLSS, which clearly underestimated CP, it is possible that these markers correspond to the lower and the upper boundaries of the heavy domain on rowing exercise.
Neueste miniaturisierte Sensortechnik und deren Applikationen beeinflussen zunehmend gesellschaftliche und soziale Lebenswelten und kommen in Sport und Gesundheitswesen verstärkt zur Anwendung. Die Aufzeichnung, Verarbeitung und Darstellung verschiedenster biophysikalischer Signale und Umweltfaktoren im Alltag, im Training, bei Wettkämpfen sowie zur Regeneration stellen eine große Herausforderung im Hinblick auf die Informationsnutzung für Training, Gesundheit und aktives Verhalten dar. Da kommerziell vermarktete Wearables in Deutschland derzeit nicht reguliert und keiner unabhängigen Überprüfung der Reliabilität und Validität unterliegen, werden zukünftig Experten gebraucht, welche die Qualität der zur Verfügung gestellten Daten bewerten können. „Zukünftige“ Sportwissenschaftler müssen ein Verständnis für die jeweilige Sportart, aber auch über die zur Verfügung stehenden Daten sowie deren Analysen, Interpretation und Darstellung entwickeln.
NODO test je dobro konstruisan test za učenike prvog razreda oba pola i savetuje se učenje ove veštine u nižim razredima osnovne s kole. Cilj uc enja ove ves tine ne mora biti sam sebi svrha, vec stvaranje solidne osnove za učenje osnovnih preskoka (kao što su raznoška ili zgrčka) u višim razredima osnovne škole. Iako u početku učenici nisu imali prethodno iskustvo u izvođenju ves tine, nakon uvodnog c asa mogli su da izvrs e opste kretanje ves tine. Kroz eksperimentalni proces, oc ekivano su se povec ali nivoi performansi veštine, ali isti, iako su utvrđeni kao značajni, nisu bili vrlo vidljivi kroz školske ocene koje bi učenici dobili za izvođenje veštine.
Numeric ki vec e vrednosti ves tine, utvrđene kod uc enika u obe tac ke merenja, verovatno se mogu pripisati nižim nivoima straha i verovatno višim nivoima FMS veština (koje doprinose boljim performansama ove gimnastičke veštine). Isto se može primetiti i kroz radno iskustvo sa ovom populacijom. Međutim, isto ostaje da se utvrdi i naučno dokaže u daljim studijama.
U zakljucku je moguc e primetiti da vreme eksperimentalnog tretmana (tri meseca) nije bilo dovoljno da pruži očiglednije-vidljivije poboljšanje performansi. Iako je klasifikovana kao jednostavna gimnastička veština i zaista je samo mali segment „prave“ veštine preskoka, očigledno je da učenicima prvog razreda to nije tako jednostavno i da im treba više vremena i frekvencija za poboljšanje performanse.
It is generally known that muscle strength depends on morphological dimensions. However, it is not completely defined which morphological dimensions have the largest contribution during single-joint and multi-joint movements. The aim of this study was to examine the predictor role of different morphological characteristics: body height - TV, body mass - TM, body composition (total muscle mass - SMM and regional muscle mass of arms - RSMM and leg - NSMM) and muscle cross-section area (PP) on maximum strength level (one-repetition maximum - 1RM). The sample consisted of 15 subjects (8 men and 7 women, age: 23.8 ± 1.4 years), who do not practice weight training. The 1RM test (kg) included two exercises: preacher curl (BP) and parallel squat (PC). Ultrasound diagnostics assessed the cross-section of the biceps brachii (mm) and quadriceps femoris (mm²) muscles, while SMM (kg), RSMM (kg) and NSMM (kg) were determined by the bioelectrical impedance method. Pearson's correlation coefficient showed a significant positive correlation (p < 0.05) between 1RM of both exercises and all morphological variables (r = 0.512-0.939). However, when backward regression analysis was applied, the best model singled out the variable PP biceps brachii as the most significant predictor of strength for precher curl exercise (R² = 0.882, p <0.01), and variables NSMM, TM and TV for parallel squat (R² = 0.838, p <0.01). These findings shows that muscle strength during flexion in the elbow joint is largely determined by the dimensions of the biceps brachii muscle. On the other hand, various morphological factors determine 1RM when performing squats, which indicates the complexity of the exercise.
Keywords – muscle strength, ultrasound, bioimpedance, preacher curl, parallel squat
In this study we attempted to determine the effects of exercise training at the intensity corresponding to lactate threshold (Thla-) on various health-related variables in sedentary but apparently healthy elderly subjects. Six men and five women volunteers [mean age 68.9 (SD 3.4) years] performed supervised endurance-type training on stationary cycle ergometers for 30 min and recreational activities for 30 min, 3 days a week for 12 weeks. Four men and four women served as the control group [68.8 (SD 4.4) years]. As a result of the training programme, statistically significant increases in maximal oxygen consumption (10%), oxygen consumption at Thla- (18%), distance covered in 12-min walk, side step, and leg extensor power were found in the training group, while no changes occurred in the control group. The changes in serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations from the pre- to post-training period were statistically significant. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol remained unchanged, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol tended to decrease following the training programme. These data would indicate that exercise training at the intensity corresponding to Thla- may have favourable effects on overall physical fitness and some serum lipid variables in older individuals.
At the start of a rowing race, the boat is accelerated and the force on the oars reaches between 1000 and 1500 N. During the race, the speed is maintained at a lower level with a peak rowing force of 500-700 N for 210-230 strokes for about 6.5 min. Rowers are adapted to this effort by a large muscle mass and high metabolic capacities. The muscles of successful rowers demonstrate 70%-85% slow-twitch fibers. Both slow- and fast-twitch fibers have increased oxidative enzyme activities reflecting elevated number and density of mitochondria. Rowing force and boat velocity correlate to maximal oxygen uptake (VO2) which reaches 6.0-6.61.min-1 (65-70 ml.min-1. kg-1) and to the VO2 during a race. In turn, the VO2 during a race is related to slow-twitch fibers content of the muscles, also to the aerobic-anaerobic threshold (AAT) and inversely related to the maximal blood lactate level. The AAT is 80%-85% of maximal performance in highly trained rowers. In successful rowers training intensity is 70% -90% of the training time below the AAT. Training eliciting a blood lactate above 4.0 mmol/l, sprint training and athletics training complete the training schedule, which may reach 1000 h, or 5000-7000 km per year.
To test the hypothesis that heightened sympathetic outflow precedes and predicts the magnitude of the growth hormone (GH) response to acute exercise (Ex), we studied 10 men [age 26.1 +/- 1.7 (SE) yr] six times in randomly assigned order (control and 5 Ex intensities). During exercise, subjects exercised for 30 min (0900-0930) on each occasion at a single intensity: 25 and 75% of the difference between lactate threshold (LT) and rest (0.25LT, 0.75LT), at LT, and at 25 and 75% of the difference between LT and peak (1.25LT, 1.75LT). Mean values for peak plasma epinephrine (Epi), plasma norepinephrine (NE), and serum GH concentrations were determined [Epi: 328 +/- 93 (SE), 513 +/- 76, 584 +/- 109, 660 +/- 72, and 2,614 +/- 579 pmol/l; NE: 2. 3 +/- 0.2, 3.9 +/- 0.4, 6.9 +/- 1.0, 10.7 +/- 1.6, and 23.9 +/- 3.9 nmol/l; GH: 3.6 +/- 1.5, 6.6 +/- 2.0, 7.0 +/- 2.0, 10.7 +/- 2.4, and 13.7 +/- 2.2 microg/l for 0.25, 0.75, 1.0, 1.25, and 1.75LT, respectively]. In all instances, the time of peak plasma Epi and NE preceded peak GH release. Plasma concentrations of Epi and NE always peaked at 20 min after the onset of Ex, whereas times to peak for GH were 54 +/- 6 (SE), 44 +/- 5, 38 +/- 4, 38 +/- 4, and 37 +/- 2 min after the onset of Ex for 0.25-1.75LT, respectively. ANOVA revealed that intensity of exercise did not affect the foregoing time delay between peak NE or Epi and peak GH (range 17-24 min), with the exception of 0.25LT (P < 0.05). Within-subject linear regression analysis disclosed that, with increasing exercise intensity, change in (Delta) GH was proportionate to both DeltaNE (P = 0.002) and DeltaEpi (P = 0.014). Furthermore, within-subject multiple-regression analysis indicated that the significant GH increment associated with an antecedent rise in NE (P = 0.02) could not be explained by changes in Epi alone (P = 0.77). Our results suggest that exercise intensity and GH release in the human may be coupled mechanistically by central adrenergic activation.
Biology is believed to play a large role in the cycling of iron and manganese in many freshwater environments, but specific microbial groups indigenous to these systems have not been well characterized. To investigate the populations of Bacteria and Archaea associated with metal-rich sediments from Green Bay, WI, we extracted nucleic acids and analysed the phylogenetic relationships of cloned 16S rRNA genes. Because nucleic acids have not been routinely extracted from metal-rich samples, we investigated the bias inherent in DNA extraction and gene amplification from pure MnO2 using defined populations of whole cells or naked DNA. From the sediments, we screened for manganese-oxidizing bacteria using indicator media and found three isolates that were capable of manganese oxidation. In the phylogenetic analysis of bacterial 16S rRNA gene clones, we found two groups related to known metal-oxidizing genera, Leptothrix of the beta-Proteobacteria and Hyphomicrobium of the alpha-Proteobacteria, and a Fe(III)-reducing group related to the Magnetospirillum genus of the alpha-Proteobacteria. Groups related to the metal-reducing delta-Proteobacteria constituted 22% of the gene clones. In addition, gene sequences from one group of methanogens and a group of Crenarchaeota, identified in the archaeal gene clone library, were related to those found previously in Lake Michigan sediments.
Our present scientific knowledge of the effects of specific training interventions undertaken by professional cyclists on selected adaptive responses in skeletal muscle and their consequences for improving endurance performance is limited: sport scientists have found it difficult to persuade elite cyclists to experiment with their training regimens and access to muscle and blood samples from these athletes is sparse. Owing to the lack of scientific study we present a theoretical model of some of the major training-induced adaptations in skeletal muscle that are likely to determine performance capacity in elite cyclists. The model includes, but is not limited to, skeletal muscle morphology, acid-base status and fuel supply. A working premise is that the training-induced changes in skeletal muscle resulting from the high-volume, high-intensity training undertaken by elite cyclists is at least partially responsible for the observed improvements in performance. Using experimental data we provide evidence to support the model.
Unlabelled:
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of exercise training intensity relative to the ventilatory threshold (VT) on changes in work (watts) and VO2 at the ventilatory threshold and at maximal exercise in previously sedentary participants in the HERITAGE Family Study. We hypothesized that those who exercised below their VT would improve less in VO2 at the ventilatory threshold (VO2vt) and VO2max than those who trained at an intensity greater than their VT. Supervised cycle ergometer training was performed at the 4 participating clinical centers, 3 times a week for 20 weeks. Exercise training progressed from the HR corresponding to 55% VO2max for 30 minutes to the HR associated with 75% VO2max for 50 minutes for the final 6 weeks. VT was determined at baseline and after exercise training using standardized methods. 432 sedentary white and black men (n = 224) and women (n = 208), aged 17 to 65 years, were retrospectively divided into groups based on whether exercise training was initiated below, at, or above VT.
Results:
1) Training intensity (relative to VT) accounting for about 26% of the improvement in VO2vt (R2 = 0.26, p < 0.0001). 2) The absolute intensity of training in watts (W) accounted for approximately 56% of the training effect at VT (R2 = 0.56, p < 0.0001) with post-training watts at VT (VT(watts)) being not significantly different than W during training (p > 0.70). 3) Training intensity (relative to VT) had no effect on DeltaVO2max. These data clearly show that as a result of aerobic training both the VO2 and W associated with VT respond and become similar to the absolute intensity of sustained (3 x /week for 50 min) aerobic exercise training. Higher intensities of exercise, relative to VT, result in larger gains in VO2vt but not in VO2max.
This study compares the physical and training characteristics of top-class marathon runners (TC), i.e., runners having a personal best of less than 2 h 11 min for males and 2 h 32 min for females, respectively, versus high-level (HL) (< 2 h 16 min and < 2 h 38 min).
Twenty marathon runners (five TC and HL in each gender) ran 10 km at their best marathon performance velocity (vMarathon) on a level road. This velocity was the target velocity for the Olympic trials they performed 8 wk later. After a rest of 6 min, they ran an all-out 1000-m run to determine the peak oxygen consumption on flat road (.VO(2peak)).
Marathon performance time (MPT) was inversely correlated with .VO(2peak). (r = -0.73, P < 0.01) and predicted 59% of the variance of MPT. Moreover, TC male marathon runners were less economical because their energy cost of running (Cr) at marathon velocity was significantly higher than that of their counterparts (212 +/- 17 vs 195 +/- 14 mL.km(-1).kg(-1), P = 0.03). For females, no difference was observed for the energetic characteristics between TC and HL marathon runners. However, the velocity reached during the 1000-m run performed after the 10-km run at vMarathon was highly correlated with MPT (r = -0.85, P < 0.001). Concerning training differences, independent of the gender, TC marathon runners trained for more total kilometers per week and at a higher velocity (velocity over 3000 m and 10,000 m).
The high energy output seems to be the discriminating factor for top-class male marathon runners who trained at higher relative intensities.
Purpose:
The purpose of this study was to assess research aimed at measuring performance enhancements that affect success of individual elite athletes in competitive events.
Analysis:
Simulations show that the smallest worthwhile enhancement of performance for an athlete in an international event is 0.7-0.4 of the typical within-athlete random variation in performance between events. Using change in performance in events as the outcome measure in a crossover study, researchers could delimit such enhancements with a sample of 16-65 athletes, or with 65-260 in a fully controlled study. Sample size for a study using a valid laboratory or field test is proportional to the square of the within-athlete variation in performance in the test relative to the event; estimates of these variations are therefore crucial and should be determined by repeated-measures analysis of data from reliability studies for the test and event. Enhancements in test and event may differ when factors that affect performance differ between test and event; overall effects of these factors can be determined with a validity study that combines reliability data for test and event. A test should be used only if it is valid, more reliable than the event, allows estimation of performance enhancement in the event, and if the subjects replicate their usual training and dietary practices for the study; otherwise the event itself provides the only dependable estimate of performance enhancement. Publication of enhancement as a percent change with confidence limits along with an analysis for individual differences will make the study more applicable to athletes. Outcomes can be generalized only to athletes with abilities and practices represented in the study.
Conclusion:
estimates of enhancement of performance in laboratory or field tests in most previous studies may not apply to elite athletes in competitive events.
Secher (29) states that in the course of the last 30 years races in rowing eights have become about 35 seconds faster. Because of the improvement of the performances and the closeness of the results achieved by world class rowers, scientific investigations on rowing have become more and more important. The objectives of these investigations are first the analysis and second the improvement of the physiological performance capacity of rowers (5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34). Even a superficial look at the training practice of rowers reveals gaps in the knowledge of the physiological and, more precisely, the metabolic effects of rowing exercises (1, 17). The aim of this study is therefore to analyse and classify the rowing-specific training loads on the water. During both the preparation and competition periods, several highly qualified (elite) West German rowers underwent lactate tests at different training loads on the water. The results of these tests make the determination of the real intensity of the training exercises possible.
We tested the hypothesis that measurement of plasma catecholamine sulphate concentration after exercise reflects the overall
activation of the sympathoadrenergic system during the whole period of repeated bouts of short-term exercise. A group of 11
male athletes performed two exercise tests at similar average power outputs consisting of three sets each. The tests either
started with one set of three very intense sprints (95% of maximal running speed) followed by two sets of three less intense
sprints (85% of maximal running speed; HLX) or vice versa (LHX). Similar mean areas under the curve of free noradrenaline
(NA) during HLX and LHX [622 (SEM 13) vs 611 (SEM 14) nmol · l−1 · min) as well as similar mean heart rates [143 (SEM 9) vs 143 (SEM 8) beats · min−1] indicated comparable sympathetic activation during both exercise tests. Even so, plasma concentration of free NA was still
significantly higher at the end of LHX than of HLX [35.7 (SEM 3.5) vs 22.5 (SEM 2.1) nmol · l−1, respectively], i.e. when exercise ended with the more intense set of sprints. Plasma noradrenaline sulphate (NA-S) increased
with exercise intensity showing higher mean increments after the first set of HLX compared to LHX [1.83 (SEM 0.42) vs 1.18
(SEM 0.29) nmol · l−1; P < 0.05]. However, after the end of HLX and LHX, increments in plasma NA-S were similar [4.52 (SEM 0.76) vs 4.06 (SEM 0.79) nmol · l−1], suggesting that NA-S response changed in parallel with the overall activation of the sympathetic nervous system during
repeated bouts of short-term exercise. The results supported the hypothesis that measurement of plasma NA-S immediately after
repeated bouts of short-term exercise reflects overall activation of the sympathetic nervous system during prolonged periods
of this type of exercise.
Maximal aerobic power (
[(V)\dot]O2 \dot V_{O_2 }
max) was determined during running, cycling, or rowing in 14 winners of international championship (European, world or Olympic) regattas in rowing, in 13 less qualified international competitive oarsmen, and in 10 lightweights. Ventilation (
[(V)\dot]E\dot V_E
), heart rate (HR), and blood lactate after maximal exercise were also measured. The winners had a weight of 93 kg, a
[(V)\dot]O2 \dot V_{O_2 }
max of 5.89 lmin–1, a
[(V)\dot]E\dot V_E
of 200 lmin–1, and a HR of 185 beatsmin–1, as compared with 84kg, 5.58 lmin–1, 173 lmin–1, and 190 beatsmin–1 in the less successful oarsmen, and 72kg, 5.13 lmin–1, and 164 lmin–1 in the lightweights.
[(V)\dot]O2 \dot V_{O_2 }
max and
[(V)\dot]E\dot V_E
were correlated to body weight, while HR and blood lactate were not, the latter showing an average value of 12.5 (SE 0.45) mmoll–1. If expressed neutral to body dimensions all oarsmen had a
[(V)\dot]O2 \dot V_{O_2 }
max of about 293 mlmin–1kg–2/3. It is suggested that the large
[(V)\dot]O2 \dot V_{O_2 }
max values found in oarsmen mainly reflect their large body dimensions.
The adrenaline release from the adrenal medulla increases during exercise, but at a given absolute work intensity the magnitude of this response is less pronounced in endurance trained vs sedentary individuals most likely due to a lower sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal medulla. However, when trained and untrained subjects are compared at identical relative work loads as well as in response to numerous non-exercise stimuli. endurance trained athletes have a higher epinephrine secretion capacity compared to sedentary individuals. This indicates a development of a so-called "sports adrenal medulla" as a result of a long term adaptation of an endocrine gland to physical training. Such an adaptation is parallel to adaptations taking place in other tissues like skeletal muscle and the heart. and can be advantageous in relation to both exercise performance in the competing athlete and cause a biological rejuvenation in relation to aging.
The individual anaerobic threshold (Th(an)) is the highest metabolic rate at which blood lactate concentrations can be maintained at a steady-state during prolonged exercise. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that training at the Th(an) would cause a greater change in indicators of training adaptation than would training "around" the Th(an). Three groups of subjects were evaluated before, and again after 4 and 8 weeks of training: a control group, a group which trained continuously for 30 min at the Th(an) intensity (SS), and a group (NSS) which divided the 30 min of training into 7.5-min blocks at intensities which alternated between being below the Th(an) [Th(an) -30% of the difference between Th(an) and maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max)] and above the Th(an) (Th(an) +30% of the difference between Th(an) and VO2max). The VO2max increased significantly from 4.06 to 4.27 l.min-1 in SS and from 3.89 to 4.06 l.min-1 in NSS. The power output (W) at Th(an) increased from 70.5 to 79.8% VO2max in SS and from 71.1 to 80.7% VO2max in NSS. The magnitude of change in VO2max, W at Th(an), % VO2max at Th(an) and in exercise time to exhaustion at the pretraining Th(an) was similar in both trained groups. Vastus lateralis citrate synthase and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA-dehydrogenase activities increased to the same extent in both trained groups. While all of these training-induced adaptations were statistically significant (P < 0.05), there were no significant changes in any of these variables for the control subjects.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
This paper examines current concepts concerning "limiting" factors in human endurance performance by modeling marathon running times on the basis of various combinations of previously reported values of maximal O2 uptake (VO2max), lactate threshold, and running economy in elite distance runners. The current concept is that VO2max sets the upper limit for aerobic metabolism while the blood lactate threshold is related to the fraction of VO2max that can be sustained in competitive events greater than approximately 3,000 m. Running economy then appears to interact with VO2max and blood lactate threshold to determine the actual running speed at lactate threshold, which is generally a speed similar to (or slightly slower than) that sustained by individual runners in the marathon. A variety of combinations of these variables from elite runners results in estimated running times that are significantly faster than the current world record (2:06:50). The fastest time for the marathon predicted by this model is 1:57:58 in a hypothetical subject with a VO2max of 84 ml.kg-1.min-1, a lactate threshold of 85% of VO2max, and exceptional running economy. This analysis suggests that substantial improvements in marathon performance are "physiologically" possible or that current concepts regarding limiting factors in endurance running need additional refinement and empirical testing.
Plasma glucagon and catecholamine levels were measured in male athletes before and after exhaustive 15 min continuous running and strenuous intermittent short-term exercise (3×300 m). Blood lactate levels were higher after the intermittent exercise (mean 16.7 mmol×l−1) than after the continuous running (mean 7.1 mmol×l−1). Plasma glucagon concentration increased during continuous running and intermittent exercise by 41% and 55%, respectively, and the increases in plasma noradrenaline concentration were 7.7- and 9.1-fold compared with the respective pre-exercise values. Immediately after the exercises plasma cyclic AMP, blood glucose and alanine levels were elevated significantly.
The data suggest that the sympathoadrenal system is of major importance for liver glucose production during high-intensity exercises. Catecholamines directly stimulate liver glucose production and may indirectly stimulate it by enhancing the secretion of glucagon.
Oxygen consumption, pulmonary ventilation and performance of 6 champion runners were observed over a 10-week period during which they trained alternately at sea level and 2300-meters altitude. Acute exposure to altitude resulted in a 14% drop in max VO2, 8% slower 1-mile and 10% slower 3-mile running times, and a 7% increase in max VE BTPS. By the 5th week at altitude max Vo2 had risen to within 10% of sea-level control values (within 8% for subjects who had a 6th week at altitude), running times to within 3% and 8% of control, and max VE BTPS to 14% above control. Max VE STPD remained closely related to max Vo2 and max VE BTPS to MVV during all altitude tests. In postaltitude tests max Vo2 was 5% and max VE 9% above prealtitude values. The subjects also ran 14 personal best times in post-altitude races. Vo2 during sub-maximal running was higher following altitude training than before or during altitude tests; the subjects worked at 92-98% of max Vo2 during their 3-mile race pace. It was concluded that intermittent sea-level stays of as long as 11 days did not interfere with altitude acclimatization and that both altitude and post-altitude performances benefited from the program. (C)1970The American College of Sports Medicine
This study examined the effect of a 20-week training program of two groups: six middle-aged men (37 +/- 4 yrs) (GIT) and six young male subjects (20 +/- 1 yrs) (GIIT). The training program consisted of bicycle ergometer exercise, 1 h/day, 3.5 days/week at a work load corresponding to 80%-85% of HR max. Before (S0) and at the end of the training program (S20), measurements of VO2 max, maximal work load (MWL), net efficiency, onset of blood lactate accumulation, absolute (OBLAW), and relative to MWL (OBLA %) were made on GIT and GIIT groups and on a third group (21 +/- 2 yrs) (GIIC), used as a control. Muscle fiber composition of m. vastus lateralis was studied after training for GIT and before and after the training period for GIIT and GIIC. VO2 max (ml X kg-1 X min-1), which was initially similar in GIT and GIIT (49 ml X kg-1 X min-1), increased significantly by 8% in GIT and by 19% in GIIT. OBLAW increased significantly to the same level in the two groups (38% and 42%, respectively). OBLA % increased significantly (20%) in GIT only. In the groups studied (GIIT), no change was observed for muscle fiber composition. % ST fiber type did not correlate to OBLAW or OBLA % S0 values nor to OBLAW and OBLA % changes during training. This leads to the conclusion that age and the initial physical fitness were the two major factors affecting the outcome of this endurance training program upon the two groups. Further research is needed to establish which of these two factors is the most influential.
Nine members of the U.S. Men's Olympic Rowing Team were studied during the in-season (IS) and off-season (OS). Maximum power, VE, VO2, and heart rate were measured during a 6-min rowing ergometer exercise during IS and OS. Per cent body fat and isokinetic quadriceps strength were also determined. Biopsies were removed from the vastus lateralis and analyzed histochemically and morphometrically during OS only. No changes were noted for body composition between IS and OS. VEmax and VO2max increased significantly from OS to IS; absolute VO2max increased from 5.09 to 6.01 l/min and relative values increased from 56.5 to 69.1 ml . kg-1 . min-1. Power increased 14% from OS to IS while heart rate showed no difference. Leg strength increased significantly at 6 different angular velocities from IS to OS especially at the lower speeds. Biopsy data revealed an average ratio of 75% slow twitch Type I fibers and 25% fast twitch Type II fibers. Larger fiber diameters were noted for Type II fibers but this difference was not significant. Although seasonal effects were expected, the unusually large differences in metabolic and strength capacities between IS and OS reflect a high degree of training specificity.
The purpose of this investigation was to assess the effect of endurance training based upon the intensity as determined by the arterial blood lactate concentration (LA). Seven healthy male college students performed endurance training on a Monark bicycle ergometer for 15 min on 3 days/week for 8 weeks, at an intensity corresponding to 4 mmol·l−1 arterial blood LA determined during an incremental exercise test (25 watts increment every minute on a bicycle at 50 rpm). Another six male students served as the control group.
To assess the training effect, both an incremental exercise test and a submaximal exercise test were performed before and after the endurance training. In the incremental exercise test, at, anaerobic threshold (AT), and the onset of respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis (RCMA) were measured. AT was determined as the point at which arterial LA rose above the resting value, and RCMA was determined as the point at which Paco2 decreased during the incremental exercise test.
After training, AT increased significantly (37% increment expressed in,p<0.05). There was a significant increase (p<0.05) in RCMA (17%) and (14%). This training decreased (4%), (15%), heart rate (10%), respiratory exchange ratio (5%), and LA (23%) significantly (p<0.05) during the submaximal exercise test after training. On the other hand, there were no significant changes in the control group through the period when the training group performed their training.
These results showed that the endurance training intensity corresponding to 4 mmol·l−1 arterial blood LA was effective for the improvement in AT as well as. It is suggested that the present training regimen could delay the onset of anaerobic glycolysis, thus shifting AT to the higher workload and decreasing LA at a given submaximal exercise after training.
This model is used to understand the interrelationships of the physiological factors determining endurance performance ability during prolonged exercise. Early studies found that marathon runners maintain a velocity in competition that corresponds to the intensity at which lactate begins to accumulate in blood and muscle [7, 8, 19]. From this observation, the concept developed that this blood lactate threshold (LT Vo2) reflects the degree of muscular stress, glycogenolysis and fatigue. However, it was not clear whether the lactate accumulation was a result of cardiovascular limitations linked to oxygen delivery, as reflected by Vo2max [54], as opposed to metabolic factors in the exercising muscle related to the extent to which mitochondrial respiration is disturbed to maintain a given rate of O2 consumption [29, 30]. Two studies were performed to determine whether LT Vo2 was tightly coupled to Vo2max. In one study, endurance-trained ischemic heart disease patients were observed to possess a Vo2max that was 18% below that of normal master athletes who followed the patient's training program and who displayed the same performance ability as the patients. Both the patients and the normal men displayed an identical LT Vo2 (i.e., 37 ml/kg/min) (Fig. 2.5). Therefore, performance was determined primarily by LT Vo2 instead of Vo2max in this situation, albeit with abnormal subjects. In a second study we assembled two groups of competitive cyclists who were identical in Vo2max but differed by having a high or low LT Vo2 (82% vs. 66% Vo2max) [13]. When cycling at 80-88% Vo2max, the low LT group displayed more than a 2-fold higher rate of muscle glycogen use and blood lactate concentration, and as a result were able to exercise only one-half as long as the high LT group. Performance time for a given Vo2 was clearly related to LT Vo2 instead of Vo2max (Fig. 2.6). This is not to say that Vo2max plays no role in determining LT Vo2, because as in heart disease patients, it clearly sets the upper limit. Indeed, we have seen that much of the variance (i.e., 31-72%) in LT Vo2 is related to Vo2max. (Fig. 2.11.) However, improvements in performance after the first 2-3 yr of intense training are associated with improvements in LT Vo2, whereas Vo2max generally increases very little thereafter (Table 2.3). The next question concerns the factors responsible for further increases in LT Vo2 and Performance. Another major factor determining LT Vo2 is the muscle's Aerobic Enzyme Activity or mitochondrial respiratory capacity, as discussed in previous reviews [29, 30].(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
In 30 rowers plasma growth hormone and cortisol responses to a 7-min test on a rowing apparatus, performed at the highest possible rate, or to a competition race of 2000 m were recorded three times during a period that lasted up to 20 months. Apart from an improvement of the results in competition the increased performance capacity was also indicated by means of power output during the 7-min test (from 363 +/- 8 to 425 +/- 7 W in group A and from 382 +/- 7 to 437 +/- 9 W in group B). A pronounced rise was found in pre-exercise (in group A) and post-exercise (in both groups) cortisol levels. Post-exercise growth hormone levels increased when the rise in the mean power output was 40 W. Significant correlations were revealed between group values of power output and hormone levels during the study period. The performance capacity correlated with growth hormone levels after competition. The highest values were found in 10 elite rowers, studied additionally during an international competition. In cortisol values this kind of dependence was not found. Only the pre-competition concentrations of cortisol were significantly higher in elite rowers than in rowers of lower performance levels. Thus a further improvement of the performance capacity in previously trained sportsmen is associated with elevated growth hormone and cortisol levels in supramaximal exercises.
Altitude training invokes physiological changes that are very similar to those caused by endurance training, As a result, it has been incorporated in the training regimes of elite athletes in an effort to improve sea level performance. Several training strategies, such as constant altitude exposure, intermittent altitude exposure or 'live high train low', have been used in an effort to incur an advantage in sea level performance over just sea level training alone. In spite of the accumulating scientific evidence that altitude training affords no advantage over sea level training, many coaches and athletes believe that it can enhance sea level performance for any athlete, whether endurance or power is the focus in their particular sport. However, altitude training may not be suitable for some athletes depending on their age, fitness level, health, iron status and the energy and technical requirements of their sport. The issue of whether altitude training enhances sea level performance remains a controversial topic.
In rowing, static and dynamic work of approximately 70% of the body's muscle mass is involved for 5.5 to 8 min at an average power of 450 to 550 W. In high load training phases before World Championships, training volume reaches 190 min.d-1, of which between 55 and 65% is performed as rowing, and the rest is nonspecific training like gymnastics and stretching and semispecific training like power training. Rowing training is mainly performed as endurance training, rowing 120 to 150 km or 12 h.wk-1. Rowing at higher intensities is performed between 4 and 10% of the total rowed time. The increase in training volume during the last years of about 20% was mainly reached by increasing nonspecific and semispecific training. The critical borderline to long-term overtraining in adapted athletes seems to be 2 to 3 wk of intensified prolonged training of about 3 h.d-1. Sufficient regeneration is required to avoid overtraining syndrome. The training principles of cross training, alternating hard and easy training days, and rest days reduce the risk of an overtraining syndrome in rowers.
The purpose of this study was to assess research aimed at measuring performance enhancements that affect success of individual elite athletes in competitive events.
Simulations show that the smallest worthwhile enhancement of performance for an athlete in an international event is 0.7-0.4 of the typical within-athlete random variation in performance between events. Using change in performance in events as the outcome measure in a crossover study, researchers could delimit such enhancements with a sample of 16-65 athletes, or with 65-260 in a fully controlled study. Sample size for a study using a valid laboratory or field test is proportional to the square of the within-athlete variation in performance in the test relative to the event; estimates of these variations are therefore crucial and should be determined by repeated-measures analysis of data from reliability studies for the test and event. Enhancements in test and event may differ when factors that affect performance differ between test and event; overall effects of these factors can be determined with a validity study that combines reliability data for test and event. A test should be used only if it is valid, more reliable than the event, allows estimation of performance enhancement in the event, and if the subjects replicate their usual training and dietary practices for the study; otherwise the event itself provides the only dependable estimate of performance enhancement. Publication of enhancement as a percent change with confidence limits along with an analysis for individual differences will make the study more applicable to athletes. Outcomes can be generalized only to athletes with abilities and practices represented in the study.
estimates of enhancement of performance in laboratory or field tests in most previous studies may not apply to elite athletes in competitive events.
This study was designed to evaluate the stability of target heart rate (HR) values corresponding to performance markers such as lactate threshold (LT) and the first and second ventilatory thresholds (VT1, VT2) in a group of 13 professional road cyclists (VO2max, approximately 75.0 mL x kg(-1) x min(-1)) during the course of a complete sports season.
Each subject performed a progressive exercise test on a bicycle ergometer (ramp protocol with workload increases of 25 W x min(-1)) three times during the season corresponding to the "active" rest (fall: November), precompetition (winter: January), and competition periods (spring: May) to determine HR values at LT, VT1 and VT2.
Despite a significant improvement in performance throughout the training season (i.e., increases in the power output eliciting LT, VT1, or VT2), target HR values were overall stable (HR at LT: 154 +/- 3, 152 +/- 3, and 154 +/- 2 beats x min(-1); HR at VT1: 155 +/- 3, 156 +/- 3, and 159 +/- 3 beats x min(-1); and at VT2: 178 +/- 2, 173 +/- 3, and 176 +/- 2 beats x min(-1) during rest, precompetition, and competition periods, respectively).
A single laboratory testing session at the beginning of the season might be sufficient to adequately prescribe training loads based on HR data in elite endurance athletes such as professional cyclists. This would simplify the testing schedule generally used for this type of athlete.
Due to constant competition conditions, track cycling can be accurately modeled through physiological and biomechanical means. Mathematical modeling predicts an average workload of 520 W for every team member for a new team pursuit world record. Performance in team pursuit racing is highly dependent on aerobic capacity, anaerobic skills, and aerodynamic factors. The training concept of the 2000 record-breaking team pursuit team was based on unspecific training of these qualities and periodical, short-term recall of previously acquired track specific skills. Aerobic performance was trained through high overall training mileage (29,000-35,000 km.yr-1) with workload peaks during road stage races. Before major track events, anaerobic performance, and track-specific technical and motor skills were improved through discipline-specific track training. Training intensities were monitored through heart rate and lactate field tests during defined track-training bouts, based on previously performed laboratory exercise tests. During pursuit competition, analysis of half-lap split times allowed an estimation of the individual contribution of each rider to the team's performance and thereby facilitated modifications in team composition to optimize race speed. The theoretically predicted performance necessary for a new world record was achieved through careful planning of training and competition schedules based on a concise theoretical concept and the high physiological capacities of the participating athletes.
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