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Salad and satiety: Energy density and portion size of a first-course salad affect energy intake at lunch
Abstract
We tested the effect on meal intake of varying the energy density and portion size of a compulsory first-course salad.
The study used a randomized crossover design.
Forty-two women from the State College, PA, university community ate lunch in the laboratory once per week for 7 weeks.
Lunch comprised one of six first-course salads, or no salad in the control condition, followed by a main course of pasta. Subjects were required to consume the entire salad, but ate as much pasta as they wanted. The salads varied in energy density (0.33, 0.67, or 1.33 kcal/g) and portion size (150 or 300 g). The energy density of the salad was reduced by changing the amount and type of dressing and cheese.
Energy intake and ratings of hunger, satiety, and food characteristics were measured.
Outcomes were analyzed using a linear mixed model with repeated measures.
Compared with having no first course, consuming the low-energy-dense salads reduced meal energy intake (by 7% for the small portion and 12% for the large), and consuming the high-energy-dense salads increased intake (by 8% for the small portion and 17% for the large). When two salads with the same number of calories were compared, meal intake was decreased when the large portion of the lower-energy-dense salad was consumed.
Eating a low-energy-dense first course enhances satiety and reduces meal energy intake. Consuming a large portion of a low-energy-dense food at the start of a meal may be an effective strategy for weight management.
... Salad is an essential component to the American diet and may provide an important means of meeting dietary recommendations for daily produce intake [7,8]. Small-scale experimental studies have previously related low-energy-dense salad consumption to decreased daily total caloric intake and healthier body weight status [9][10][11][12]. Recent public nutrition interventions promote salad consumption in schools and workplaces through increasing availability (e.g., building new or expanding existing salad bars, providing more diverse and healthful choices) and improving affordability (e.g., providing discounts, coupons and subsidies) [13][14][15][16]. ...
... In addition, marginal differences in the relationship between salad consumption and daily dietary intake and diet quality across population subgroups by sex, education and income level were observed. Findings from this study to some extent confirmed results from previous experimental work regarding the effects of salad consumption on increased vegetable intake and improved overall diet quality [9][10][11][12]. However, contrary to our hypothesis, salad consumption among U.S. adults was not found to be associated with increased fruit intake. ...
... Portion size and energy density of salad, to a large extent, determine consumers' caloric and nutrient intake [24][25][26]. In a controlled experiment, individuals who were randomised to consume low-energy-dense salads with varying portion sizes reduced daily total caloric intake by 7% (for big portion size consumers) to 12% (for small portion size consumers), whereas those randomised to consume high-energy-dense salads increased daily total caloric intake by 8% (for small portion size consumers) to 17% (for big portion size consumers) [9]. In a review of over 30,000 U.S. chain restaurant menu items in terms of their energy and nutrient content, salads combined with dressings had caloric values approaching those of main entrées [17]. ...
Backgrounds: This study examined salad consumption in relation to daily dietary intake and diet quality among U.S. adults.
Methods: Nationally representative sample came from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2012 waves. Salad consumption was identified through both Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary Studies codes for salad items and combination code for components of and/or additions to salads. First-difference estimator addressed confounding bias from time-invariant unobservables (e.g., eating habits, taste preferences) by using within-individual variations in salad consumption between 2 nonconsecutive 24-hour dietary recalls.
Results: Approximately 28.7% of U.S. adults consumed salad on any given day. Among salad consumers, salad consumption occupied 12.5% of daily total energy, 62.8% vegetable, 11.9% fruit, 18.4% fiber, 9.1% sugar, 20.3% total fat, 14.7% saturated fat, 14.9% cholesterol, and 17.7% sodium intake. Compared to no salad consumption on a dietary recall day, salad consumption was associated with increased daily intake of total energy by 461.5 kJ (110.3 kcal), vegetable 85.0 g, fiber 1.0 g, sugar 5.7 g, total fat 10.0 g, saturated fat 1.3 g, cholesterol 18.7 mg, and sodium 216.3 mg. Salad consumption was associated with an increase in the Healthy Eating Index-2010 score by 4.2.
Conclusion: Salad consumption is related to better overall diet quality but also higher total energy, sugar, fat, cholesterol, and sodium intake. Interventions that promote salad consumption should provide low-energy-dense, nutrient-rich salad products. Salad consumers should prudently evaluate the caloric and nutrient content of salad in order to make informed and more healthful diet choices.
... As a result, a total of eight studies [39,40,48,51,52,59,60,72] served a compulsory manipulated preload and measured the food intake of the following unmanipulated ad libitum test meal. A total of 31 studies modified an entrée and measured the ad libitum intake of this entrée. ...
... The division of the subgroups 'preload' versus 'entrée' appeared essential due to their differing mechanism (inter-meal-satiety in preload versus intra-meal-satiation in ad libitum entrées) [76]. Preload studies with low ED foods such as salad [60], fruit [77] or soup [78] reported a reduction in energy intake in the following ad libitum meal. Nevertheless, the participants showed a non-significant trend of compensation for the reduction in energy intake [23]. ...
Purpose
The energy density (ED) of a diet can be leveraged to prevent weight gain or treat overweight and obesity. By lowering the ED of the diet, energy intake can be reduced while maintaining portion size. However, a reliable meta-analysis of data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) is missing. Therefore, this meta-analysis synthesized the evidence of ED manipulation on energy intake in RCTs.
Methods
The systematic literature search of multiple databases according to PRISMA criteria considered RCTs investigating the objectively measured energy intake from meals with different ED (lower ED (median 1.1 kcal/g) versus higher ED (median 1.5 kcal/g)) under controlled conditions. Subgroup analyses for age (children versus adults), meal type (preload versus entrée design), and intervention length (1 meal versus > 1 meal) were performed to achieve the most homogeneous result.
Results
The meta-analysis of 38 included studies demonstrated that lowering ED considerably reduced energy intake – 223 kcal (95% CI: – 259.7, – 186.0) in comparison to the higher ED interventions. As heterogeneity was high among studies, subgroup analyses were conducted. Heterogeneity decreased in subgroup analyses for age and meal type combined, strengthening the results. An extended analysis showed a positive linear relationship between ED and energy intake. Dietary ED did not affect the amount of food intake.
Conclusion
Manipulating ED substantially affects energy intake whereas food intake remains constant. Thus, this approach can be regarded as a powerful tool for weight management through nutrition therapy. Registration on 08/08/2021: CRD42021266653.
... Studies have shown that the body's ability to regulate energy intake is more sensitive to volume and weight than to that of energy density. [12][13] In other words, because food intake remains the same regardless of energy density, increasing energy density is a beneficial and feasible strategy, especially when patients have a low appetite and require nutritional support. [12][13][14] Other strategies include adding energy-rich supplements such as dextrin, fat and whey protein. ...
... [12][13] In other words, because food intake remains the same regardless of energy density, increasing energy density is a beneficial and feasible strategy, especially when patients have a low appetite and require nutritional support. [12][13][14] Other strategies include adding energy-rich supplements such as dextrin, fat and whey protein. A highenergy diet containing natural ingredients has several advantages: 5 (1) easy adjustability for elderly patients not consuming other nutritional supplements, (2) easy preparation of meals in any hospital or nursing home kitchen, (3) inexpensively increasing the energy content of food. ...
Background and objectives:
To present a new method of text-modified food management for patients with dysphagia that integrates the idea of food exchange. In addition to prioritizing nutrition in each recipe, the diet plan emphasizes straightforward preparation methods that balance nutrition and palatability.
Methods and study design:
On the basis of the recommended intake in the Expert Consensus, the design of the texture-modified food incorporates the concept of equivalent food exchange. The plan consists of a staple food, a meat, a vegetable, a snack, and a fruit as the base units, and the volume and nutrient density of each unit is modified to meet the needs of patients with dysphagia.
Results:
Five categories of standard portions were established, the standard portion of staple foods, milk should be used instead of water during preparation, and carbohydrate components (dextrin) should be added so that each portion provides approximately 200 Kcal of energy. The standard portion of meat, protein components (90% whey) should be added to provide approximately 14 g of protein and 150 Kcal of energy per portion. Two types of standard snacks are recommended, each serving provides 250 Kcal of energy. Vegetables and fruits provide 70 Kcal and 90 Kcal of energy. We compiled 11 recipes representative of the food exchange system and our recipe design priorities (texture modification, sufficient nutrition, color, fragrance and taste).
Conclusions:
The method is combined theory and practice and can be applied to clinical nutrition work to promote the nutritional intake of patients with dysphagia.
... There are an increasing number of intervention studies that have explored the relationship between ED and EI. Numerous short-term, laboratory-based feeding studies have shown that serving low ED preloads, or modified ED meals, leads to reductions in EI (Blatt, Roe, & Rolls 2011;Devitt & Mattes, 2004;Flood & Rolls, 2007;Rolls, Roe, & Meengs, 2004a;Rolls, Roe, & Meengs, 2006;Kral, Roe, & Rolls, 2004;Stubbs & Whybrow, 2004;Williams, Roe, & Rolls, 2013). It has been hypothesised that people tend to eat a fairly consistent weight of food on a day-to-day basis, and this may be one mechanism underlying the relationship between reduced ED, and subsequent decreases in EI (Astrup, 2008). ...
... In fact, subjects ate 56% more energy (925 kJ) when served the largest portion of the high ED entrée compared to the smallest portion of the low ED entrée, without any observed differences in satiety ratings. These results revealed subjects did not compensate for higher EI by consuming less energy at subsequent meals; again suggesting oversized portions may override an individual's ability to self-regulate EI. Rolls et al. (2004a) used a randomised crossover design to test the effect of various first-course salads, or no salad, on EI. Once per week for seven weeks, forty-two females consumed lunch in the laboratory, comprising one of six entrée salads, varying in ED (0.33, 0.67, or 1.33 kcal/g) and portion size (150 or 300g), followed by an ad libitum pasta test meal. ...
Background:
Obesity is a key modifiable risk factor for non-communicable diseases. The modern food environment provides easy access to inexpensive, highly palatable, energy-dense and nutrient-poor foods and beverages, which are associated with increased BMI and reduced dietary quality. The NEEDNT Food List™, comprising ‘non-essential, energy-dense, nutritionally-deficient’ foods and beverages, was developed to help patients and consumers to clearly distinguish non-essential foods from core foods required for good health. In the present study, the original NEEDNT Food List™ was incorporated into preliminary ‘Moderation Guidelines’, which aim to provide quantified guidance for implementing the concept of dietary moderation, in the context of NEEDNT food and beverage intake.
Objectives: The aims of the present study were to create a points and quota system for quantifying and monitoring energy intake from NEEDNT foods and beverages; to pre-test preliminary Moderation Guidelines among a representative group of potential users; and to make recommendations to further develop the Moderation Guidelines as a weight loss tool.
Design: This study utilised an observational design and qualitative methods to obtain information-rich verbal data from study participants. Twelve people, aged 22 to 57 years, with a BMI ≥30 and a history of repeated weight loss attempts, were selected to pre-test the Moderation Guidelines over a 4-week period, and subsequently participated in one-on-one, semi-structured interviews. Interviews comprised eight open-ended questions, to explore participants’ views and experiences of the Moderation Guidelines, along with information relating to historical weight loss attempts and thoughts on dietary moderation. Interview data were recorded, transcribed verbatim and coded using NVivo software. Coded data were categorised and evaluated by thematic analysis using a general inductive approach.
Results: Preliminary NEEDNT Foods Moderation Guidelines were presented in an A5 booklet format, with NEEDNT foods and beverages assigned 1 NEF (‘non-essential food’ value) per 100 kcal portion. Participants were allocated up to 19 NEFs weekly, representing around 1900 kcal. Participants varied in the extent of their previous dieting experiences. All expressed uncertainty around applying personal concepts of dietary moderation. Nine participants found the Moderation Guidelines usable and beneficial. Five participants self-reported weight losses of 2-4 kg during the 4-week period. Three participants found the Moderation Guidelines less appealing, unusable, or incomplete. All participants reported an improved understanding of dietary moderation generally. Seven participants intended to continue using the Moderation Guidelines. Suggested changes to the print booklet included revision of NEEDNT food and beverage categories, modification of terminology, integration of colour and graphics, clarification of serving sizes, and culture-specific versions. Most participants emphasised the need for support from a Dietitian or other health professional, for dietary guidance around core food groups, and behavioural change techniques. Participants said a NEEDNT-based smartphone app would increase functionality and appeal. Māori and Pacific participants requested culturally tailored NEEDNT-based education.
Conclusion: Preliminary NEEDNT Foods Moderation Guidelines show potential for assisting obese persons to lose weight by moderating consumption of NEEDNT foods and beverages. Revision and retesting would further develop the Moderation Guidelines, and should incorporate participants’ recommendations, design principles, behavioural change theories, and best practices in nutrition education. An intervention trial is warranted, to evaluate the effectiveness of revised Moderation Guidelines as a dietary quality and weight loss tool. Further research opportunities include the development of a Moderation Guidelines smartphone app and website, tailored adaptation of the Moderation Guidelines for Māori and Pacific individuals and community groups, and a NEEDNT-based public health campaign.
Keywords: NEEDNT Food List, NEEDNT Foods Moderation Guidelines, Moderation Guidelines, NEF, NEEDNT-FFQ, dietary moderation, energy density, nutrient density, overweight, obesity, qualitative research, qualitative evaluation, nutrition education.
... There are studies which suggested that meal intake was reduced by eating a double portion of salad; eating a large portion of vegetable is an effective strategy for increasing satiety and reducing overall energy intake. [25][26][27][28][29] Adding large portions of low energy dense salad decreased meal energy intake by 11-12% by increasing fullness while adding few calories, so that intake is reduced during the entire meal. 28,29 Other studies have shown similar effects on meal energy intake by adding a fixed preload of low-energy-dense soup or fruit and have examined such factors as food type, macronutrient, energy, and food volume. ...
... [25][26][27][28][29] Adding large portions of low energy dense salad decreased meal energy intake by 11-12% by increasing fullness while adding few calories, so that intake is reduced during the entire meal. 28,29 Other studies have shown similar effects on meal energy intake by adding a fixed preload of low-energy-dense soup or fruit and have examined such factors as food type, macronutrient, energy, and food volume. 26,27 Eventually, calorie intake reduction has an effect on body weight loss rather than metabolic changes. ...
Background: Indonesia suffers growing health problems like obesity, diabetes, and other metabolic syndromes with dietary habit as one of risk factors. To control the lipid and glycaemic profile, high fibre intake has been recommended. This study administered 400g/day vegetable intake with its fiber contents and observed the effects in lipid profile and glycaemic control.
Design: A parallel study of 30 pairs of menopausal women match paired in overweight, menopause, hyperlipidaemia, age, etc randomly divided into two groups (vegetable and control). The baseline data obtained from questionnaire and preliminary blood-withdrawn of consented participants, then matched the characteristics included the results of lipid profile and glycated albumin. The administration was conducted for 21days by providing 400g/day of vegetable to the vegetable group subjects. Nutrition assessments were conducted at the baseline, middle, and final period. The data were analysed by using the unpaired and paired t-test.
Results: Significant results (p
... Particularly, choice of foods consumed during the early phase of a meal with respect to energy intake and intakes of different food groups has been examined in several studies conducted in the United States (U.S.) among people of different age groups. For instance, a randomized cross-over study conducted among adults in the U.S. found that consuming a first course with low-energy-dense salad enhanced satiety and led to reduced energy intake in the subsequent courses [12]. The beneficial role of consuming low-energy-dense foods at the beginning of a meal, particularly vegetables, has also been examined among children. ...
... The same research group conducted other studies examining the role of serving vegetable dishes in the early phase of a meal. They reported similar findings that consuming a vegetable dish early led to increased meal vegetable intake and decreased meal energy intake [12,13]. Based on these study findings, placing vegetable dishes earlier during the course of a meal can be advocated as a strategy to encourage vegetable intake among children who have insufficient vegetable consumptions. ...
Eating behavior is an important aspect for dietary quality and long-term health. This study examined associations between eating vegetables first at a meal and food intakes among preschool children in Tokyo, Japan. We used cross-sectional data of 135 preschool children from seven nursery schools in Adachi City, Tokyo, Japan. Caregivers completed a survey on child’s eating behaviors and a diet questionnaire. Linear regression was used to examine frequency of eating vegetables first at a meal and food intakes; percent difference and the corresponding 95% confidence interval (95% CI) were presented. Overall, 25.2% of children reported eating vegetables first at a meal every time, 52.6% sometimes, and 22.2% not often or never. In the multivariate analysis, higher vegetable intake remained significant after adjusting for other covariates (compared with the group of eating vegetables first not often or never, the group reported sometimes: 27%, 95% CI: 0–63%; the group reported every time: 93%, 95% CI: 43–159%). No significant difference in intake by frequency categories of eating vegetables first was observed for other food groups, including fruits, meat, fish, cereals, and sweets. Children eating vegetables first at a meal more was associated with higher total intake of vegetables compared with children who did not eat vegetables first, among Japanese preschool children.
... In the US, an inverse relationship between fast-food intake and vegetable intake is reported (77)(78)(79) , and increasing the energy intake from fruit and vegetables in school lunches has been associated with reduced energy intake from other sources (80) . There is evidence from intervention studies that increasing vegetable intake directly reduces the intake of other energy sources (81)(82)(83) . These findings may be because vegetables generally have a low energy density and that increasing their intake can enhance satiety (82) , and raises questions about whether increasing vegetable intake may have a dual benefit in also reducing discretionary energy. ...
... There is evidence from intervention studies that increasing vegetable intake directly reduces the intake of other energy sources (81)(82)(83) . These findings may be because vegetables generally have a low energy density and that increasing their intake can enhance satiety (82) , and raises questions about whether increasing vegetable intake may have a dual benefit in also reducing discretionary energy. ...
Objective
We aimed to profile vegetable consumption and its association with dietary and sociodemographic factors.
Design
Secondary analysis of a nationally representative nutrition survey. ‘Vegetables’ refers to non-discretionary ‘vegetables and legumes/beans’ as defined by the Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADG). Prevalence of vegetable consumption, frequency of intake, proportion meeting ADG recommendations, most popular food groups, intake at each reported eating occasion, and the profile of high and low vegetable consumers (based on the median servings) were determined.
Setting
Australian 2011–2012 National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey.
Participants
Children and adolescents aged 2 to 18 years ( n 2812).
Results
Vegetables were consumed by 83·0% (95% CI 81·6, 84·4%) of participants, but the median vegetable servings was less than a third of the ADG recommendations. ‘Leaf and stalk vegetables’ and ‘potatoes’ were the most popular vegetable-dense food groups at lunch and dinner, respectively. Sixty-four percent had vegetables once a day, and predominantly at dinner. Vegetable frequency was positively associated with daily vegetable servings and variety. Participants who consumed vegetables twice a day generally had vegetables at both lunch and dinner and had nearly double the servings (2·6, sd 1·9) of those who consumed them once (1·5, sd 1·5). High vegetable consumers were older, had higher total energy, but lower discretionary energy intake and were less likely to be at risk of metabolic complications.
Conclusion
Increasing the frequency of vegetable consumption may assist with increasing daily vegetable servings. A focus on consuming vegetables at lunch may assist with increasing both total servings and variety.
... Another explanation by which ED affects appetite might be related to the portion sizes of meals. Some studies demonstrated that volume and portion sizes of presented foods are stronger regulators for energy intake than is energy density [34,58,59]. Although portion sizes and presented food volume were controlled in some of studies, they were different between LED and HED diets in some studies Overall (I 2 = 98.1%; ...
... Schiöth (2015) Pritchard (2014) 30 Pritchard (2014) 29 Yeomans (2009) 1 Zhou (2013) 26 Williams (2014) 27 Yeomans (2009) 7 Tatano (2016) 35 Tatano (2016) 32 Zhou (2013) 17 Zhou (2013) 20 Tey (2012) 9 Yeomans (2009) [58]. It would be worthwhile to public health if future research in this area controlled the foods for macronutrients content as well as volume and portion size. ...
Studies have suggested that dietary energy density (DED) may affect weight gain by altering appetite. Although many studies have investigated the effect of DED on appetite, findings are inconsistent and, to our knowledge, there are no systematic reviews and meta-analyses on this topic. Therefore, the aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to summarize the effect of DED on appetite. The current meta-analysis revealed changing the DED had no significant effect on hunger but increased fullness. More high-quality randomized controlled trials are needed to investigate the effects of DED on appetite components. We searched titles, abstracts, and keywords of articles indexed in ScienceDirect, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar databases up to July 2018 to identify eligible RCT studies. Random effects model was used to estimate the pooled effect of DED on appetite. Among the 21 studies identified in the systematic literature search, 11 reports were included in the meta-analysis. Based on the Cochrane Collaboration Risk of Bias tool, 6 studies were considered as good quality, two were fair, and three studies were poor. The mean ± standard deviation for energy density, in studies which assessed fullness, was 1.65 ± 1 in high energy dense (HED) diet and 0.93 ± 0.93 in low energy dense (LED) diet. The corresponding values for hunger were 1.67 ± 0.69 and 0.70 ± 0.32, respectively. Compared with a LED diet, consumption of HED increased fullness (weighed mean difference [WMD] 2.95 mm; 95% CI 0.07-5.82, P = 0.044, I2 98.1%) but had no significant effect on hunger (WMD 1.31 mm; 95% CI -7.20 to 9.82, P = 0.763, I2 99.1%). The current meta-analysis revealed changing the DED had no significant effect on hunger but increased fullness. More high-quality RCTs are needed to investigate the effects of DED on appetite components.
... The order of food consumption may have an effect on overweight by changing the amount of food consumed during the rest of the meal. Some controlled studies in adults have shown that eating low energy density food first (vegetables, soup, or fruit) reduces total meal energy intake (15)(16)(17). Furthermore, Roe et al. reported that consuming low energy density salad before, rather than with, the main course increases total vegetable consumption (18). ...
... Furthermore, in a single-meal study, serving children a low energy density, vegetable-based soup as a first course was associated with less energy intake from the more energy dense main course (33). In adults, consuming low energy density salads is associated with less energy intake over a meal than having no first course (15). These findings are consistent with our present study, which found that the effect on overweight of eating soup, a low energydensity food, first did not differ significantly from that of eating vegetables first. ...
Background: Because eating behaviors are established early in life, it is important to instill healthy eating habits in children. However, no published studies have examined the effects of what is habitually consumed first at a meal on children's body weight in real settings. The aim of this study was to examine the associations between what was consumed (vegetables, rice/bread, meat/fish, or soup) at the start of a meal and childhood overweight in Japan.
Methods: We used cross-sectional data from the Adachi Child Health Impact of Living Difficulty (A-CHILD) study, a population-based study comprising all first-grade students in Adachi City, Tokyo, Japan, performed in 2015. Through a questionnaire, we identified what types of food children ate first at meals. The questionnaire was completed by 4,040 caregivers. We used corresponding school health check-up data (height and weight) to assess overweight in each child.
Results: The proportions of what was consumed first at a meal were 11.6, 23.3, 25.4, 9.8, and 29.9% for vegetables, meat/fish, rice/bread, soup, and undetermined (variable), respectively. Multivariate logistic regression showed the odds ratio of being overweight was 1.83 in children who ate meat/fish first (95% CI: 1.27–2.64, p < 0.01) compared with children who ate vegetables first. In contrast, the odds ratios in children who consumed rice/bread or soup first compared with children who ate vegetables first were 1.11 (95% CI: 0.76–1.61, p = 0.59) and 1.29 (95% CI: 0.83–2.01, p = 0.26), respectively.
Conclusion: Children who eat meat/fish at the start of a meal are more likely to be overweight than those who eat vegetables at the start of a meal. Future studies are needed to investigate the mechanisms of how the order in which food is consumed at a meal affects weight status in children.
... Reducing the portion sizes of foods, whether as a result of individual action, public education, or commercial initiative, may be an overly simplistic approach to moderating the effect of portion size on food intake. Experimental evidence shows that, in the short term, feelings of satiety and satisfaction are determined by the amount or volume of food consumed, as well as by the energy content (27,28). At some PS and ED independently increase energy intake. ...
... For foods that are low in energy density, satisfying portions can be encouraged, because they produce fullness while adding little energy. A recent controlled study showed that consuming a large portion of a food low in energy density can even displace energy intake at the rest of the meal (27). On different days, subjects were required to consume a first course salad, which was varied in portion size (150 and 300 g) and energy density (1.38, 2.80, and 5.56 kJ/g; 0.33, 0.67, and 1.33 kcal/g); the first course was followed by a main course of pasta that was consumed ad libitum. ...
The increase in the prevalence of obesity has coincided with an increase in portion sizes of foods both inside and outside the home, suggesting that larger portions may play a role in the obesity epidemic. Although it will be difficult to establish a causal relationship between increasing portion size and obesity, data indicate that portion size does influence energy intake. Several well-controlled, laboratory-based studies have shown that providing older children and adults with larger food portions can lead to significant increases in energy intake. This effect has been demonstrated for snacks and a variety of single meals and shown to persist over a 2-d period. Despite increases in intake, individuals presented with large portions generally do not report or respond to increased levels of fullness, suggesting that hunger and satiety signals are ignored or overridden. One strategy to address the effect of portion size is decreasing the energy density (kilojoules per gram; kilocalories per gram) of foods. Several studies have demonstrated that eating low-energy-dense foods (such as fruits, vegetables, and soups) maintains satiety while reducing energy intake. In a clinical trial, advising individuals to eat portions of low-energy-dense foods was a more successful weight loss strategy than fat reduction coupled with restriction of portion sizes. Eating satisfying portions of low-energy-dense foods can help to enhance satiety and control hunger while restricting energy intake for weight management.
... Numerous studies show that the portion of a food that is served affects intake, such that the bigger the portion, the greater the intake. 4,[38][39][40][41] Increasing the proportion and, thus, the portion size of vegetables and fruits can increase their intake; but it is important that they are relatively palatable compared with the other foods available. 42 Thus, when advising patients to adopt MyPlate, they should be encouraged to find strategies to increase the palatability while not greatly increasing the energy density of the vegetables and fruits. ...
... "Filling up first" with a 100-to 150-calorie broth-based soup, leafy green salad, or whole fresh fruit before a meal is a simple strategy to lower the intake of higher-energy-dense main dishes and decrease meal energy intake. 34,38,[53][54][55][56][57] These strategies to increase the consumption of low-energy-dense foods and reduce those higher in energy density are flexible; patients can choose which foods to substitute and how the substitution will fit into their diet. They should be encouraged to try several strategies until they find an approach that they can sustain. ...
Several dietary patterns, both macronutrient and food based, can lead to weight loss. A key strategy for weight management that can be applied across dietary patterns is to reduce energy density. Clinical trials show that reducing energy density is effective for weight loss and weight loss maintenance. A variety of practical strategies and tools can help facilitate successful weight management by reducing energy density, providing portion control, and improving diet quality. The flexibility of energy density gives patients options to tailor and personalize their dietary pattern to reduce energy intake for sustainable weight loss.
... Ein anderer Ansatz ist, Lebensmittel mit niedriger Energiedichte, wie Gemüse, Obst und Salat (100-150 kcal), vor einer Mahlzeit zu verzehren [10,[58][59][60], wenn noch keine anderen konkurrierenden Lebensmittel auf dem Teller liegen. Für die Gesamtenergieaufnahme funktioniert das gut solange der Hauptgang dazu passt, also nicht aus großen Portionen schmackhafter Lebensmittel mit hoher Energiedichte besteht [58]. ...
Zusammenfassung
Für die Energieaufnahme sind die Portionsgrößen und die Energiedichte der Nahrung (kcal/g Lebensmittel) entscheidende Faktoren. Die Reduktion der Energiedichte von Nahrung erlaubt dem Individuum in ausreichend sättigender Menge zu essen, während gleichzeitig weniger Energie zugeführt wird. Dies zeigen eine Vielzahl an randomisierten kontrollierten Studien sowohl im Kindes- und Jugendbereich als auch im Erwachsenenbereich und unter Einsatz unterschiedlicher Studiendesigns. Gleichzeitig sind die Strategien zur Reduktion der Energiedichte vielfältig und können auf verschiedene Ernährungsmuster, Nahrungsmittelvorlieben und kulturelle Besonderheiten angepasst werden. Der Artikel gibt einen Überblick über die Effekte des Energiedichteprinzips auf i) die Energie- und Nahrungsaufnahme unter Berücksichtigung des Gewichtsstatus, ii) Sättigung und zugrundeliegende Mechanismen, bevor dann auf die Praxis näher eingegangen wird. Dazu gehören die Einteilung der Lebensmittel nach den Ampelfarben entsprechend ihrem Energiedichtegehalt, die Erläuterung des wissenschaftlichen Hintergrundes zur Modulierung der Energiedichte sowie Anwendungsbeispiele des Energiedichte-Prinzips. Insgesamt betrachtet handelt es sich bei dem Energiedichteprinzip um ein sehr flexibles und unkompliziert einsetzbares Instrument für die Ernährungsberatung und -therapie, das von Patient*innen einfach zu verstehen ist.
... This preliminary finding is in line with the previous randomized controlled trial which also demonstrated no differences in postmeal satiety, despite large 5.4 ± 0.6 6.0 ± 0.6 6.5 ± 0.9 6.8 ± 0.7 0.510 Prospective intake 4.9 ± 0.5 5.5 ± 0.5 6.6 ± 1.0 6.0 ± 0.7 0.363 and sustained increases in intake from the ultra-processed diet (7). Findings suggest that texture and energy density are likely to affect energy consumed to satiation (15,19,21,(41)(42)(43), rather than postmeal satiety (1). Further controlled studies are needed to specifically test whether the postmeal satiety derived from minimally processed and ultra-processed meals differs when meals are consumed as a fixed portion of energy, rather than consumed ad libitum. ...
Background
Consumption of ultra-processed foods has been linked with higher energy intakes. Food texture is known to influence eating rate (ER) and energy intake to satiation, yet it remains unclear whether food texture influences energy intakes from minimally-processed and ultra-processed meals.
Objectives
We examined the independent and combined effects of food texture and degree of processing on ad-libitum food intake. We also investigated whether differences in energy intake during lunch influenced post-meal feelings of satiety and later food intake.
Design
In this crossover study, 50 healthy-weight participants (n = 50 (24 men); 24.4 ± 3.1y; BMI = 21.3 ± 1.9kgm−2) consumed four ad-libitum lunch-meals consisting of “soft- minimally-processed,” “hard-minimally-processed,” “soft-ultra-processed,” and “hard-ultra-processed” components. Meals were matched for total energy served, with some variation in meal energy density ( ±0.20 kcal/g). Ad-libitum food-intake (kcal and g) was measured and ER derived using behavioral coding of videos. Subsequent food intake was self-reported by food-diary.
Results
There was a main effect of food texture on intake, where “hard-minimally-processed” and “hard-ultra-processed” meals were consumed slower overall, and produced a 21% and 26% reduction in food weight (g) and energy (kcal) consumed respectively. Intakes were higher for “soft-ultra-processed” and “soft-minimally-processed” meals (P < 0.001), after correcting for meal pleasantness. The effect of texture on food weight consumed was not influenced by processing levels (weight-of-food: Texture*Processing-effect, P = 0.376), but the effect of food-texture on energy intake was (energy-consumed: Texture*Processing-effect, P = 0.015). The lowest energy was consumed from “hard-minimally-processed” meal (482.9 kcal; 95%CI: 431.9, 531.0), and the most from “soft-ultra-processed” meal (789.4 kcal; 95%CI: 725.9, 852.8; Δ=↓∼300 kcal). Energy intake was lowest when harder texture was combined with the “minimally-processed” meals. Total energy intake across the day varied directly with energy intakes of the test meals (Δ15%, P < 0.001).
Conclusions
Findings suggest that food texture-based differences in ER and meal energy density contribute to observed differences in energy intake between minimally-processed and ultra-processed meals.
... Second, we implemented the proximity type of nudging by altering the position of the healthier option closer to customers in combination with a point-of-purchase non-verbal prompting in Study 4. Lastly, we employed the combination of sizing and proximity in Study 5 by increasing the proximity of large versus small sized plates and serving spoons for self-serving FV-rich food items in a salad bar. Whereas previous studies that implemented sizing typically offered only one size of plate at a time (Rolls, Roe, & Meengs, 2004), we manipulated relative proximity of large vs. small plates placed for self-serving. Each study was conducted for one 12-week semester or more over a three-year period. ...
Although nudging has been found to promote the choice of healthy foods in lab studies and ad-hoc field studies, relatively little research is available regarding effectiveness in real food venues that operate for profit. The paucity of empirical studies providing “proof of implementation” reveals the difficulty of applying previous empirical findings on nudging to mass-eating food services contexts, which serve meals to a lot of individuals daily. Based on the typology of choice architecture in food choice contexts, we closely collaborated with the in-house food service operator to devise and implement five nudge interventions to promote fruits and vegetables (FV) in university cafeterias. Each study was conducted for one 12-week semester or more over a three-year period. In the first two studies, non-verbal point-of-purchase prompting increased the choice of kale/spinach supplemented smoothies and whole fruits from baskets. In Study 3, the combination of sizing and point-of-purchase non-verbal prompting increased the sale of large size vegetable-rich bowls from a stir-fry grill. In Study 4, the proximity type of nudging by altering the position of the healthier option in a sandwich bar in combination with non-verbal prompting increased the sale of sandwiches containing spinach. In Study 5, the combination of sizing and proximity of large vs. small sized plates and serving spoons had no effect on sale of self-serve items in a salad bar. All the interventions except for Study 5 produced a moderate effect in increasing the choice of FV-rich items. We recommend that hospitality and food service operators consider operational parameters and simultaneously adopt more than one nudging components to achieve a sizable effect. Future randomized controlled trials are needed to implement choice architecture techniques in collaboration with food service companies.
... Por tanto, una estrategia dietética para disminuir la DE consiste en aumentar la ingesta de alimentos ricos en agua, como frutas y verduras, proporcionando una cantidad satisfactoria de alimento con bajo contenido calórico; por el contrario, alimentos con alto contenido de grasa y bajo contenido de agua incrementan la DE (Rolls, 2010), ya que una vez que se ingieren los alimentos, su DE influye sobre la saciedad. Por ejemplo, al inicio de una comida, un alimento con baja DE puede ser efectivo para reducir la IE, ya que −debido principalmente a su volumen− ejerce un efecto saciante (Rolls, Roe y Meengs, 2004). ...
Obesity is a global health problem and one of the main causes of chronic diseases. There are several factors that influence eating behavior and obesity, which can be genetic, physiological, nutritional, psychological or sociocultural. In recent decades, the change in lifestyle has caused inadequate eating patterns, coupled with a decrease in energy expenditure. This review describes the main physiological, nutritional and psychological factors that intervene in energy intake and eating behavior and how they can -by regulating appetite and body weight- influence the development of obesity. The neuropsychology of food reward, preferences, choice and eating behavior are aspects not yet understood. Future research needs to focus on elucidating the pathways involved in the rewarding aspects of food and, as an alternative to control obesity, replicate this experience with healthier foods. However, understanding the link between food, energy intake and body weight regulation will only be achieved through multidisciplinary work.ResumenLa obesidad constituye un problema de salud a nivel mundial y una de las principales causas de las enfermedades crónicas. Existen diversos factores que influyen en el comportamiento alimentario y la obesidad, los cuales pueden ser genéticos, fisiológicos, nutricionales, psicológicos o socioculturales. En las últimas décadas, el cambio en el estilo de vida ha provocado patrones de alimentación inadecuados, aunados a disminución en el gasto energético. En esta revisión se describen los principales factores fisiológicos, nutricionales y psicológicos que intervienen en la ingesta energética y el comportamiento alimentario, y cómo es que estos pueden −vía la regulación del apetito y del peso corporal− influir en el desarrollo de la obesidad. La neuropsicología de la recompensa de los alimentos, de las preferencias, de la elección y del comportamiento alimentario son aspectos aún no comprendidos. Investigaciones futuras tienen que enfocarse en dilucidar las vías involucradas en los aspectos gratificantes de los alimentos y, como una alternativa para controlar la obesidad, replicar esta experiencia con alimentos más saludables. Sin embargo, la comprensión del vínculo entre alimentación, ingesta energética y regulación del peso corporal solo se logrará a través del trabajo multidisciplinario.
... Gastric distension is reportedly one of factors involved in the termination of feeding (22). Consistently, taking bulky foods with low energy-density and high-volume, such as salad, at the beginning of a meal induces satiation and suppresses postprandial rises in blood glucose (23)(24)(25). Thus, similar effects are induced by gastric distension and GLP-1. ...
Diet-induced gastrointestinal distension is known to evoke satiation and suppress postprandial hyperglycemia; however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study explored how gastrointestinal distension regulates energy homeostasis by using inflating stomach formulation (ISF), the carbonated solution containing pectin that forms stable gel bubbles under acidic condition in the stomach. Here we show that, in mice, oral administration of ISF induced distension of stomach and proximal intestine temporarily, stimulated intestinal glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion, and activated vagal afferents and brainstem. ISF suppressed food intake and improved glucose tolerance via enhancing insulin sensitivity. The anorexigenic effect was partially inhibited, and the beneficial glycemic effect was blunted by pharmacological GLP-1 receptor blockade and chemical denervation of capsaicin-sensitive sensory nerves. In HFD-fed obese mice showing arrhythmic feeding and obesity, subchronic ISF treatment at the light period (LP) onset for 10 days attenuated LP hyperphagia and visceral fat accumulation. These results demonstrate that gastrointestinal distension by ISF stimulates GLP-1 secretion and the vagal afferent signaling to the brain, thereby regulating feeding behavior and glucose tolerance. Furthermore, subchronic ISF treatment ameliorates HFD-induced visceral obesity. We propose the diet that induces gastrointestinal distension as a novel treatment of hyperphagic obesity and diabetes.
... Using larger bowls for side dishes such as vegetables, fruit, and soup is another way to gently guide consumers toward healthier options (Cadario and Chandon 2020;Rolls et al. 2010). Similarly, research suggests that providing bigger, lower-energy dense salads to consumers as a rst course can reduce their meal energy intake by 12% (Rolls et al. 2004). ...
In this chapter, we integrate scientific knowledge on consumers’ responses to food experiences from diverse theoretical perspectives into a food experience design framework. The goal is to provide guidance on how to design food experiences that will help consumers make healthier choices that will also make them happier. We propose that food experiences enhanced by ambiance and food design promote emotional responses that can facilitate healthy eating choices. The framework outlines which aspects of food experience can be designed or changed to generate the ideal emotional setting in the context of healthy choices. It is our hope that this will outline a way for food experience design to not only motivate consumers to eat more healthily but also enjoy their healthy choices more.
... 7 Furthermore, a 2-day consumption of soup or salad before meal time decreased total energy intake and increased their satiety in young adults. 8, 9 Glycaemic index (GI) is an important indicator for determination of carbohydrate effect on serum glucose concentration. Molecular structure, interaction with other macromolecules, food processing and ...
... There is now good evidence that increasing fruit and vegetable intake has associated health benefits (Antova et al., 2003;Gaziano et al., 1995;Gillman, 1996;Joshipura et al., 2001;Key, Thorogood, Appleby, & Burr, 1996;Maynard, Gunnell, Emmett, Frankel, & Davey-Smith, 2003;Steinmetz & Potter, 1996). In addition, consuming more fruit and vegetables at mealtime can protect against excess gain in weight (Epstein et al., 2000;McCrory et al., 1999;Rolls, Roe, & Meengs, 2004). However, children's consumption of fruit and vegetables is far lower than the recommended five portions per day (e.g., Baranowski et al., 2000;Dennison, Rockwell, & Baker, 1998;Department of Health, 2000;Guenther, Dodd, Reedy, & Krebs-Smith, 2006;Heimendinger & Van Duhn, 1995;Krebs-Smith et al., 1996;Nicklas et al., 2004;U.S. ...
Background:
There is a growing interest in low-cost interventions that modify obesogenic environments and encourage positive behavior change. We conducted a systematic review of studies that used behavioral nudges to promote a healthy school cafeteria environment.
Methods:
A literature search was conducted using 5 databases; of 381 papers noted, we included 25 and assessed them using the Quality Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies.
Results:
Most studies used relatively small, convenience samples and data collection methods that could not be described as robust, necessitating cautious interpretation of their results. A range of behavioral nudges were employed. Seventeen studies reported positive effects on children's selection and 11 studies reported improvements in their consumption of target foods, effected by changing the order of serving; increasing the convenience, attractiveness, and normativeness of selecting healthy options; increasing the variety available; and attractive target food labeling.
Conclusions:
Overall, this review identified the requirement for well-designed and well-controlled investigations into the effects of changing the choice architecture in school cafeterias, assessing short-, medium-, and long-term changes in individual children's consumption, utilizing validated measures, and conducted across a variety of settings, including dining rooms of schools outside the United States.
... Added and Incorporated Water Starting a meal with liquid/water courses and/or pre-loads high in added/incorporated water, e.g., in vegetables or vegetable salads [70], fruit [71], soup [22] and low-kcal beverages [72], was shown to effectively increase satiety and reduce immediate energy intake [73] in the present and ensuing meals [74] through contribution to gastric distension. ...
With increasing exposure to eating opportunities and postprandial conditions becoming dominant states, acute effects of meals are garnering interest. In this narrative review, meal components, combinations and course sequence were questioned vis-à-vis resultant postprandial responses, including satiety, glycemic, oxidative and inflammatory risks/outcomes vs. protective principles, with reference to the Mediterranean diet. Representative scientific literature was reviewed and explained, and corresponding recommendations discussed and illustrated. Starting meals with foods, courses and/or preloads high in innate/added/incorporated water and/or fibre, followed by protein-based courses, delaying carbohydrates and fatty foods and minimizing highly-processed/sweetened hedonic foods, would increase satiety-per-calorie vs. obesogenic passive overconsumption. Similarly, starting with high-water/fibre dishes, followed by high-protein foods, oils/fats, and delayed/reduced slowly-digested whole/complex carbohydrate sources, optionally closing with simpler carbohydrates/sugars, would reduce glycaemic response. Likewise, starting with foods high in innate/added/incorporated water/fibre/antioxidants, high monounsaturated fatty acid foods/oils, light proteins and whole/complex carbohydrate foods, with foods/oils low in n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios, and minimal-to-no red meat and highly/ultra-processed foods/lipids, would reduce oxidative/inflammatory response. Pyramids illustrating representative meal sequences, from most-to-least protective foods, visually communicate similarities between axes, suggesting potential unification for optimal meal sequence, consistent with anti-inflammatory nutrition and Mediterranean diet/meal principles, warranting application and outcome evaluation.
... Furthermore, nutritious drinks can be particularly practical following exercise when the appetite may be suppressed, while also supporting nutritional recovery goals. A high intake of low energy density vegetables may also moderate total energy intake at a meal (160). However, given the health benefits of individuals achieving public health guidance on vegetable intake (161), practitioners are advised to balance the pursuit of enhancing energy density with overall health benefits of the meal plan. ...
Resistance training is commonly prescribed to enhance strength/power qualities and is achieved via improved neuromuscular recruitment, fiber type transition, and/ or skeletal muscle hypertrophy. The rate and amount of muscle hypertrophy associated with resistance training is influenced by a wide array of variables including the training program, plus training experience, gender, genetic predisposition, and nutritional status of the individual. Various dietary interventions have been proposed to influence muscle hypertrophy, including manipulation of protein intake, specific supplement prescription, and creation of an energy surplus. While recent research has provided significant insight into optimization of dietary protein intake and application of evidence based supplements, the specific energy surplus required to facilitate muscle hypertrophy is unknown. However, there is clear evidence of an anabolic stimulus possible from an energy surplus, even independent of resistance training. Common textbook recommendations are often based solely on the assumed energy stored within the tissue being assimilated. Unfortunately, such guidance likely fails to account for other energetically expensive processes associated with muscle hypertrophy, the acute metabolic adjustments that occur in response to an energy surplus, or individual nuances like training experience and energy status of the individual. Given the ambiguous nature of these calculations, it is not surprising to see broad ranging guidance on energy needs. These estimates have never been validated in a resistance training population to confirm the “sweet spot” for an energy surplus that facilitates optimal rates of muscle gain relative to fat mass. This review not only addresses the influence of an energy surplus on resistance training outcomes, but also explores other pertinent issues, including “how much should energy intake be increased,” “where should this extra energy come from,” and “when should this extra energy be consumed.” Several gaps in the literature are identified, with the hope this will stimulate further research interest in this area. Having a broader appreciation of these issues will assist practitioners in the establishment of dietary strategies that facilitate resistance training adaptations while also addressing other important nutrition related issues such as optimization of fuelling and recovery goals. Practical issues like the management of satiety when attempting to increase energy intake are also addressed.
... For example, we found that the portion size and energy density of a preload of salad combined to influence meal intake. Subjects were required to consume a first course salad, which was varied in energy density and portion size on different days, followed by a main course of pasta [17]. Compared to having no first course, a low-energy-dense salad as a first course led to a decrease in total energy intake at the meal. ...
Aim:
The robust effect of portion size on intake has led to growing interest in why individuals consume more food when served larger portions. A number of explanations have been proposed, and this review aims to provide insight into potential underlying factors by summarizing recent studies testing moderators of the portion size effect.
Summary of findings:
Provision of portion size information, such as through labeling or training in portion control, failed to attenuate food intake in response to increasing meal size. This indicates that a lack of knowledge about appropriate portions may not be sufficient to explain the portion size effect. In contrast, there is evidence for a role of decision making in the response to large portions, with value being one consideration of importance. The portion size effect may be more closely related to the inherent value of food than monetary value, since provision of the opportunity to take away uneaten food after a meal, which can reduce food waste, attenuated the portion size effect but variations in pricing did not. A number of studies also support an influence of orosensory processing on the portion size effect; large portions have been shown to relate to increased bite size and faster eating rate. Reduced oral processing time when consuming large portions could contribute to the effect by delaying sensory-specific satiety. Findings from a recent study supported this by demonstrating that sensory-specific satiety did not differ between larger and smaller portions despite substantial differences in intake.
Conclusions:
A number of moderators of the portion size effect have been identified, including factors related to the environment, the food, and the individual. It is likely that multiple variables contribute to the response to large portions. Future research should aim to determine the relative contribution of explanatory variables across different contexts and individuals.
... Another limitation is that despite our efforts to match the energy content of the two diets, energy intake was $ 500 kcal/d lower during the Mediterranean diet trial. This may have been attributable to the lower energy density of the Mediterranean diet (48), which tends to reduce energy intake (49)(50)(51). However, due to the short-term duration of the interventions, this did not alter body mass. ...
Objective: Healthful dietary patterns have constituents that are known to improve exercise performance, such as antioxidants, nitrates, and alkalizing effects. However, ergogenic effects of such diets have not been evaluated. We hypothesized that a short-term Mediterranean diet results in better exercise performance, as compared to a typical Western diet.
Methods: Eleven recreationally active women (n = 7) and men (n = 4) (body mass index, 24.6 ± 3.2 kg/m²; age 28 ± 3 years) were studied in a randomized-sequence crossover study, in which they underwent exercise performance testing on one occasion after 4 days of a Mediterranean diet and on another occasion after 4 days of a Western diet. A 9- to 16-day washout period separated the two trials. Endurance exercise performance was evaluated with a 5-km treadmill time trial. Anaerobic exercise performance tests included a Wingate cycle test, a vertical jump test, and hand grip dynamometry.
Results: Five-kilometer run time was 6% ± 3% shorter (faster) in the Mediterranean diet trial than in the Western diet trial (27.09 ± 3.55 vs 28.59 ± 3.21 minutes; p = 0.030) despite similar heart rates (160 ± 5 vs 160 ± 4 beats/min; p = 0.941) and ratings of perceived exertion (14.6 ± 0.5 vs 15.0 ± 0.5; p = 0.356). No differences between the diet conditions were observed for anaerobic exercise tests, including peak and mean power from the Wingate test (both p ≥ 0.05), the vertical jump test (p = 0.19), and the hand grip strength test (p = 0.69).
Conclusions: Our findings extend existing evidence of the health benefits of the Mediterranean diet by showing that this diet is also effective for improving endurance exercise performance in as little as 4 days. Further studies are warranted to determine whether a longer-term Mediterranean diet provides greater benefits and whether it might also be beneficial for anaerobic exercise performance and muscle strength and power.
... For example, parboiled vegetable rice contains less protein (2.1 g) and carbohydrate (18.9 g) per 0.86 kcal/g as compared to a match volume of normal parboiled rice with 2.7 g of protein and 31.4 g of carbohydrate per 1.42 kcal/g (Chang et al. 2010). Rolls et al. (2004) also found, there was a significant effect of energy density rather than variation in fat content (14% to 67%) on satiety. ...
Fruit and vegetable are the natural foods that contained various nutrients vital for good health and help in weight loss by suppressing an individual’s appetite. Therefore, this review aimed to investigate the acute effect of fruit and vegetable intake on satiety and energy intake. We included randomized controlled trial or experimental designs measuring fruit and/or vegetable intake on satiety using subjective appetite rating and appetite related hormone and energy intake among healthy adults, published in English-language. The use of extract, powder form or concentrated fruit and/or vegetable and animal study were excluded. Twelve studies were identified from Pubmed, Science Direct and Cochrane from the year 1995 to August 2017, consists of six studies on fruit and six studies on vegetable. This review discussed the preload of fruit and vegetable in promoting satiety and reducing the energy intake. Manipulating energy density rather than portion size was effective in reducing total energy intake and promotes satiety. Fruit and vegetable in solid form had a greater satiety effect and significantly reduce energy intake compared to liquid or pureed form. The variation in time interval between fruit and/or vegetable intake and the test meal may also account a significant effect on satiety up to 2 h and diminished 3 h onward. The satiety effect of fruit and vegetable would be beneficial in body weight management. © Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. All rights reserved.
... An acute reduction in energy intake following water ingestion was observed. Low-energy, high-volume preloads, including specific formulations of soups and salads, reduce hunger before a meal and reduce overall energy intake compared to a condition without preloading [14,15]. The effect of beverage consumption on energy intake has been of interest, because it has been suggested that liquid foods are less satiating than solid foods [16]. 2 small laboratory studies identified by a systemic review [17] had specifically investigated whether preload water would lead to a reduction in energy intake. ...
I determined whether water consumption reduces energy intake and affects satiety in non-obese young adults. The final subjects consisted of 15 individuals (8 women and 7 men) with average ages of 26.4 and 23.5 years for women and men, respectively. When subjects drank water before eating a test meal, they ate a lower amount of the test meal compared to eating test meals under waterless and postload water conditions (preload water: 123.3 g vs. waterless: 161.7 g or postload water: 163.3 g, p < 0.05). Water consumption after eating a test meal did not affect energy intake. When the subjects drank water before eating a test meal, despite consuming a lower amount, the subjects did not feel significantly less satiety than eating meals under waterless or postload water conditions. The finding that pre-meal water consumption led to a significant reduction in meal energy intake in young adults suggests that pre-meal water consumption may be an effective weight control strategy, although the mechanism of action is unknown.
... Portion size effects on adult intake have been shown at single meals in laboratory (30 -37) and naturalistic settings (38) for unit (30,36,39) and amorphous (31) foods, beverages (37), foods of varying energy density (34,35), prepackaged snacks (33), and first-course salads (32). In the present study, the mothers consumed 21% more energy from the larger food portions than from the reference portions. ...
Background: Portion size influences children's energy intakes at meals, but effects on daily intake are unknown.
Objective: Effects of large portions on daily energy intake were tested in 5-y-old Hispanic and African American children from low-income families. Maternal food intake data were collected to evaluate familial susceptibility to portion size.
Design: A within-subjects experimental design with reference and large portion sizes was used in a study of 59 low-income Hispanic and African American preschool-aged children and their mothers. The portion size of 3 entrées (lunch, dinner, and breakfast) and an afternoon snack served during a 24-h period were of a reference size in one condition and doubled in the other condition. Portion sizes of other foods and beverages did not vary across conditions. Weighed food intake, anthropometric measures, and self-reported data were obtained.
Results: Doubling the portion size of several entrées and a snack served during a 24-h period increased energy intake from those foods by 23% (180 kcal) among children (P < 0.0001) and by 21% (270 kcal) among mothers (P < 0.0001). Child and maternal energy intakes from other foods for which portion size was not altered did not differ across conditions. Consequently, total energy intakes in the large-portion condition were 12% (P < 0.001) and 6% (P < 0.01) higher in children and mothers, respectively, than in the reference condition. Child and maternal intakes of the portion-manipulated foods were not correlated.
Conclusions: Large portions may contribute to obesigenic dietary environments by promoting excess daily intakes among Hispanic and African American children.
... D'autres structures centrales reliées aux systèmes sensoriels participent également à la régulation de la prise alimentaire -le thalamus (pour toutes les modalités sensorielles exceptées l'olfaction), le BO, le cortex sensoriel et leurs liaisons avec les structures limbiques -mais leur implication et les mécanismes neurophysiologiques sous-jacents sont encore en cours d'étude (Rolls et al., 2005). Plusieurs études ont montré que ces structures répondent aux propriétés organoleptiques des aliments, contribuent à attribuer aux aliments leur caractère agréable ou non (leur palatabilité) et à y associer un comportement motivé (Bellisle, 2005;Chapelot and Louis-Sylvestre, 2008;Fantino, 1984;Herman and Polivy, 2005;Mattes, 2006;Rolls et al., 2004Rolls et al., , 2006Sørensen et al., 2003 ;Rolls et al., 1982). La palatabilité des aliments est définie comme une évaluation hédonique positive des caractéristiques organoleptiques des aliments et reflète ce que l'on a déjà appris sur leur qualité sensorielle et nutritionnelle (Yeomans, 1998). ...
L’olfaction participe à l’élaboration de la valeur hédonique des aliments et à la régulation de la prise alimentaire. Réciproquement, la détection des odeurs alimentaires est influencée par le statut métabolique. Le jeûne augmente les performances olfactives, notamment en augmentant l'activité neuronale dans le bulbe olfactif (BO). Au sein des glomérules du BO, les synapses glutamatergiques entre les neurones sensoriels olfactifs et les cellules mitrales sont régulées par des astrocytes, des neurones périglomérulaires et des afférences centrifuges. En tant que partenaires synaptiques, les astrocytes sont à l’origine de mécanismes de métaplasticité dans le système nerveux central, qui pourrait participer à la régulation métabolique de la réponse olfactive au niveau du BO. Afin de tester si les astrocytes glomérulaires du BO sont impliqués dans la détection du statut métabolique par le système olfactif, nous avons comparé le déploiement des prolongements astrocytaires glomérulaires, par quantification de l’aire occupée par la GFAP chez des rats nourris et mis à jeun.Le déploiement astrocytaire est nettement augmenté chez les rats à jeun par rapport aux rats nourris, dans toutes les régions du BO dès 17h de jeûne. L'administration intra-peritoneale du peptide anorexigène PYY3-36 ou de glucose chez des rats à jeun diminue leur prise alimentaire ou restaure leur glycémie respectivement, et abolit dans les deux cas l'augmentation du déploiement astrocytaire induite par le jeûne. L'application directe des peptides orexigènes ghréline et NPY sur des tranches de BO entraîne une augmentation du déploiement astrocytaire alors que l'application de PYY3-36 entraîne une rétraction astrocytaire au sein des glomérules. Ces résultats concordent avec les variations de la morphologie des astrocytes, observées respectivement en situation de jeûne ou de satiété.Le déploiement des prolongements astrocytaires glomérulaires varie donc en fonction de l'état métabolique des rats, et il est influencé par les peptides régulant la prise alimentaire. Cetteplasticité pourrait participer à l'adaptation de la sensibilité olfactive à l’état métabolique des individus.
... Arguments have been made that increases in eating frequency pose a larger threat to positive energy balance (4,5), but the trend for increasing portion sizes is well substantiated, marked, and a worthy target for weight management, both at the level of prevention and treatment. Powerful economic and cultural forces impede implementation of straightforward recommendations to reduce portion sizes, not the least of which is the current emphasis on large portion sizes of foods low in energy density as an approach to dilute the energy density of the diet [e.g., (6)]. Thus, either the message to reduce portion sizes must be more nuanced (only some foods should be downsized) or reconsidered if it unintentionally hampers educational efforts to moderate portions broadly. ...
... Data indicate that the larger the portion, the more people eat (34). They also show that low-energy, high-density foods (eg, fruits, vegetables, and salads) provide satiety that can result in decreased total intake (35). ...
The complexity of the obesity epidemic requires the cooperation of key stakeholders in this effort. No one sector, academia, government, industry, or health care, has been successful in combating this disease to date. On March 10–11, 2004, The Harvard Medical School Division of Nutrition hosted the symposium “Science-Based Solutions to Obesity: What is the Role of Academia, Government, Industry, and Health care?” as a platform to address the role of these stakeholders, both individually and collectively, in combating the nation’s epidemic of obesity. The proceedings from the symposium, included in this supplement, discuss the following: the science of obesity-related topics such as genetics, protein and weight loss, portion size, energy density, and behavior; the need for more aggressive government policies; industry’s role in using research and development capabilities to promote healthier, portion-controlled products; and how to translate nutrition information from medical doctors to patients.
... In an online survey, the default option was the most chosen in specific situations, for example, when People who declared themselves to be Vegetarian (%) 9.6 2.0 7.0 the participants felt hungry (Giesen et al., 2013). Other studies has taken different approaches, for instance it has been shown that increasing portion size can increase the total energy consumption of the meal, or decrease energy intake if the first course dish (portion size also increased) is a low-calorie item such as a salad (Hinton et al., 2013;Rolls, Morris, & Roe, 2002;Rolls, Roe, & Meengs, 2004). ...
Adequate nutrition is an important factor for health and well-being in adolescents and later years. Fruits and vegetables are part of a healthy diet as important source of nutrients, but their intakes are lower than the recommendations in European countries. This study aimed to compare the choices made by adolescents and older people between three similar dishes, one based on meat, one on fish and one on vegetables, in two different conditions: a neutral (control) situation and an intervention situation in which the vegetable-based meal was designated “dish of the day”. The comparisons of choices will be made within the same age group (adolescents in the control group versus adolescents in the intervention group; older people in the control group versus older people in the intervention group). A quasi-randomised field trial design was used with a sample of 94 adolescents (aged 10-19 years) and 97 older people (aged ≥65 years), who were randomly allocated to intervention or control groups. In the control situation participants were asked to choose between three similar meals, one meat, one fish and one the VeggiEat dish. In the intervention, the VeggiEat dish was labelled the “Dish of the day”. All dishes were provided free of charge, displayed side by side in the same order, and served in same portions. The dish choices showed no differences between the control and intervention groups in both age groups, and no differences were found among the other variables analysed. This nudging strategy, “dish of the day”, seems not to work for the Danish sample of adolescents and older people. Future nudging studies with these populations are needed in order to find the best strategy to move adolescents' and older people's food habits towards a healthier pattern. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
... Accordingly, it has been shown that because individuals tend to eat a consistent weight of food, reducing the energy density will spontaneously reduce the energy intake of the meal (9) . With respect to satiety, low energy dense foods have been successfully used to reduce energy intake at a subsequent meal (34)(35)(36) . Furthermore, strong and consistent evidence in the adult population indicates that dietary patterns relatively low in energy density improve weight loss and weight maintenance (37) . ...
The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a non-restrictive satiating diet in men displaying various degrees of satiety efficiency. In all, sixty-nine obese men aged 41·5 ( sd 5·7) years were randomly assigned to a control (10–15, 55–60 and 30 % energy as protein, carbohydrate and lipid, respectively; n 34) or satiating (20–25, 45–50 and 30–35 % energy as protein, carbohydrate and lipid, respectively; n 35) diet for 16 weeks, and were classified as having a low (LSP) or high (HSP) satiety phenotype. Both diets were consumed ad libitum . Changes in body weight, BMI, percent fat mass, waist circumference, satiety responsiveness and eating behaviour traits were assessed following the intervention. Dropout rates were higher in the control diet (44·1 %) compared with the satiating diet (8·6 %). Decreases in body weight, BMI and waist circumference were significant in both groups, yet HSP individuals lost more body weight than LSP individuals ( P =0·048). Decreases in % fat mass were greater in the satiating diet (LSP: −2·1 ( sd 2·1) %; P <0·01 and HSP: −3·0 ( sd 2·5) %; P <0·001) compared with the control diet (LSP: −1·1 ( sd 2·5) % and HSP: −1·3 ( sd 2·6) %) ( P =0·034). Satiety responsiveness was markedly improved in the satiating diet, whereas no significant changes were observed in the control group. Changes in dietary restraint (+3·3 ( sd 2·9) to +7·2 ( sd 5·5)), flexible control (+0·9 ( sd 1·4) to +2·3 ( sd 2·7)), rigid control (+2·2 ( sd 1·5) to +2·5 ( sd 2·8)), disinhibition (−2·8 ( sd 3·7) to −3·2 ( sd 2·6)) and susceptibility to hunger (−2·7 ( sd 4·1) to −4·6 ( sd 3·9)) were similar between the diets. Compared with the control diet, the satiating diet favoured adherence, decreased % fat mass and improved satiety responsiveness in both HSP and LSP individuals.
... Another approach derived from behavioural studies of satiety is to encourage consumption of low-energydense foods at the start of a meal, when hunger is elevated and there are no competing foods. 'Filling up first' by consuming a large portion of a low-energydense food such as salad (Rolls et al. 2004), fruit (Flood-Obbagy & Rolls 2009) or soup (Flood & Rolls 2007) has been shown to reduce meal energy intake. However, studies demonstrating the benefits of lowenergy-dense foods for satiety enhancement need to be carefully interpreted if they are to have broad utility for weight management. ...
Studies conducted by behavioural scientists show that the energy density (kcal/g) of food provides effective guidance for healthy food choices to control intake and promote satiety. Energy density depends upon a number of dietary components, especially water (0 kcal/g) and fat (9 kcal/g). Increasing the proportion of water or water-rich ingredients, such as vegetables or fruit, lowers a food's energy density. A number of studies show that when the energy density of the diet is reduced, both adults and children spontaneously decrease their ad libitum energy intake. Other studies show that consuming a large volume of a low-energy-dense food, such as soup, salad or fruit, as a first course preload can enhance satiety and reduce overall energy intake at a meal. Current evidence suggests that energy density influences intake through a complex interplay of cognitive, sensory, gastrointestinal, hormonal and neural influences. Other studies that focus on practical applications show how the strategic incorporation of foods lower in energy density into the diet allows people to eat satisfying portions while improving dietary patterns. This review discusses studies that have led to greater understanding of the importance of energy density for food intake regulation and weight management.
... The default option recommends a course of action, which requires no or little reflection, where consumers will 'go with the flow' of pre-set options such as type of food or the choice of clearing the plate where the consumer will consume what the plate holds [22,23]. Notably, studies show that portion size (which constitutes a default quantity) is a significant determinant of food intake [9,[24][25][26][27]. A third approach is to increase the perceived variety of healthy food choices. ...
Background
Dietary choices in out-of-home eating are key for individual as well as for public health. These dietary choices are caused by a wide array of determinants, one of which is automatic decision-making. Nudging is attracting considerable interest due to its understanding and application of heuristic biases among consumers. The aim of this study is to test and compare three nudges in promoting vegetable consumption among test persons in a food lab-based experiment.
Methods
The initial sample consisted of 88 participants recruited in Copenhagen, Denmark. Each study participant was randomly assigned to one of the three experiments: priming, default and perceived variety. The priming arm of the experiment consisted of creating a leafy environment with green plants and an odour of herbs. In the default arm of the experiment, the salad was pre-portioned into a bowl containing 200g of vegetables. The third experiment divided the pre-mixed salad into each of its components, to increase the visual variety of vegetables, yet not providing an actual increase in items. Each individual was partaking twice thus serving as her/his own control, randomly assigned to start with control or experimental setting.
Results
The default experiment successfully increased the energy intake from vegetables among the study participants (124 kcal vs. 90 kcal in control, p<0.01). Both the priming condition and perceived variety reduced the total energy intake among the study participants (169 kcal, p<0.01 and 124 kcal, p<0.01, respectively), mainly through a decrease in the meat-based meal component.
Conclusions
Considerable progress has been made with regard to understanding the use of nudging in promoting a healthier meal composition, including increasing vegetable intake. This study suggests that the nature of a nudge-based intervention can have different effects, whether it is increasing intake of healthy components, or limiting intake of unhealthy meal components. This work has demonstrated that consumer behaviour can be influenced without restricting or providing incentives for behaviour change. The present findings have promising application to the foodservice sector.
... Taking into account that fewer vegetables were eaten from side dishes during the intervention period, participants still consumed 30% more vegetables in total (from the plates and the side dishes) during the intervention period than during the control period. These findings are in line with Rolls et al., who found that increasing the portion size of healthy food products with a low energy density led to a higher consumption of these healthy food products [26]. Although participants evaluated the amount of vegetables to be higher and the amount of meat lower in the intervention period compared to the control period, they remained (very) satisfied with their main dish. ...
Background
The aim of this research was to investigate whether increased portion sizes of vegetables and decreased portion sizes of meat on main dishes increased the amount of vegetables consumed in a real-life restaurant setting without affecting customer satisfaction. The participants were unaware of the experiment.
Methods
A cross-over design was used in which three restaurants were randomly assigned to a sequence of an intervention and control condition. In the intervention period, the vegetable portion sizes on the plates of main dishes were doubled (150 g of vegetables instead of 75 g) and the portion sizes of meat on the plates were reduced by an average of 12.5%. In the control period, the portion sizes of the main dishes were maintained as usual. In total, 1006 observations and questionnaires were included.
Results
Vegetable consumption from plates was significantly higher during the intervention period (M = 115.5 g) than during the control period (M = 61.7 g). Similarly, total vegetable consumption (including side dishes) was significantly higher during the intervention period (M = 178.0 g) than during the control period (M = 137.0 g). Conversely, meat consumption was significantly lower during the intervention period (M = 183.1 g) than during the control period (M = 211.1 g). Satisfaction with the restaurant visit did not differ between the intervention period (M = 1.27) and control period (M = 1.35). Satisfaction with the main dish was significantly lower during the intervention period (M = 1.25) than during the control period (M = 1.38), although in both cases, the scores indicated that participants remained (very) satisfied with their main dish.
Conclusions
This study showed that increasing vegetable portions in combination with decreasing meat portions (unknowingly to the consumer) increased the amount of vegetables consumed and decreased the amount of meat consumed. Furthermore, despite the changes in portion sizes, participants remained satisfied with their restaurant visit and main dish. The findings of this study suggest that modifying portion size in restaurants is an effective tool for stimulating vegetable consumption and consequently healthy and sustainable diets.
... Specifically, the female volunteers in the laboratory had a higher total intake and more food additions during the meal, in comparison to the intake of the female students in the school. The differences in age (Fisher, Rolls, and Birch 2003) and in the levels of pre-meal hunger between the two groups, as well as the non-availability of salad and milk in the serving (Rolls, Roe, and Meengs 2004), the direct proximity of the excess food (Wansink, Painter, and Lee 2006) and the lack of social interaction in the laboratory (Cruwys, Bevelander, and Hermans 2015) are all factors that have previously implicated in affecting single-meal portion sizes. While the presented data do not allow to categorically explain the observed differences, the above are good examples of potential hypotheses that can be tested Table 3. Group analysis of the meal-related subjective ratings before and after the meals in the school and the laboratory settings. ...
Studying eating behaviours is important in the fields of eating disorders and obesity. However, the current methodologies of quantifying eating behaviour in a real-life setting are lacking, either in reliability (e.g. self-reports) or in scalability. In this descriptive study, we deployed previously evaluated laboratory-based methodologies in a Swedish high school, using the Mandometer®, together with video cameras and a dedicated mobile app in order to record eating behaviours in a sample of 41 students, 16–17 years old. Without disturbing the normal school life, we achieved a 97% data-retention rate, using methods fully accepted by the target population. The overall eating style of the students was similar across genders, with male students eating more than females, during lunches of similar lengths. While both groups took similar number of bites, males took larger bites across the meal. Interestingly, the recorded school lunches were as long as lunches recorded in a laboratory setting, which is characterised by the absence of social interactions and direct access to additional food. In conclusion, a larger scale use of our methods is feasible, but more hypotheses-based studies are needed to fully describe and evaluate the interactions between the school environment and the recorded eating behaviours.
... CBT is considered the treatment of choice for the psychiatric symptoms of BED despite its negligible effects on weight loss (4). Low-energy-density dietary counseling served as the experimental condition because studies have shown the effectiveness of lowering energy density for reducing energy intake in short-term laboratory studies (23)(24)(25) and, more recently, for producing weight loss in longer-term efficacy (26,27) and effectiveness (28) trials. General nutrition, dietary counseling for health as opposed to reducing energy density or weight loss served as an active comparator condition. ...
Objective:
Binge eating disorder (BED) is strongly associated with obesity and related medical and psychiatric morbidities. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has consistently been shown to reduce binge eating frequency and improve psychological functioning, as well as to produce abstinence rates of roughly 50%. This study examined the relationship between binge abstinence and dietary and psychological outcomes after CBT for BED.
Methods:
Fifty adult patients with BED received 6-month treatments using a combination of CBT and dietary counseling. Trained interviewers conducted two 24-hour dietary recall interviews on randomly selected days at baseline and at 6 months.
Results:
Participants had significant reductions in energy, macronutrient, and sugar intake and an increase in fruit intake. They reported significant reductions in BMI and binge eating frequency (from mean = 14.24 to mean = 1.90 binge eating episodes during the previous 28 days), as well as improvements in psychological functioning. Those who became binge abstinent reported eating roughly 400 fewer calories per day and experienced greater improvements in psychological functioning than those who did not.
Conclusions:
Findings from this study suggest that individuals who achieve complete cessation from binge eating have significantly improved dietary and psychological outcomes that could potentially improve weight status, compared with those who continue to binge eat post-treatment.
... Participants were instructed always to start with the vegetables, to eat slowly and to drink water with the meals, to induce satiety and less intake of energy-rich food. Evidence to this advice comes from studies in which increasing the vegetable portion on the plate by substituting it for meat and grain significantly increased vegetable intake and reduced the energy intake (53,54). ...
Background: Our hypothesis was that a modified diet would improve blood glucose control with beneficial impact on weight management and overall health in established diabetes. Objective: This prospective interventional study investigated the clinical effect of an Okinawan-based Nordic diet on anthropometry, metabolic control, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in Scandinavian type 2 diabetes patients. Design: Food was prepared and delivered to 30 type 2 diabetes patients. Clinical information along with data on HRQoL, blood samples, and urine samples were collected during 12 weeks of diet interventions, with follow-up 16 weeks after diet completion. Results: After 12 weeks of dietary intervention, a reduction in body weight (7%) (p
... Furthermore, obesity prevention from an early age has become a major public health priority. However, recent studies have linked obesity and overweight among this age group to low intake of fruit and vegetables [4,5]. Moreover, certain vegetables have been associated with reduced diarrhea-related deaths and morbidity probably due to their moderate amounts of α-and β-carotene [6]. ...
Nutritional health during childhood and adolescency is important for supporting the growing body and for preventing future health problems. Fruits and vegetables are important components of a healthy diet. Their consumption varies considerably among and within countries. Large proportions of children do not fulfill the World Health Organization recommendation of eating fruit and vegetables per day. Reduced fruit and vegetables’ consumption is linked to poor health, constipation and increased risk of non-communicable diseases including cancer. The dietary fibre available in the outer skin of these foods could help to lower blood pressure, and together with phytochemicals such as plant sterols, flavonoids and other antioxidants found in fruit and vegetables may be important in modulating cholesterol and other biological processes. In addition, obesity and overweight among this age group is being associated with low intake of fruit and vegetables. The determinants for high consumption levels of fruit and vegetable are found to be related to female gender, socioeconomic status, high preferences for fruit and vegetables, large parental intake of fruit and vegetables and high availability/accessibility of fruit and vegetables at home as well as peer influence. Possible solutions to improve fruit and vegetables’ consumption include behavioural interventions and improvements in agricultural and food systems will be discussed.
The prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults has increased worldwide. A strong environmental factor contributing to the obesity epidemic is food portion size (PS). This review evaluates the current evidence linking food PS to obesity, examines the effects of PS on energy intake (EI), and discusses the drivers of food PS selection. The leading causes of the rise in PS include globalisation, intensive farming methods, the impact of World War II, due to shortage of staple foods, and the notion of waste not, want not. Large PS of energy-dense foods may stimulate overconsumption, leading to high EI levels. However, the studies have not shown a cause-and-effect relationship, due to confounding factors. Important mechanisms explaining the attractiveness of larger PS leading to higher EI levels are value for money, portion distortion, labels on food packaging, and tableware. Consumers depend on external rather than internal PS cues to guide consumption, irrespective of satiety levels. Further research is recommended on food consumption patterns to inform policymakers and provide information and insights about changes in diet.
This chapter describes many of the different dietary protocols currently used and the evidence behind them. In addition to documenting the actual diet consumed, a food diary may also reveal an erratic eating pattern, irregular meals, periods of fasting, excessively restricted eating, frequent snacking, grazing, or binge eating. Evidence shows that augmenting the diet with low‐density food enhances weight loss but only when the food is palatable enough to ensure compliance. Low‐fat diets are as good as other interventions at reducing weight but not better. Plant‐based eating is common in traditional societies, particularly in the Mediterranean and in Asia. Advantages of partial meal replacement therapy over full meal replacements are that they offer participants choice and flexibility in social situations whilst reducing decision making at other times. The fundamental aim of dietary management in overweight and obesity is to create an energy deficit that achieves weight loss and that can be maintained long term.
What does the best available balance of scientific evidence show is the optimum way to lose weight? Calorie density, water content, protein source, and other components significantly influence the effectiveness of different dietary regimes for weight loss. By “walling off your calories,” preferentially deriving your macronutrients from structurally intact plant foods, some calories remain trapped within indigestible cell walls, which then blunts the glycemic impact, activates the ileal brake, and delivers prebiotics to the gut microbiome. This may help explain why the current evidence indicates that a whole food, plant-based diet achieves greater weight loss compared with other dietary interventions that do not restrict calories or mandate exercise. So, the most effective diet for weight loss appears to be the only diet shown to reverse heart disease in the majority of patients. Plant-based diets have also been found to help treat, arrest, and reverse other leading chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and hypertension, whereas low-carbohydrate diets have been found to impair artery function and worsen heart disease, the leading killer of men and women in the United States. A diet centered on whole plant foods appears to be a safe, simple, sustainable solution to the obesity epidemic.
The Eating Habits Questionnaire (EHQ) was used in the IDEFICS and I.Family studies to investigate dietary behaviour, family food environments and the frequency of consumption of food items likely to be associated with overweight and general health in children, teenagers and adults. This chapter describes the rationale for developing the EHQ, as well as its methodological basis and structure. The children’s version (Children’s Eating Habits Questionnaire, CEHQ) is completed by a proxy reporter (usually a parent), on behalf of a child aged 2–11 years. The teenager’s version (Teenagers’ Eating Habits Questionnaire, TEHQ) is a self-reporting instrument for persons between 12 and 18 years. The adult version (Adult’s Eating Habits Questionnaire, AEHQ) is a self-reporting instrument for respondents of 19 years and over. Most of the questions and the overall structure are closely similar in the three versions. The novelty of the EHQ is that it is a brief instrument assessing simultaneously a few dimensions of eating habits of children, teenagers and adults from the perspective of obesity-related food patterns. The EHQ has been tested and validated in eight culturally diverse European populations that participated in the IDEFICS and I.Family studies. It is expected to be useful in future studies concerned with obesity in children and their families.
Obesity is a chronic disease of excess adiposity that affects approximately one-third of the adult population in the USA with a growing prevalence worldwide. Obesity has been one of the most challenging complex diseases because of the overwhelming influence of the obesogenic environment. Despite this challenging environment, lifestyle interventions for obesity can be successful at creating a negative energy balance, the cornerstone of obesity management. The methods of lifestyle therapy for obesity treatment can be individualized to target associated risk factors, enhance adherence to a treatment plan, and lead to sustained maintenance of weight loss. Using dietary modification, physical activity, and behavioral counseling, the practitioner can address the physiological and behavioral underpinnings that contribute to calorie imbalance and excess weight gain. This chapter reviews the components of effective and individualized lifestyle therapy strategies to prevent and treat obesity.
Objective:
To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of preload/meal energy density on energy intake in a subsequent meal(s).
Methods:
Multiple databases were searched for studies published through December 2016 on the effects of preload/meal energy density on energy intake in a subsequent meal(s). We extracted information on mean energy intake in a subsequent meal(s) and on variables that could contribute to between-subject heterogeneity.
Results:
Forty and Thirty nine eligible studies were identified for our systematic review and meta-analysis, respectively. The meta-analysis showed that preload/meal energy density did not affect energy intake in a subsequent meal(s) (95% CI:-21.21, 21.29). As heterogeneity was remarkable among studies, we stratified the studies by intervention type into "meal" or "preload" classifications. In the "preload" subgroup, studies used either fixed energy or fixed weight preloads. The results reveal that in comparison to a high energy-dense (HED) preload, consuming a low energy-dense (LED) preload with same weight resulted in higher energy intake in a subsequent meal (95% CI: 9.72, 56.19). On the other hand, decreased energy intake was observed after consuming an LED preload compared to after consumption of an HED preload with same energy content (95% CI: -138.71, -57.33). In the "meal" subgroup, studies were categorized by different subsequent meal (i.e., "afternoon or evening", "lunch" and "dinner or post-dinner"). Meta-analysis showed that an LED meal resulted in more energy intake only in afternoon or evening meals (95% CI: 14.82, 31.22).
Conclusion:
In summary, the current analysis revealed that we can restrict the energy intake by consuming an LED preload. Moreover, consuming an LED preload could favorably affect preload+meal energy intake.
Obesity is a common disorder with complex causes. The epidemic has spurred significant advances in the understanding of nutritional approaches to treating obesity. Although the primary challenge is to introduce a dietary intake that creates an energy deficit, clinicians should also consider targeted risk factor modification with manipulation of the nutrient profile of the weight-reducing diet. These strategies produce significant weight loss and improvements in cardiometabolic risk factors. Future research is needed to better understand how to personalize nutrient prescriptions further to promote optimal risk modification and maintenance of long-term energy balance in the weight-reduced state.
Reductions in caloric intake invariably result in compensatory increases in feelings of hunger. However, these negative consequences of energy restriction can potentially be managed through the consumption of a satiating low energy diet. Experimental data clearly demonstrate that differing foods, manipulated for the macronutrient content, energy density, and portion size can produce marked changes in subsequent feelings of satiety. The effects are dependent in the most part on differences in the sensory experience and cognitive impact of these foods, and their physiological impact on episodic physiological satiety mechanism such as gastrointestinal function and gut peptide release. It is generally accepted that satiety hierarchy exists between the macronutrients with protein – carbohydrate – fat. However, despite this, the effects of various macronutrients on subsequent energy intake are more equivocal. The effects of differing forms of protein on appetite in particular are poorly understood. Dietary fats are considered to be a key contributor to obesity despite the strong preabsorptive satiety signals generated by free fatty acids. This paradox may be explained by passive overconsumption of the energy dense high fat food and palatability-driven active overconsumption. As with fats, the effect of carbohydrates on appetite depend heavily on their form, with simple carbohydrates producing pronounced but transient effects on appetite regulation and complex carbohydrates producing more sustained changes in appetite. Moreover, nondigestible carbohydrates have a variety of effects on appetite depending on their form (viscosity, solubility, and fermentability). Decreasing energy density, with or without accompanying changes in portion size, also appear effective strategies for reducing caloric intake at least over a number of days. To conclude, dietary manipulations of macronutrient content, energy density, and portion size do impact on appetite expression and these have the potential to produce sustainable changes in caloric intake needed for weight control. However, the long-term effects of such dietary manipulations on appetite remain to be robustly demonstrated.
Food intake, food selection, macronutrient intake, sensory-specific satiety, and ratings of hunger and satiety were measured after high- and low-energy salad preloads (2414 kJ, or 172 kJ) or no preload to determine whether patients with eating disorders compensate appropriately for different energy intakes. Subjects were female patients with a DSM-III-R diagnosis of anorexia nervosa with bulimic features or bulimia nervosa, or non patient, normal-weight, nondieters (n = 9/group). At a self-selected lunch 30 min after the preloads, all of the groups reduced intake after the high-energy preload, with the bulimics showing the best compensation. The anorexics chose low-energy foods and in some conditions ate a smaller proportion of fat than did the other groups. The bulimics ate more high-energy foods than did the anorexics. The anorexics demonstrated sensory-specific satiety only after the high-energy salad and the bulimics only after the low-energy salad. Overall, these data suggest that while many of their responses to food are abnormal, patients with eating disorders have some capacity to respond to physiological hunger and satiety cues.
Synopsis
Psychometric and clinical correlates of the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT) are described for a large sample of female anorexia nervosa ( N = 160) and female comparison ( N = 140) subjects. An abbreviated 26-item version of the EAT (EAT-26) is proposed, based on a factor analysis of the original scale (EAT-40). The EAT-26 is highly correlated with the EAT-40 ( r = 0·98) and three factors form subscales which are meaningfully related to bulimia, weight, body-image variables and psychological symptoms. Whereas there are no differces between bulimic and restricter anorexia nervosa patients on the total EAT-26 and EAT-40 scores, these groups do indicate significant differences on EAT-26 fractors. Norms for the anorexia nervosa and female comparison subjects are presented for the EAT-26, EAT-40 and the EAT-26 factors. It is concluded that the EAT-26 is a reliable, valid and economical instrument which may be useful as an objective measure of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa.
High-fat foods are readily overeaten. This could be because fat increases the palatability and energy density of foods or because fat has a low satiety value compared with carbohydrate. In several studies examining the effects of preloads that varied in fat and carbohydrate content on subsequent food intake, there was little difference in the effects of fat and carbohydrate on satiety. A dose-response preloading paradigm gives the most sensitive index of satiety. In one such test it was found that the effects of yogurts varying in fat or carbohydrate content did not differ in normal-weight, unrestrained men. However, in obese individuals or those concerned with body weight, fat in the yogurts was less effective in reducing subsequent food intake than carbohydrate. More studies are required to determine whether this small, but significant, insensitivity to energy from fat affects the regulation of food intake and body weight.
Low food intake in elderly individuals increases the risk for many nutrition-related acute or chronic illnesses. It is not known whether aging is associated with changes in hunger and satiety, or whether elderly individuals can regulate energy intake in response to manipulations of the energy or nutrient content of foods. Therefore, this study investigated short-term energy regulation in healthy elderly (n = 16; aged 60-84 y) and young (n = 16; aged 18-35 y) men. Participants were given yogurt preloads that varied in energy and macronutrient content (low-fat, low-energy, 962 kJ; high-fat, high-energy, 2134 kJ; high-carbohydrate, high-energy 2134 kJ), or no yogurt, followed by a self-selected lunch (presented 30 min after subjects began to consume the yogurt). Energy intake, the percentage of macronutrients consumed in the meals, and subjective sensations of hunger and satiety were analyzed. The elderly men consumed significantly less energy than the young men in the baseline (no yogurt) condition. Lower intake was concordant with subjective sensations of satiety; visual analog data indicated that the older men were less hungry and more full at the start of lunch. Compensation for energy in the preloads was less precise in the elderly than in the young men, in that elderly men consistently overate at the self-selected lunch. Young men consumed +/- 10% total energy (lunch + yogurt) in the yogurt preload conditions compared with their baseline intake; elderly men overate between 10% and 30% in relation to their baseline intake.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Many reduced-fat foods retain the sensory properties of their high-fat counterparts through the use of fat substitutes. This study examined whether regulation of energy intake is affected when the nonabsorbable fat substitute olestra is used to uncouple the sensory properties of fat from fat absorption and metabolism. Cream of broccoli soups were developed in three versions: fat-free, fat-free+olestra (33.3 g olestra), and high-fat (33.3 g fat) (923900 and 2150 kJ per serving, respectively). The olestra soup had the nutrient composition of the fat-free soup but the sensory properties of the high-fat soup. Subjects were grouped by sex, body weight, and dietary restraint (total n = 67). Subjects had either no preload (control) or a soup preload (465 g) followed by a self-selection lunch. Intake was measured at lunch, dinner, snack, and breakfast. At lunch, the response to the soup preloads was not affected by sex, dietary restraint, or body weight. Energy intake (soup+lunch) was significantly greater in the high-fat than in the control condition (P < 0.05), but energy intake in the fat-free and olestra-soup conditions was not significantly different from that in the control condition (3570, 3352, 3464, and 4457 kJ in control, fat-free, olestra, and high-fat soup conditions, respectively). Thus, subjects compensated completely for the energy in the fat-free and olestra soups but not for the energy in the high-fat soup. No differences were found in the response to the two fat-free conditions, one with the fatty taste and one without. In this study the sensory properties of fat alone, ie, apart from the physiologic effects of fat, did not affect energy regulation.
This study tested the hypothesis that the amount (weight or volume) of food consumed affects the satiating potency of a food, independent of its energy content. Normal-weight young men (n = 20) were tested in a within-subjects design. Subjects were served a milk-based drink or no drink (control), followed 30 min later by a self-selected lunch and > 4 h later by a self-selected dinner. Milk drinks were equal in energy content (2088 kJ, or 499 kcal) and had similar proportions of fat (30.3%), carbohydrate (54.7%), and protein (15%) across three volumes: 300, 450, and 600 mL. Ratings of palatability, sensory properties, and energy content of the drinks and of hunger completed before consumption of the preloads were not significantly different among conditions. The results showed that preload volume affected energy intake at lunch (P < or = 0.009) such that energy intake was less after the 600-mL preload than after the 300-mL preload. This effect was still present when energy intake at dinner was included (P < or = 0.022). At lunch, including energy from the preload, subjects overate relative to the control condition (4323 +/- 322 kJ) after the 300- (5263 +/- 321 kJ) and 450-mL (5011 +/- 300 kJ) preloads but not after the 600-mL (4703 +/- 353 kJ) preload. Thus, the best adjustment for the energy in the preloads was with the largest, least energy-dense drink. Consistent with the effects on intake, the volume of the drinks affected ratings of hunger and fullness. These results indicate that the volume consumed is an important determinant of satiety after milk drinks under these conditions.
In this review, we consider two hypotheses which could explain why high-fat foods are overeaten. The first hypothesis is that fat is overeaten because it affects satiety and satiation less than carbohydrate. In several studies which have evaluated the effects of fat on satiety and satiation, fat differed little from carbohydrate when both the palatability and energy density of the test foods were matched. Therefore it is unlikely that the effects of fat on satiety or satiation provide the primary explanation for why it is overeaten. The second hypothesis is that the high energy density of fat facilitates its overconsumption. Support for this view comes from recent studies in which energy density significantly influenced intake when both the macronutrient content and palatability of the test foods were matched. For example, when individuals were fed diets varying in energy density and could eat as much food as they liked, they ate the same amount of food (by weight) so energy intake varied directly with energy density. Furthermore, when participants consumed foods of low energy density, they felt satisfied, despite reductions in energy intake. These findings show that energy density is a key determinant of energy intake in that cognitive, behavioral, and sensory cues related to the volume or weight of food consumed can interact with or override physiological cues associated with food intake.
Every classification of depressive disorders uses the “Linnaean” binomial approach to its nomenclature that is familiar in taxonomies of both plant and animal kingdoms. Thus, the endogenous-reactive depressions, neurotic-psychotic depressions, or unipolar-bipolar depressions become depression endogenous, depression reactive, depression neurotic, depression psychotic, depression unipolar, or depression bipolar. The term depression is used as an equivalent to the “genus” and is modified by a term that is equivalent to the “species” of the binomial nomenclature. Conceptualized in this manner, the genus denotes depression as a disorder with common characteristics of types or subtypes of depression. To be operationally effective, symptomatology that can be demonstrated in patients diagnosed as having depression (genus), regardless of the type or subtype (species), must have a high degree of universal agreement.
This report describes the construction of a questionnaire to measure three dimensions of human eating behavior. The first step was a collation of items from two existing questionnaires that measure the related concepts of 'restrained eating' and 'latent obesity', to which were added items newly written to elucidate these concepts. This version was administered to several populations selected to include persons who exhibited the spectrum from extreme dietary restraint to extreme lack of restraint. The resulting responses were factor analyzed and the resulting factor structure was used to revise the questionnaire. This process was then repeated: administration of the revised questionnaire to groups representing extremes of dietary restraint, factor analysis of the results and questionnaire revision. Three stable factors emerged: (1) 'cognitive restraint of eating', (2) 'disinhibition' and (3) 'hunger'. The new 51-item questionnaire measuring these factors is presented.
Satiety can be specific to a food which has been eaten. This is shown by a decrease in the pleasantness of foods eaten relative to foods which have not been eaten. The aim of the present experiment was to determine whether this specificity still remained after a meal with a very different food in each of four courses. Forty-eight human subjects were given a four-course lunch with either a different food in each course (varied meal), or the same food in each course (plain meal). Energy intake was elevated by 60% in the varied meal primarily because of the increase food consumption in the third and fourth courses. The pleasantness of the taste of foods eaten decreased rapidly, whereas the pleasantness of foods which had not been eaten remained relatively unchanged. The change in pleasantness of a food correlated well with the subsequent intake of that food. Therefore, sensory-specific satiety is still found after eating four different courses in a meal and general satiety does not result. Some selective interactions between different foods were also found. For example, when a savory food was eaten, the pleasantness of (uneaten) savory foods decreased more than that of (uneaten) sweet foods. The converse was found when sweet foods were eaten. It is concluded that sensory-specific satiety and the effect of variety in enhancing food intake can operate throughout a meal with four very different foods, and that there are interactions between foods similar in savoriness or sweetness.
We find that in man satiety can be partly specific to foods eaten [12]. The possibility that this specificity of satiety leads to overeating if a wide variety of foods is readily available is tested here. The intakes of subjects offered a variety of foods in succession during a meal were compared to intakes when the same food was offered throughout. Subjects (n=36) ate a third more when offered sandwiches with four different fillings than when just one filling was offered (p<0.001). In another study subjects (n=24) ate significantly more when three flavors of yogurt (hazelnut, blackcurrant, orange) which were distinctive in taste, texture and color were offered than when offered just one of the flavors (p<0.01), even if the flavor was the favorite (p<0.01). However, when subjects (n=24) were offered three flavors of yogurt (strawberry, raspberry, cherry) which differed only in taste there was no enhancement of intake when the variety was offered. Having a variety of foods presented in succession during a meal enhances intake, and the more different the foods are the greater the enhancement is likely to be.
To investigate the specificity of satiety in man, subjects (n=32) rated the pleasantness of the taste of eight foods, were then given one of the foods to eat for lunch, and re-rated the pleasantness of the taste of the eight foods 2 and 20 min after the end of the meal. The pleasantness of the food eaten decreased more than that of the foods not eaten (p<0.001). In a second experiment it was shown that this relative specificity of satiety influenced subsequent food intake. Before a first course, subjects (n=24) rated their liking for the taste of eight foods, were then given one of the foods to eat for lunch, and 2 min after finishing eating re-rated their liking for the taste of the eight foods. Again liking decreased more for the food eaten than for foods not eaten. These changes in liking for the foods eaten and not eaten were highly correlated (p<0.001) with the amounts of those foods eaten in an unexpected second course. Thus in man satiety can be partly specific to foods eaten and this specificity may be an important determinant of the foods selected for consumption.
This study tested the hypothesis that the perceived fat content of a preload (a required first course) influences subsequent food and energy intake.
Forty-eight healthy, nondieting women (24 restrained, 24 unrestrained) were given a fixed amount (350 g) of three different yogurts (low-fat, low-calorie; low-fat, high-calorie; high-fat, high-calorie), or no yogurt, followed by lunch (30 minutes after the yogurt preload was served) and dinner (4.5 hours later). Each subject was tested in all four conditions in a counterbalanced design. Half of the subjects received accurate information, in the form of a label, about the fat content of the yogurts, which did not necessarily correspond to energy content; the other half received no information.
Energy intake, the percentage of macronutrients in the meals, and subjective sensations of hunger and satiety were analyzed.
No effect of restraint was noted in the intake analyses. A significant information-by-preload interaction (P < .05) was found. Subjects who had information consumed more energy at lunch after eating a preload labeled low fat than after eating a preload with similar energy content but labeled high fat. The opposite response was seen in women who did not receive information. When energy consumed at dinner was included in the analyses, overall intake was still significantly greater in the women who received information and ate a low-fat preload. No differences were found in the percentage of macronutrients selected or in subjective sensations after consumption of any of the preloads.
Messages about the fat content of a food can influence energy intake in healthy women.
Previous research showed that decreasing the energy density (kJ/g) of foods by adding water to them can lead to reductions in energy intake. Few studies have examined how water consumed as a beverage affects food intake.
This study examined the effects of water, both served with a food and incorporated into a food, on satiety.
In a within-subjects design, 24 lean women consumed breakfast, lunch, and dinner in our laboratory 1 d/wk for 4 wk. Subjects received 1 of 3 isoenergetic (1128 kJ) preloads 17 min before lunch on 3 d and no preload on 1 d. The preloads consisted of 1) chicken rice casserole, 2) chicken rice casserole served with a glass of water (356 g), and 3) chicken rice soup. The soup contained the same ingredients (type and amount) as the casserole that was served with water.
Decreasing the energy density of and increasing the volume of the preload by adding water to it significantly increased fullness and reduced hunger and subsequent energy intake at lunch. The equivalent amount of water served as a beverage with a food did not affect satiety. Energy intake at lunch was 1209 +/- 125 kJ after the soup compared with 1657 +/- 148 and 1639 +/- 148 kJ after the casserole with and without water, respectively. Subjects did not compensate at dinner for this reduction in lunch intake.
Consuming foods with a high water content more effectively reduced subsequent energy intake than did drinking water with food.
Dietary energy density (ED) has been suggested as an important determinant of energy intake and, therefore, energy regulation. This review summarizes published studies on the effects of dietary ED on hunger, satiety, energy intake, and body weight in healthy individuals, and compares the relative effects of ED manipulated by dietary fat only, fat and fiber, water, and type of sweetener. In short-term studies, consumption of low-ED foods promotes satiety, reduces hunger, and decreases energy intake with no marked differences between different dietary manipulations used to change ED. In addition, low-ED diets promote moderate weight loss in long-term studies. In studies lasting longer than 6 months, weight loss was more than three times as great in individuals consuming diets both low in fat and high in fiber compared with diets only low in fat (-3.4 kg versus -1.0 kg). Combined, these studies suggest that diets low in fat and high in fiber may be the most effective low-ED diets for promoting weight loss. Further research is needed on the effects of dietary ED by changing water or sweetener content.
This experiment examined whether food volume and energy content affected satiety in lean and obese women, when visual and oral cues were bypassed by infusing food intragastrically. The effects of volume and energy content were examined separately by using liquid foods that differed in energy density (kcal/g). On 5 separate days, 25 lean and 29 obese women consumed all of their meals in the laboratory. A nasogastric tube was inserted 30 min before lunch on 4 days; on three of these occasions, a liquid preload was infused for 15 min and, on the fourth occasion (control), the preload was diverted covertly. On the remaining day, no tube was inserted. The three preloads varied two-fold in volume and energy content: 200 ml/200 kcal, 400 ml/200 kcal and 400 ml/400 kcal. The results showed that increasing the volume of infused food, but not the energy content, affected satiety in both lean and obese women. There was a mean decrease in energy intake at lunch of 77 kcal (13%) after the 400-ml preload compared with the iso-energetic 200-ml preload (P=.013). Increasing the energy content of infused food, but not the volume, did not affect satiety. Thus, when sensory cues were bypassed, the volume of liquid food infused intragastrically affected subsequent energy intake in both lean and obese women. These results suggest that gastric and postgastric mechanisms are involved in the effects of high-volume, low-energy-dense foods on satiety.
It has been suggested that the satiating power of the 4 macronutrients follows the oxidation hierarchy: alcohol > protein > carbohydrate > fat. However, the experimental evidence for this is still scarce.
The goal was to investigate the effects on appetite, energy intake and expenditure, and substrate metabolism of meals rich in 1 of the 4 macronutrients.
Subjective appetite sensations, ad libitum food intake, energy expenditure, substrate metabolism, and hormone concentrations were measured for 5 h after breakfast meals with similar energy density and fiber contents but rich in either protein (32% of energy), carbohydrate (65% of energy), fat (65% of energy), or alcohol (23% of energy). Subjects were normal-weight, healthy women (n = 9) and men (n = 10) studied in a crossover design.
There were no significant differences in hunger or satiety sensations or in ad libitum energy intake after the 4 meals. Diet-induced thermogenesis was larger after the alcohol meal (by 27%; P < 0.01), whereas protein produced an intermediary response (17%; NS) compared with carbohydrate and fat (meal effect: P < 0.01). After the alcohol meal, fat oxidation and leptin concentrations were greatly suppressed (meal effects, P < 0.0001 and P < 0.05) and triacylglycerol concentrations were as high as after the fat meal.
Intake of an alcohol-rich meal stimulates energy expenditure but suppresses fat oxidation and leptin more than do isoenergetically dense meals rich in protein, carbohydrate, or fat. Despite differences in substrate metabolism and hormone concentrations, satiety and ad libitum energy intake were not significantly different between meals. Our data, therefore, do not support the proposed relation between the macronutrient oxidation hierarchy and the satiety hierarchy.
Pre-loads high in protein, as compared to carbohydrate and fat, produce greater satiety and reduce food intake after a fixed time interval. This study investigated the effect of macronutrient composition on spontaneous eating behaviour. On four separate occasions, 16 fasted, healthy, non-obese men, blinded to the true purpose of the study, consumed iso-energetic ( approximately 3MJ) yoghurt-based pre-loads of equivalent weight ( approximately 0.5 kg), high in fat (40%) [HF], carbohydrate (60%) [HC] or protein (29%) [HP], and no pre-load in a randomized, single-blind fashion. Subjects ate at will from a selection of food items for the remainder of the day (7 h) with the time of food requests (h) and energy content (kJ) and macronutrient distribution (%) of food eaten recorded. The three pre-loads delayed the first spontaneous request for food by 1.5-1.8 h relative to no pre-load. Total spontaneous food intake was suppressed 29% [HP], 20% [HF] and 17% [HC] by the pre-loads. Neither the amount of food eaten per spontaneous eating episode, nor the spontaneous eating frequency differed statistically following ingestion of the different pre-loads or no pre-load. In this study, in subjects who were free to choose when as well as how much they ate, a high-protein pre-load exerted similar effects on satiety as did iso-energetic high-fat and high-carbohydrate pre-loads.
As a food is consumed, its perceived pleasantness declines compared to that of other foods. This phenomenon, referred to as sensory-specific satiety, contributes to the termination of eating, along with other factors. This study tested whether the change in ratings of pleasantness after consuming a food is related to either the amount of food that is consumed or to its energy content. On each of 3 days, 36 women consumed a different formulation of a milk-based liquid food: (1) 300 ml, 2067 kJ; (2) 600 ml, 2067 kJ; or (3) 600 ml, 4134 kJ. The three formulations of the liquid food varied in volume and energy, but were matched for palatability and macronutrient composition. Participants rated the pleasantness of samples of the liquid food and four other foods both immediately before and after consumption of the liquid food. Results showed that doubling the volume of the liquid food that was consumed, without changing the energy content, significantly decreased pleasantness ratings of the liquid food and increased sensory-specific satiety. Doubling the energy content of the food without changing its volume, however, had no additional effect on the decrease in the ratings or on sensory-specific satiety. These results suggest that the volume of food that is consumed has a greater influence on perceptions of a food's pleasantness than does its energy content. Thus, the volume of food may affect the termination of eating in part through effects on sensory-specific satiety.
Regulation of energy intake: Factors contributing to obesity
- E A Bell
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The Eating Attitudes Test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates
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USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 15. US Department of Agriculture
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