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Do indoor pollutants and thermal conditions in schools influence student performance? A critical review of literature
Abstract
Unlabelled:
To assess whether school environments can adversely affect academic performance, we review scientific evidence relating indoor pollutants and thermal conditions, in schools or other indoor environments, to human performance or attendance. We critically review evidence for direct associations between these aspects of indoor environmental quality (IEQ) and performance or attendance. Secondarily, we summarize, without critique, evidence on indirect connections potentially linking IEQ to performance or attendance. Regarding direct associations, little strongly designed research was available. Persuasive evidence links higher indoor concentrations of NO(2) to reduced school attendance, and suggestive evidence links low ventilation rates to reduced performance. Regarding indirect associations, many studies link indoor dampness and microbiologic pollutants (primarily in homes) to asthma exacerbations and respiratory infections, which in turn have been related to reduced performance and attendance. Also, much evidence links poor IEQ (e.g. low ventilation rate, excess moisture, or formaldehyde) with adverse health effects in children and adults and documents dampness problems and inadequate ventilation as common in schools. Overall, evidence suggests that poor IEQ in schools is common and adversely influences the performance and attendance of students, primarily through health effects from indoor pollutants. Evidence is available to justify (i) immediate actions to assess and improve IEQ in schools and (ii) focused research to guide IEQ improvements in schools.
Practical implications:
There is more justification now for improving IEQ in schools to reduce health risks to students than to reduce performance or attendance risks. However, as IEQ-performance links are likely to operate largely through effects of IEQ on health, IEQ improvements that benefit the health of students are likely to have performance and attendance benefits as well. Immediate actions are warranted in schools to prevent dampness problems, inadequate ventilation, and excess indoor exposures to substances such as NO(2) and formaldehyde. Also, siting of new schools in areas with lower outdoor pollutant levels is preferable.
... It is generally accepted that the FM services can be assessed by both non-financial aspects and financial qualitative aspects of KPIs through the utilisation and implementation of ISO FM standards. Non-financial qualitative aspects (Mendell and Heath, 2004) addressed IEQ of a building as a primary concern today as it reflects and influences the health and well-being of its occupants. According to Fowler et al. (2005), IEQ has major impacts on occupant health and productivity and eventually could adversely influence occupants' turnover rate, absenteeism and satisfaction. ...
... An enhanced IEQ not only increases productivity and reduces the financial burden but it also enhances confidence in the organisation's ability to provide a safe, comfortable and healthy atmosphere (Fowler et al., 2005;Prakash, 2005;Mozaffarian, 2008). Mendell and Heath (2004) concluded that the performance of students in school or non-school indoor atmospheres demonstrates a direct relationship to indoor pollutants, thermal comfort and building characteristics because of health-related problems. Bakker and Van der Voordt (2010) Financial aspects FM provided supportive services to core businesses for companies (CEN, 2006) such as infrastructure maintenance and equipment repair. ...
Purpose
This viewpoint paper aims to discuss sustainable digitalisation of facilities management (FM) through the implementation of the newly recognised International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards within the ISO 41000 series.
Design/methodology/approach
This viewpoint paper provides a review of the literature of the recent ISO documents and academic study. The content is also dependent on the authors’ opinions and interpretation.
Findings
FM is currently shifting emphasis towards a strategic focus through the adoption of the new recognised international ISO standards that consider sustainable digitalisation in business decisions. However, the FM sector is encountering potential risks to the implementation of the new recognised international ISO standards. Digitalisation is one kind of force that has shaped the management of the built environment and FM recently and rapidly, especially in the Covid-19 period. This is impacting the FM industry. As standardisation aims at establishing a constantly evolving baseline of proven practices, standardisation can be considered a part of sustainable FM. It is believed that standardised and strategic level support is crucial for the smooth adoption of sustainable FM practices and processes. Standards such as the ISO standards, applied to the global FM industry, help in objectively quantifying the added value of FM to the core business. Advanced technology and digitalisation can contribute to the sustainability of any profession and industry, but it also requires a community to tackle the problems.
Originality/value
This paper contributes to the FM industry by making recommendations for improvement in the use of digitalisation. In summary, the significant finding of this viewpoint paper is that digitalisation offers both possibilities and problems in the application of the new recognised international ISO standards within the FM industry.
... Quando se sentem satisfeitos com seu ambiente, diminuem as queixas relacionadas à saúde, o número de ausências injustificadas e o trabalho se torna mais eficaz. Estudos mostram que o interior poluído pode agravar doenças como asma ou alergia, seus sintomas podem causar absenteísmo e baixo desempenho (MENDELL;HEATH, 2005). Diversos fatores condicionam o bem-estar de um trabalhador, entre eles está a qualidade do ar interior, a temperatura ambiente, a luz, a relação com os colegas (SILVA, 2017). ...
... Quando se sentem satisfeitos com seu ambiente, diminuem as queixas relacionadas à saúde, o número de ausências injustificadas e o trabalho se torna mais eficaz. Estudos mostram que o interior poluído pode agravar doenças como asma ou alergia, seus sintomas podem causar absenteísmo e baixo desempenho (MENDELL;HEATH, 2005). Diversos fatores condicionam o bem-estar de um trabalhador, entre eles está a qualidade do ar interior, a temperatura ambiente, a luz, a relação com os colegas (SILVA, 2017). ...
Os trabalhadores estão expostos a riscos de natureza física, química, biológica, ergonômica e psicossocial. A exposição ao risco ocasiona consequências adversas à saúde do trabalhador. Alguns sintomas como o ressecamento da mucosa nasal, nariz entupido, coceira nos olhos ou na pele, dores de cabeça, náuseas e fadiga são alguns dos sintomas cada vez mais comuns entre pessoas que trabalham em ambientes fechados e que não são diagnosticados com nenhuma doença específica. Entretanto, é possível que a qualidade interna do ar seja a principal responsável pela causa desses sintomas. Na década de 70 começou a ser estudada as causas da Síndrome do Edifício Doente (sick building syndrome) já que ela está diretamente relacionada aos poluentes presentes nas edificações, impactando diretamente na saúde dos seus ocupantes. O objetivo desse artigo é evidenciar os aspectos da qualidade do ar interno e os sintomas da síndrome do edifício doente (SBS) na satisfação dos ocupantes através da revisão sistemática de literatura. Palavras-chave: Qualidade interna do ar; Síndrome do edifício doente; Satisfação do ocupante; sintomas de saúde. Abstract: Workers are exposed to physical, chemical, biological, ergonomic and psychosocial risks. Exposure to risk causes adverse consequences for workers' health. Some symptoms such as dryness of the nasal mucosa, stuffy nose, itchy eyes or skin, headaches, nausea and fatigue are some of the increasingly common symptoms among people who work indoors and who are not diagnosed with any specific disease. However, it is possible that indoor air quality is primarily responsible for causing these symptoms. In the 70s, the causes of sick building syndrome began to be studied, as it is directly related to the pollutants present in buildings, directly impacting the health of their occupants. The objective of this article is to highlight the aspects of indoor air quality and the
... The indoor environmental quality performance (IEQ) inside buildings significantly contributes to the health, well-being, productivity of the building's occupants, and energy consumption and lifecycle costs [1]. According to many studies, working or studying in a comfortable environment improves not only well-being but also satisfaction, productivity, and learning [2], while few symptoms of discomfort could lead to significant reductions in the work performance [3,4]. In addition to these, analyzing the influence of indoor environmental quality on energy consumption is useful for architects and engineers when undertaking building renovations to satisfy the comfort requirements of the occupants [5]. ...
The indoor environmental quality of a building has attracted everyone’s attention since a worldwide pandemic was declared and forced people indoors. After several months, people were able to return to their usual activities, but with strict safety measures added due to the circumstances. This paper focuses on the impact of safety measures on students’ thermal comfort, a case study performed in a continental climate zone, during the winter. The methodology used involved the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data. Descriptive statistics and frequencies alongside correlations and cross-tabular methods were used to analyze the collected data. The results indicated that the predicted mean vote (PMV) underestimated students’ thermal perception. A difference of 1.5 °C was found between the operative neutral temperature of the PMV and students’ thermal sensation votes while wearing masks. Likewise, a lower neutral operative temperature was found for students wearing masks than for those without masks. Students wearing masks preferred a slightly cooler environment and a significant difference was found (p = 0.001) between students’ thermal comfort votes. All of these findings indicate that there is a potential for energy savings without affecting students’ thermal comfort.
... Ensuring good indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is paramount to promote the health and wellbeing of occupants. Research has found that IEQ impacts the health, wellbeing and performance of building occupants [1][2][3][4]. School children spend significant proportion of their time in school buildings. Given their physiology, children are likely to be more vulnerable than adults to poor indoor conditions, including thermal environments and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentration levels [5][6][7]. ...
The current climate emergency concerns and the COVID-19 pandemic demand urgent action to maintain healthy indoor environments in energy efficient ways. Promoting good indoor environments, in particular, increasing ventilation levels, has been a prominent strategy to mitigate the risk of COVID-19 transmission indoors. However, this strategy could be detrimental to thermal comfort, particularly during the heating season in buildings located in temperate climate zones. This paper presents research conducted in two primary schools in South Wales (UK) where the temperature, relative humidity and the carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration levels were monitored. The study monitored six classrooms and two communal spaces in the two schools during the academic year 2021/2022, the first academic year back to teaching and learning in school buildings after home-schooling and educational disruptions due to COVID-19 lockdowns. The study investigated the actions taken by teachers and pupils to balance the thermal comfort needs while minimising CO2 concentration levels. We conducted user studies to explore the comfort perceptions by pupils and teachers in relation to the thermal conditions and the freshness of air in the monitored classrooms. The paper identifies opportunities where end-users, teachers and pupils engaged with the management of the indoor environmental conditions and adopted actions to balance the requirement of reducing CO2 concentration levels while promoting thermal comfort. This research offers lessons and insights related to end-users’ agency and their understanding of indoor environments and thermal experience in schools.
... Indoor air pollution is currently considered one of the world's largest environmental issues due to the harmful effects of airborne pollutants on human health, including heart disease, pneumonia, stroke, diabetes, and lung cancer (Ritchie and Roser 2020). Children are among the most vulnerable populations due to their higher inhalation rates, the continuing development of their tissues and organs, their immature immune system, and the longer periods they spend indoors (Mendell and Heath 2005). As children spend a considerable amount of time in school which is estimated to be around 30 % (Daisey et al. 2003), the Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in these education places is particularly relevant. ...
An intensive field campaign was conducted to monitor indoor air formaldehyde in two French elementary schools for 5 weeks, where the experimental conditions were modified every week. Formaldehyde concentration was monitored using two portable laboratory prototypes with a detection limit of 1 μg m⁻³ and a temporal resolution of 2 s. Carbon dioxide concentration, temperature (T), and relative humidity (RH) were also recorded over the whole field campaign. To take advantage of continuous measurement of formaldehyde for post-data analysis, these 2-s raw formaldehyde concentrations were then used to recalculate the average values for several time steps, i.e., 1 min, 10 min, 1 h, and 1 day. This paper highlights that a time resolution of 10 min is sufficient and well adapted to monitor most of the variations of formaldehyde concentrations observed in these two classrooms. The weekly mean formaldehyde concentrations calculated were in the ranges of 25.6–33.8 μg m⁻³ and 14.7–26.8 μg m⁻³ for schools 1 (S1) and 2 (S2), respectively, once excluded an unwanted painting event in S1. The results obtained were in excellent agreement with those determined by using the reference method based on DNPH derivatization. The results also revealed that building materials and furniture were two significant formaldehyde emission sources. Unlike most of the studies found in the literature in which formaldehyde is monitored using passive sampling, continuous measurements allowed us to estimate real children’s exposure. When considering only the children’s occupation time, a significant decrease in average formaldehyde concentration ranging between 20 and 34 % was observed for weeks 4 and 5 when the occupants followed specific strategies for natural ventilation. Opening the windows as soon as the CO2 exceeds the thresholds appears to be the most efficient way to limit exposure to formaldehyde in the two investigated schools. The findings of this paper demonstrate the importance of continuous and accurate formaldehyde measurements with at least 10-min time resolution which could serve as a roadmap for future developments of formaldehyde low-cost sensors.
... A wide spectrum of these symptoms and diseases are linked to indoor air and ventilation in schools (Seppänen and Fisk, 2004). The indoor air quality (IAQ) is of special concern in the school environment because children are particularly susceptible to indoor air pollution compared to adults because of their underdeveloped immune system and lungs, as well as their high inhalation rates per body mass (Mendell and Heath, 2005;Zuraimi et al., 2007). Currently, a large number of schools have poor IAQ, and multiple pupils and teachers complain of neurophysiologic symptoms (Muscatiello et al., 2015); respiratory symptoms (Borr as- Santos et al., 2013;Meklin et al., 2002;Uotila et al., 2019); and poor general health when using these buildings. ...
Purpose
Poor indoor air quality (IAQ) contributing to occupants’ health symptoms is a universal, typically ventilation-related, problem in schools. In cold climates, low-cost strategies to improve IAQ in a naturally ventilated school are rare since conventional methods, such as window opening, are often inappropriate. This paper aims to present an investigation of strategies to relieve health symptoms among school occupants in naturally ventilated school in Finland.
Design/methodology/approach
A case study approach is adopted to thoroughly investigate the process of generating the alternatives of ventilation redesign in a naturally ventilated school where there have been complaints of health symptoms. First, the potential sources of the occupants’ symptoms are identified. Then, the strategies aiming to reduce the symptoms are compared and evaluated.
Findings
In a naturally ventilated school, health symptoms that are significantly caused by insufficient ventilation can be potentially reduced by implementing a supply and exhaust ventilation system. Alternatively, it is possible to retain the natural ventilation with reduced number of occupants. The selected strategy would depend considerably on the desired number of users, the budget and the possibilities to combine the redesign of ventilation with other refurbishment actions. Furthermore, the risk of poorer indoor air caused by the refurbishment actions must also be addressed and considered.
Practical implications
This study may assist municipal authorities and school directors in decisions concerning improvement of classroom IAQ and elimination of building-related symptoms. This research provides economic aspects of alternative strategies and points out the risks related to major refurbishment actions.
Originality/value
Since this study presents a set of features related to indoor air that contribute to occupants’ health as well as matters to be considered when aiming to decrease occupants’ symptoms, it may be of assistance to municipal authorities and practitioners in providing a healthier indoor environment for pupils and teachers.
... Research has shown that generally, Australians spend around 90% of their time indoors [8]. Children, while growing up, also spend most of their time (approximately 70-85%) within their home environment [9][10][11]. ...
Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) has been found to influence children’s health and behaviour, particularly conditions, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This research aimed to ascertain whether housing IEQ impacted the symptoms of ADHD and its related behaviours. This study involved 435 parents of children and adolescents (aged 5–17) with ADHD residing in Australia. We utilised an online survey tool comprising the home version of the ADHD Rating Scale for Children and Adolescents and the Housing Environmental Quality Assessment Tool. The findings revealed that all the housing IEQ factors were associated with both the diagnosis and the severity of the symptoms. The results indicated that, for over one in ten children with ADHD (13.3%), the diagnosis was impacted by a collective contribution of air quality, acoustic quality, lighting quality, and the thermal comfort within their home. The air quality and the thermal comfort predicted a 4% variance in the severity of inattention. Additionally, air and lighting qualities predicted a 9.7% variance in the severity of hyperactivity-impulsivity, and all the factors of air quality, acoustic quality, lighting quality, and thermal comfort predicted a 10.9% variance in the severity of combined ADHD. In conclusion, this research provided insights into the importance of housing features and suggests that improving the housing indoor environmental quality, mainly thermal comfort, air, and lighting quality, could positively correlate with alleviating ADHD symptoms and severity among children and adolescents. Therefore, ensuring an appropriate indoor environmental quality should be prioritised in housing design, modification, and building, especially for those with ADHD.
... This study focusses on the IEQ, which is a system of the indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal, lighting, and acoustic conditions (Frontczak & Wargocki, 2011). Mendell and Heath (2005) relate a poor IEQ to discomfort and distraction, which can impair the performance of students. One of the main causes of impaired performance among children are the poor acoustical conditions and there is an urgent need for acoustical measures in schools (Bluyssen, Zhang, Kurvers, Overtoom, & Ortiz-Sanchez, 2018). ...
Background and aim-In this study, it is presupposed that the indoor environmental conditions of classrooms can contribute to the quality of the educational process. Thermal, acoustic and visual conditions and indoor air quality (IAQ) may be extremely supportive in order to support the in-class tasks of teachers and students. This study explores the influence of these conditions on the perceived comfort and quality of learning of students in higher education. Methodology-In a case study design, the actual IEQ of 34 classrooms which are spread over four school buildings in North Netherlands and 276 related student perceptions were collected. The measurements consisted of in situ physical measurements. At the same moment the perceived indoor environmental quality (PIEQ) and the perceived quality of learning (PQL) of students were measured with a questionnaire. Results-Observed are high carbon dioxide concentrations and high background noise levels. A relation was observed between perceived acoustic and visual conditions, IAQ, and the PQL indicating that a poor IEQ affects the PQL. A linear regression analyses showed that in this study the perceived impact on the quality of learning was mainly caused by perceived acoustic comfort. Originality-With the applied innovative measuring instrument it is possible to measure both the actual IEQ as well as the PIEQ and PQL. This method can also be used to assess a reference and intervention condition. Practical or social implications-The applied measuring instrument provides school management with information about the effectiveness of improved IEQ and students' satisfaction, which can be the basis for further improvement.
... As the world moves from an industrial age to a knowledge-driven economy, there is a need to develop new knowledge and improve human capital, especially in developing countries like Nigeria. In the literature, it has been established that the state of facilities and utilities in an academic institution affects students' preferences in selecting schools [1,2], their academic performance [3][4][5][6][7], their psychomotor learning [8,9], and their learning behaviors [10]. However, it is imperative to note that not all studies report a positive relationship between the state of school facilities and learning outcomes [5,11,12]. ...
The state of utilities and infrastructure within an academic institution plays a vital role in learning and the development of human capital. Hence, this study seeks to examine the management practices used in maintaining facilities in a government-owned tertiary institution and then examine the conditions of critical facilities and their related services in the institution. To achieve the study's goal, a questionnaire survey approach was used to collect information about users' and property managers' perceptions of maintenance management practices. The results revealed the existence of a maintenance policy covering critical systems and services. The discovery also implies that maintenance tasks are generated and planned in response to inspections and user requests. Respondents' perceptions of the state of facilities and utilities indicate that they are in good condition. While literature shows school infrastructure issues remain an ongoing concern, the majority of respondents affirm security and electricity as the most important critical infrastructure and services in the institution, amongst others. The most important limitation of the current study lies in the fact that the findings may not be generalizable to other tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Hence, more research needs to be done in order to gather more information about maintenance management practices in public universities and other educational institutions to improve critical facilities and services to enhance learning outcomes.
... The translocation from the lungs to the bloodstream is more likely to happen in poorly soluble ultrafine particles, thereby enhancing the deleterious e ects of associated hazardous substances [Pope III and Dockery, 2006]. Ensuring good air quality for children's environments also provides optimal conditions for learning [Höfner and Schütze, 2021, Annesi-Maesano et al., 2013, Mendell and Heath, 2005, in addition to preserving their health. However, PM2.5 concentrations (i.e. ...
Les particules en suspension dans l'air (PM) sont aujourd'hui considérées comme un risque majeur pour la santé. Les enfants constituent l'un des groupes les plus vulnérables aux PM et à la pollution atmosphérique. Comme la majorité de la population passe plus de temps à l'intérieur, il est très important de connaître les différentes sources de particules dans cet environnement et la contribution des sources extérieures. Malgré les progrès réalisés dans la compréhension de la qualité de l'air intérieur, de nombreuses lacunes subsistent en ce qui concerne le transfert des particules de l'extérieur vers l'intérieur. Le magnétisme environnemental offre une grande opportunité pour l'étude des PM, car il est suffisamment sensible pour étudier les fractions les plus fines des oxydes de fer présents dans les PM. Les méthodes magnétiques sont également particulièrement adaptées pour être utilisées avec des biocollecteurs, échantillons naturels capables de retenir les polluants. Les biocollecteurs constituent une excellente alternative aux capteurs à faible coût, car ils sont rentables et ont un faible impact sur l'environnement. Ici, nous avons combiné des méthodes magnétiques avec des biocollecteurs afin de mieux comprendre le problème des PM intérieur-extérieur dans différents contextes urbains. L'objectif principal de la thèse était de caractériser les émissions anthropiques de PM à l'intérieur et à l'extérieur et la relation entre elles. Les différentes sources d'émissions urbaines ont été caractérisées dans des filtres PM2.5, fournissant des informations sur les propriétés magnétiques de ces sources, qui ont ensuite été utilisées dans l'étude des biocollecteurs. Les biocollecteurs ont été utilisés dans le cadre de projets scientifiques citoyens, afin d'étudier les PM dans les environnements urbains. Dans cette thèse, des techniques magnétiques innovantes ont également été utilisées pour étudier la fraction ultrafine des PM magnétiques. La microscopie électronique à balayage a fourni des informations morphologiques complémentaires sur les oxydes de fer et les autres constituants des PM. Les résultats indiquent tout d'abord que les différentes sources d'émissions anthropiques présentaient une distribution granulométrique étroite. Pour la ville de Toulouse, les émissions dues au trafic routier ont dominé la fraction magnétique des PM qui sont transportées à l'intérieur des habitations. Des sphérules d'oxydes de fer ultrafines d'environ 50 nm (et plus) liées aux émissions du trafic, ont été détectées au MEB. L'environnement intérieur présente une concentration plus faible de PM magnétiques (avec des I/O moyens pour le SIRM compris entre 0,7 et 0,9 pour les écoles et de 0,5 pour les résidences). La fraction granulométrique est plus fine par rapport à l'extérieur (dans le SSD). La fraction ultrafine pour ce type de grain a un diamètre moyen calculé à 7.7nm. D'autres sources de particules, outre les émissions du trafic, sont également importantes à l'intérieur, notamment dans l'environnement scolaire, comme le montrent les I/O pour la concentration de carbone organique allant de 1,1 à 1,9. Avec l'hypothèse que certaines des particules PM émises en milieu urbain sont entraînées dans le cycle de l'eau, les sédiments de la Garonne ont été étudiés. Les résultats montrent des pics de susceptibilité magnétique (atteignant des valeurs de 2,95x10-6) et de métaux traces (tels que Cu et Pb atteignant des concentrations de 139,0 et 73,5 ppm) dans le centre-ville de Toulouse qui indiquent un apport anthropique. La présence de sphérules d'oxydes de fer de taille micrométrique (allant de 10 à 91 um) montre que les sources d'émission liée au trafic routier sont à l'origine des particules détectées. En conclusion, cette thèse a fourni de nouvelles informations sur les émissions anthropiques de particules et sur leur relation intérieur-extérieur, qui peuvent être utilisées pour caractériser la qualité de l'air dans les environnements urbaines.
... Microbiological IAQ greatly influence students' mental health, physical development, and performance. High fungal and bacterial contamination is associated with respiratory issues, asthma, and can lead to absenteeism (Mendell and Heath, 2005;Becerra et al., 2020). The microbial content of indoor air depends mainly on occupant-density, occupant activity, ventilation, and building age. ...
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) assessments conducted in classrooms in hot arid regions differ greatly from cases found in the general literature due to variations in sociocultural context, climatic conditions, building design, and operation. This paper aims to create a systematic review on IAQ of educational buildings in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) within the past 25 years, identify pollution risks, and indicate gaps in investigations. The review covers a collection of IAQ indices from subjective investigations, experimental studies, simulation work, physical environmental measurements, and statistical analysis from multidisciplinary fields to introduce a holistic overview. This review is significant since investigations for such context with complete reliance on mechanical airconditioning (AC), are limited in number and level of details. Using PRISMA guidelines, 17 original studies were found to fit the review criterion; some were unique in terms of examined variables. Among the reviewed studies, classroom CO2 concentrations and some of the measured indoor air pollutants were significantly higher than the values recommended by reference standards. Serious health risks and bacterial contaminations were associated with poor AC systems and inefficient ventilation. Implementation of practical guidelines is recommended to mitigate indoor environmental issues in classrooms and reduce their physical and psychological impact on occupants. Practical Implications: This systematic review objectively exposes risks and challenges that may be presiding in the indoor environment of classrooms in Saudi Arabia and the surrounding region with similar climatic conditions. It shows the limited amount of national investigations found in the literature. This review also clearly identifies gaps in investigations and monitoring and signifies the urgency and direction of actions needed by local stakeholders. A collective effort and multidisciplinary interventions should be considered to further examine and enhance classrooms' environmental conditions for students to thrive and succeed.
... IEQ, which is an important parameter for building performance evaluation, has been proved to be crucial to occupants' health, comfort, and work/study efficiency [26][27][28]. All the factors of IEQ, including IAQ, could cause negative effects [29][30][31]. After the airborne transmission of COVID-19 has been confirmed [32,33], year 2020 witnessed an unprecedented attention to IAQ from the human society. ...
... In the study room, thermal comfort is the most necessary thing because it supports the realization of a conducive learning process and produces satisfaction for room users. (6), there are studies shows a positive relationship between learner achievement and quality in the edifice (room) (including thermal conditions). ...
Good air distribution in the building should provide comfort and health for the wearer. This can be achieved through the design of more specific architectural sections or forms with the aim of maximizing the distribution of cool air. The target of this research is the Faculty of Engineering lecture hall which located on the Khairun Campus and is a new building with 3 floors. For this new normal period, lectures have reached 100 percent of students entering the room, so supporting facilities are needed that meet the requirements of thermal comfort and health protocols. This study aims to analyze good natural ventilation during endemic times in the lecture hall. This rese arch was conducted using quantitative – qualitative descriptive methods in analyzing the data. The results showed that lecture hall have an average temperature of 31.84 °C, with dampness of 68.47 percent and wind speed of 0.12 m/s. Thing This indicates that the thermal conditions in the lecture hall does not meet the standard of thermal comfort has a temperature exceeding 27.1°C, and a dampness level of more than 70 percent and must have a wind speed of 0.2m/s –2m/s. With this condition, the lecture hall has not yet met the standards of good natural good air distribution during the pandemic and has natural air that is not good for health the wearer
... Indoor air with concentrations of hazardous pollutants below permissible levels also contributes to health and satisfaction of school children as well as to their performance of schoolwork and learning [5][6][7]. Yet, many school buildings experience various problems with thermal environment and indoor air quality [8,9]. A report from the Public Health Agency of Sweden showed that 15% of the Swedish schools had 'poor' or 'rather poor' IAQ [10]. ...
The present study aimed at investigating the effects of ventilation strategies on indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools. Measurements of thermal environment and IAQ were performed over 5 school days in 45 primary school classrooms in Gothenburg, Sweden, grouped into three categories according to their ventilation system: category A) natural or exhaust ventilation, or automated window opening; category B) balanced mechanical ventilation systems with constant air volume (CAV) and category C) balanced mechanical ventilation systems with variable air volume (VAV). The classrooms performed equally well with respect to temperature and relative humidity regardless of the ventilation system. The concentrations of the air pollutants in all classrooms were generally below the respective guideline values. The concentrations of CO2, formaldehyde, PM10, and PM2.5 were lower in the B and C category classrooms with higher ventilation rates than in the A category classrooms. Indoor Air Pollution Index integrating concentrations of multiple pollutants was significantly higher the A category classrooms, reflecting poorer IAQ. Majority of the classrooms had lower ventilation rates than the Swedish ventilation requirements. The periodically reduced ventilation rates in the classrooms with VAV systems did not lead to substantial increase in the measured indoor pollutant concentrations.
... Milder health effects, such as eye and nose irritation, nausea, fatigue, and dizziness, and cognitive effects, such as difficulty concentrating, impaired memory, and slowed mental processing, are less likely to result in school absences, but they may have a direct effect on learning performance and thus the accumulation of human capital and test performance. [3][5][6] [8]. ...
Existing research has shown that numerous air contaminants are present in classrooms, sometimes in high concentrations, which may have an impact on children’s health and academic performance. In order to create a safe, healthy, productive, and comfortable atmosphere for students, instructors, and other school personnel, schools must have good indoor air quality. This study has assessed the current IAQ’s level at selected school in one of the industrial areas in Johor Bahru, which is Pasir Gudang. To measure the quality of the indoor air parameters, three chemical substances which are Formaldehyde (HCHO), Total Volatile Organic Compound (TVOC) and Particulate Matter (PM) in the classroom were assessed. Besides that, this study also analyzed the temperature and relative humidity of the classroom surrounding. Furthermore, the students’ insight on the impact of IAQ parameters towards their class performances were also explored using questionnaire survey. It was found that physical parameters of the classroom were in good state, but the relative humidity percentage range was too high. Meanwhile, on the chemical contaminants, the measurement shows that the concentration of PM, HCHO and TVOC for the classroom are still in the permissible exposure range. In the end, some suggestions have been made to provide good indoor quality in the classroom by emphasizing proper design, construction, and ongoing maintenance procedures.
... According to the World Health Organization (WHO) "The pandemic has caused the most catastrophic disruption to education in history." 1 As a result, educational and governmental authorities have become increasingly aware of the widespread nature of poor indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in classrooms, which epidemiologists, public health experts, and building services engineers have been sounding warnings over for decades. [2][3][4] Despite appeals by both the WHO and UNICEF for schools to be made safer, by adopting measures to minimize transmission of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, there has been little progress, by way of a coherent transnational directives, on how this should be achieved. Part of the reason that decisive action to reduce transmission in schools has been delayed may be because the factors influencing the nature of indoor transmission of SARS-CoV-2 were poorly understood initially, and the role of aerosol transmission was downplayed. ...
Implications for the academic and interpersonal development of children and adolescents underpin a global political consensus to maintain in-classroom teaching during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In support of this aim, the WHO and UNICEF have called for schools around the globe to be made safer from the risk of COVID-19 transmission. Detailed guidance is needed on how this goal can be successfully implemented in a wide variety of educational settings in order to effectively mitigate impacts on the health of students, staff, their families, and society. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current scientific evidence and emerging standards in relation to the use of layered prevention strategies (involving masks, distancing, and ventilation), setting out the basis for their implementation in the school environment. In the presence of increasingly infectious SARS-Cov-2 variants, in-classroom teaching can only be safely maintained through a layered strategy combining multiple protective measures. The precise measures that are needed at any point in time depend upon a number of dynamic factors, including the specific threat-level posed by the circulating variant, the level of community infection, and the political acceptability of the resultant risk. By consistently implementing appropriate prophylaxis measures, evidence shows that the risk of infection from in-classroom teaching can be dramatically reduced. Current studies indicate that wearing high-quality masks and regular testing are amongst the most important measures in preventing infection transmission; whilst effective natural and mechanical ventilation systems have been shown to reduce infection risks in classrooms by over 80%.
... An intelligent classroom is an intelligent environment outfitted with various types of hardware and software modules. Camera systems, video projectors, facial recognition algorithms, and sensors are examples of modules that monitor various physical environmental parameters or student characteristics such as performance, concentration, and achievement (Mendell & Heath, 2005). ...
The objectives of this paper are to analyze the implementation and architecture of the Internet of Things (IoT) from previous studies, specifically in the world of higher education; offer recommendations for future research, as well as strengthen the theory of IoT architecture that already exists in higher education. This study employed a systematic literature review (SLR) with data collection utilizing Funnel Diagrams to select articles based on their relevance to the research question. The three publisher databases (Scopus, Emerald, and EBSCO) and index journals were utilized in the search for articles. A total of 1,200 articles were gathered from these three sources, with distributions of up to 800 in Scopus, 150 in Emerald, and 250 in EBSCO. The findings demonstrate that the existing IoT architecture has a more sophisticated model than the fundamental idea, which has three layers, implying that using IoT in education may have a significant influence on user convenience. This is due to the increasingly complicated requirements of higher education's many business procedures. This study serves as an inspiration and reference for future research for higher education institutions that include the Internet of Things in their implementation to build an efficient teaching and learning environment.
... In schools, it is essential to provide Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ), as occupants can be particularly vulnerable in these environments [1][2][3][4]. In particular, it is fundamental to provide thermal comfort and indoor air quality without compromising energy consumption [5]. ...
Perceived control, as an integral part of the psychological impact, can be considered an important factor in the adaptive thermal comfort model. With the aim of exploring the relationship between perceive control and thermal comfort and indoor air quality (IAQ) in school buildings, a three-month field study was conducted during the heating season involving 26 school classrooms in the Italian Province of Pisa. The experimental campaign was conducted by carrying out measurements of thermal and IAQ parameters. In addition to instrumental measurements, subjective analysis was carried out by collecting 859 questionnaires filled in by students concurrently with objective measurements. The study demonstrate that the thermal neutral temperatures of the occupants with and without perceived control are, respectively, 21.7 °C and 22.2 °C and that the enhancing influence of the perceived control on the thermal sensation decreases with the increase of indoor operative temperature. The study shows that the perception of IAQ by the occupants is inversely proportional to the operative temperature and CO2 concentration. Furthermore, it emerges that students with the perception of control express better subjective judgments regarding the IAQ. It is suggested to ensure environmental control in order to improve indoor comfort and decrease the energy demand for heating.
... In the built environment, indoor thermal comfort conditions may influence health [1,2], office work performance [3,4,5,6], learning performance [7,8,9], well-being [10,11], and the overall satisfaction of occupants [12,6,13]. An analysis done by Graham et al. (2021) based on approximately 90,000 occupant satisfaction survey responses found that roughly 40% of them are dissatisfied with their thermal environment [14]. ...
Cohort Comfort Models (CCM) are introduced as a technique for creating a personalized thermal prediction for a new building occupant without the need to collect large amounts of individual comfort-related data. This approach leverages historical data collected from a sample population, who have some underlying preference similarity to the new occupant. The method uses background information such as physical and demographic characteristics and one-time onboarding surveys (satisfaction with life scale, highly sensitive person scale, personality traits) from the new occupant, as well as physiological and environmental sensor measurements paired with a few thermal preference responses. The framework was implemented using two personal comfort datasets containing longitudinal data from 55 people. The datasets comprise more than 6,000 unique right-here-right-now thermal comfort surveys. The results show that a CCM that uses only the one-time onboarding survey information of an individual occupant has generally as good or better performance as compared to conventional general-purpose models, but uses no historical longitudinal data as compared to personalized models. If up to ten historical personal preference data points are used, CCM increased the thermal preference prediction by 8% on average and up to 36% for half of the occupants in the first of the tested datasets. In the second dataset, one-third of the occupants increased their thermal preference prediction by 5% on average and up to 46%. CCM can be an important step toward the development of personalized thermal comfort models without the need to collect a large number of datapoints per person.
... The outdoor physical education lessons in the form of health training are not new in many countries and are a response to the traditional, in-school model of physical education (Brusseau et al., 2015;Fjørtoft, 2001). Students are expected to spend long hours in enclosed spaces, with increased temperature, low humidity, artificial lighting, excessive dustiness and often increased noise levels, where the condition of the air in enclosed spaces and their thermal conditions are particularly limiting factors (Mendell, 2005). Therefore, the inspiration to avoid these restrictions is contact with open space, even during short breaks between classes (Tran et al., 2013). ...
Several indicators are used worldwide to measure the levels of fitness of countries’ populations. Some are based on quantitative measurements such as the obesity rate and the “ALPHA Health-Related Fitness Test Battery for Children and Adolescents”. Others use qualitative reports such as the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) and the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ). The last two mentioned indicators are employed by the World Health Organization (WHO) to evaluate the level of physical activity in every country. In this chapter, we will further explain each of these methods, identify their limitations and suggest a new index that will measure the level of fitness in every country, which will be named the “World’s Fittest Countries Ranking” (WFCR). Our proposed indicator will partly be based on the World Ranking of Countries in Elite Sport (WRCES), a research-based ranking that measures the performances of all the countries having National Olympic Committees (NOCs) in all the sports recognized by the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF), in addition to other sports that are not yet recognized but have a significant popularity and universality. Although this index targets elite sport results, its features allow to give an accurate evaluation of the level of physical activity in each country. The main purpose of the WFCR is to give to all the governments around the world an accurate idea on the fitness status of their populations, so they can undertake adequate policies to improve them.
... Ozone is a strong oxidizing agent that can be generated by photocopies and laser printers (Destaillats et al., 2008), as a by-product of the electro-photographic process. It causes breathing problems and irritate mucous membranes, reduce lung function, exacerbate asthma, irritate eyes and nose, reduce resistance to colds and other infections and speed up ageing of lung tissue (Mendell and Heath, 2005;Zhang and Smith, 2003). Furthermore, it reacts with other volatile compounds to form contaminant by-products (Nazaroff and Goldstein, 2015;Wells et al., 2017). ...
In the developed world, individuals spend most of their time indoors. Poor Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has a wide range of effects on human health. The burden of disease associated with indoor air accounts for millions of premature deaths related to exposure to Indoor Air Pollutants (IAPs). Among them, CO2 is the most common one, and is commonly used as a metric of IAQ. Indoor CO2 concentrations can be significantly higher than outdoors due to human metabolism and activities. Even in presence of ventilation, controlling the CO2 concentration below the Indoor Air Guideline Values (IAGVs) is a challenge, and many indoor environments including schools, offices and transportation exceed the recommended value of 1000 ppmv. This is often accompanied by high concentration of other pollutants, including bio-effluents such as viruses, and the importance of mitigating the transmission of airborne diseases has been highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic. On the other hand, the relatively high CO2 concentration of indoor environments presents a thermodynamic advantage for direct air capture (DAC) in comparison to atmospheric CO2 concentration. This review aims to describe the issues associated with poor IAQ, and to demonstrate the potential of indoor CO2 DAC to purify indoor air while generating a renewable carbon stream that can replace conventional carbon sources as a building block for chemical production, contributing to the circular economy.
... If the school of the future is to be used in a completely different, and, above all, much more flexible fashion, it is important that an adequate indoor environment be guaranteed at all times. This is even more important in schools, because, as Mendell and Heath [44] suggest, poor quality indoor environment in schools adversely influences the performance and attendance of students, primarily through health effects from indoor pollutants. ...
This study explores how school buildings can be exploited more efficiently in the future,
since, at present, they remain unused for a substantial amount of time. One possibility to tackle this
inefficiency, is to involve the local community more closely in usage of its school building. First, a
theoretical analysis was carried out to increase the fundamental understanding of the underlying
dynamics related to opening school infrastructure to the local community. Second, focus group
discussions were organized to research whether involving the local community in the school building
was compatible with educational needs. The first highlighted that more extensive building usage
could lead to positive social, environmental, educational and economic benefits. In the second,
educational experts stressed that they wanted to adopt more innovative and flexible forms of teaching
in the future, such as team teaching. Technical directors expressed concerns on safety issues if the
local community is to be more closely involved. In the final step, all findings were translated into their
technical consequences. From this analysis, it could be concluded that a school building with a high
degree of short-term flexibility was the preferred option to reconcile societal and educational needs.
... Ventilation levels affect indoor air temperature, air quality and acoustic parameters and they also impact, in a more indirect manner, the learning performance and capacity of students Daisey et al., 2003;Heracleous & Michael, 2018). IEQ factors have been associated with student learning and achievements, as well as illness and adverse health symptoms, leading to student absenteeism (Berman et al., 2018;Durán-Narucki, 2008;Eide et al., 2010;Haverinen-Shaughnessy et al., 2015;Mendell & Heath, 2005). ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the fact that air quality is essential in buildings. In the case of educational buildings, teaching activities were moved to an online format during the 2020/2021 academic year, with only activities such as exams remaining face-to-face. This strategy required the development of protocols to ensure that classrooms were safe spaces. This study assesses the impact of these protocols in the indoor environmental conditions of educational buildings in Southern Spain. For this purpose, a measurement campaign was carried out at the Fuentenueva Campus of the University of Granada. The results show that the protocols have guaranteed effective ventilation. However, other indoor environmental variables have also been affected, including the satisfaction of users during exams due to temperature, relative humidity (RH) and noise. The highest levels of satisfaction were related to indoor lighting, while the highest levels of dissatisfaction were related to the indoor thermal environment. Among the main causes of dissatisfaction were draughts and outdoor noise, directly related to natural ventilation protocols during the pandemic. Based on these findings, current pandemic protocols should be revised and redesigned to minimize the impact on student satisfaction and perceived learning performance from the identified environmental sources in this research.
... 54 Moreover, poor indoor air quality is linked with discomfort, sick building syndrome, reduced memory, productivity, and performance among occupants. 55,56 To determine the degree of health risks associated with exposure to PM 2.5 in indoor micro-environments and possible mitiga- ...
Exposure to indoor PM2.5 is associated with allergies, eye and skin irritation, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary diseases. To control indoor PM2.5 and protect the health of occupants, exposure and health studies are necessary. In this study, exposure to PM2.5 released in an academic metallurgy workshop was assessed and a health risk assessment was conducted for male and female students and technicians. Polycarbonate membrane filters and an active pump operating at a flow rate of 2.5 L/min were used to collect PM2.5 from Monday to Friday for 3 months (August–October 2020) from 08:00–16:00. PM2.5 mass concentrations were obtained gravimetrically, and the Multiple‐Path Particle Dosimetry model was used to predict the deposition, retention, and clearance of PM2.5 in the respiratory tract system. The risk of developing carcinogenic and non‐carcinogenic effects among students and technicians was determined. The average PM2.5 mass concentration for August was 32.6 μg/m3 32.8 μg/m3 for September, and 32.2 μg/m3 for October. The head region accounted for the highest deposition fraction (49.02%), followed by the pulmonary (35.75%) and tracheobronchial regions (15.26%). Approximately 0.55 mg of PM2.5 was still retained in the alveolar region 7 days after exposure. The HQ for male and female students was <1 while that of male and female technicians was >1, suggesting that technicians are at risk of developing non‐carcinogenic health effects compared with students. The results showed a risk of developing carcinogenic health effects among male and female technicians (>1 × 10−5); however, there was no excess cancer risk for students (<1 × 10−6). This study highlights the importance of exposure and health studies in academic micro‐environments such as metallurgy workshops which are often less researched, and exposure is underestimated. The results also indicated the need to implement control measures to protect the health of the occupants and ensure that the workshop rules are adhered to.
... However, natural ventilation fails under hot and humid conditions [9]. Likewise, the environmental quality of learning spaces significantly impacts health, productivity, and psychology [10,2]. For example, recent studies have proven that reducing discomfort hours in learning spaces can improve typing and thinking productivity by 46% [11]. ...
Condensation risk has limited the deployment of radiant cooling systems for improving thermal comfort in hot and humid climates. Infrared-transparent membrane films emerged as a viable alternative to improve hybrid radiant cooling by preventing moisture condensation. This case study assesses the potential of membrane-assisted radiant cooling in a rural school building in Santa Lucia, Atlántico (Colombia), a location with a hot and humid tropical climate throughout the year. The study evaluates different cooling strategies, including natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation, hybrid radiant cooling, and membrane-assisted radiant cooling using EnergyPlus® software. Results for a radiant surface temperature of 4°C below the dew point show that membrane-assisted radiant cooling could reduce annual discomfort hours by 3-6 % compared to conventional radiant cooling. Further experimental and modeling studies should focus on the lowest achievable temperature below the dew point without condensation. Our results suggest that radiant cooling with infrared-transparent membranes is a potentially cost-effective alternative for improving thermal comfort in rural school buildings in hot and humid climates.
... Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has often been considered a good proxy for indoor air quality [23,24]. High concentrations of CO 2 itself have been associated with negative effects on students' vigilance and attention [25,26]. ...
Reducing children’s exposure to air pollutants should be considered a primary goal, especially for the most vulnerable subjects. The goal of this study was to test the effectiveness of applying a protocol in the event of alert days, i.e., days with forecasted PM10 levels above the EU limit value (50 µg/m3). The test was conducted, before the onset of SARS-CoV-2 restrictions, in a classroom of a primary school in Parma (Italy)—a highly polluted area in Northern Italy. The protocol included indications for the frequency of opening windows and doors, as well as the activation of an air purifier. Teachers and students were asked to apply the protocol only in the event of alert days, while no indications were provided for non-alert days. A monitoring system measuring PM1, PM2.5, PM10, CO2, and NO2 was deployed in the classroom. Measurements of the same parameters were also performed outdoors near the school. The application of the protocol reduced the indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratio for all toxic pollutants. The reduction was also remarkable for PM10—the most critical air quality parameter in the study area (1.5 and 1.1 for non-alert and alert days, respectively). Indoor concentrations of PM10—especially during non-alert days—were often higher than outdoors, showing a major contribution from resuspension due to the movement of people and personal cloud. The protocol did not cause any increase in indoor CO2 levels. Our findings showed that the application of a ventilation protocol together with the contribution of an air purifier may represent an effective way to reduce children’s exposure to air pollution during severe air pollution episodes. Considering the onset of COVID-19 and the airborne transmission of pathogens, this protocol now has more meaningful implications for children’s welfare, and can be integrated with protocols designed as measures against the spread of SARS-CoV-2.
... Formal education is influenced by the physical and aesthetic elements of the learning environment (Amin et al. 2012). With regard to enhancing teaching and learning environments, recent research and comparable findings show that good facilities help learning, whereas inferior facilities inhibit student accomplishment (Audu et al. 2013;Mendell and Heath 2005;Hill and Epps 2010;Earthman 2002;Uline and Tschannen-Moran 2008). Technical skills can only be learned in a well-established workshop with the appropriate tools, equipment, and machines (Audu et al. 2013). ...
Pakistan is a country with rich natural and human resources. The role of highly skilled people in national development has become enormously vital in the new developmental period, but it is also an irrefutable fact that the gap in highly skilled personnel in Pakistan is expanding. The organization of Technical Vocational Education and Training was introduced to prepare a skilled workforce for various industries and sectors in Pakistan; however, the 60% level of young, unskilled, and semi-skilled labor emerging from informal and non-formal sectors is largely attributed to the failure of Technical Vocational Education and Training to supply the country with its requirements for trained manpower for the economy and China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) projects. China and Pakistan launched historic projects such as CPEC as part of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which fostered economic cooperation and development between the two countries. This article will go through the overview and the course of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Pakistan. The major purpose of this study is to highlight that TVET in general, and CPEC in particular, are suffering from a lack of qualified personnel because of a variety of other reasons, such as outdated equipment, a lack of industry connectivity, inadequate skills, unemployment, and so on. The study is descriptive and exploratory in nature, and it employs a qualitative research method. The perspectives of the TVET challenges in Pakistan were researched using the data obtained from 500 student and staff respondents, including teachers, TVET workers, and TVET job holders. Some of the important findings include the fact that the current state of the TVET institutions is no doubt due to infrastructural issues and a lack of funding. In addition, TVET in Pakistan is marked by inadequate skills, a lack of industry connectivity, unemployment, insufficient teacher training, and a lack of female participation. In this study, recommendations were given based on the research analysis and research findings.
... Ensuring good air quality for children's environments also provides optimal conditions for learning (Annesi-Maesano et al., 2013;Höfner & Schütze, 2021;Mendell & Heath, 2005;Vornanen-Winqvist et al., 2020), in addition to preserving their health. However, PM2.5 concentrations (i.e., particle sizes smaller than 2.5 μm) inside classrooms could be higher than outdoors, at least in European schools (Kalimeri et al., 2019). ...
Children's exposure to air pollution affects both their health and learning skills. Fine and ultrafine particulate matter (PM2.5, PM1), notably issued from traffic sources in urban centers, belong to the most potential harmful health hazards. However their monitoring and the society's awareness on their dangers need to be consolidated. In this study, raising teacher and pupil involvement for air quality improvement in their schools environment is reached through developing a passive monitoring technique (bio‐sensors made of tree bark). The experiment was implemented in two urban elementary schools situated close to a main traffic road of the city of Toulouse (South of France). Magnetic properties, carbonaceous fraction measurements, and scanning electronic microscopy (SEM‐EDX) investigations were realized both on passive bio‐sensors and filters issued from active sampling. We find that traffic is the main PM1 source for both outdoors and indoors at schools. Higher levels of outdoor PM in the school's environments compared to urban background are reached especially in the cold period. The schools proximity to a main traffic source and lack of ventilation are the main causes for observed PM1 accumulation in classrooms. The co‐working experiment with educational teams and pupils shows that the use of bio‐sensors is a driver for children empowerment to air pollution and therefore represents a potential key tool for the teachers though limiting eco‐anxiety. As PM accumulation is observed in many scholar environments across Europe, the proposed methodology is a step toward a better assessment of PM impact on pupil's health and learning skills.
The Effect of Indoor Air Quality on Student Academic Performance: A Literature Review. Humans spend 90% of their time indoors. The room (indoors) can have a lot of pollutant that comes from outside and inside building. As a result, the occupants of the room experienced inconvenience and have health problems. The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of several indicators in indoor air quality such as physical parameters (temperature, ventilation, and lighting), chemical parameters (carbon dioxide, and particulate matter), and biological parameters (fungi and bacteria) on student academic performance. This article used narrative literature review method. The conclusion in this study is those indicators in indoor air quality have direct and indirect effect on the student academic performance.Keywords: Students, Academic Performance, and Indoor Air QualityAbstrak : Pengaruh Kualitas Udara dalam Ruangan bagi Performa Akademik Pelajar: Sebuah Tinjauan Literatur. Manusia menghabiskan 90% waktunya untuk berada di dalam ruangan. Ruangan tersebut dapat memiliki banyak polutan yang berasal dari dalam dan luar ruangan. Akibatnya, penghuni ruangan mengalami ketidaknyamanan dan memiliki gangguan kesehatan. Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mengetahui pengaruh beberapa indikator yang terdapat di dalam ruangan seperti parameter fisik (suhu, ventilasi, dan pencahayaan), parameter kimia (karbon dioksida, dan particulate matter) dan parameter biologi (jamur dan bakteri) di dalam ruangan terhadap performa akademik pelajar. Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini yaitu narrative literature review. Kesimpulan dari penelitian ini adalah indikator-indikator kualitas udara dalam ruangan tersebut memiliki pengaruh secara langsung dan tidak langsung terhadap performa akademik pelajar.Kata Kunci : Pelajar, Performa Akademik, dan Kualitas Udara dalam Ruangan
Indoor air quality indices (IAQI-S, IAQI-C and IAQI-E) were developed to manage air quality in public facilities for vulnerable groups such as schools, child daycare centers, and elderly nursing homes, respectively. In this study, hazard quotient (HQ) was first designated, then the concentrations of each pollutant were calculated by adding the exposure factor of residents. The presented index was more stringent than comprehensive air quality index (CAI) for outdoor atmosphere. Also, composite indices that integrate individual indices for each pollutant were developed for quick and convenient recognition of the current air quality by administration officers or teachers and to take remedial actions. Among all data collected in field measurements, 75.4%, 71.2% and 35.6% were classified as ‘Good’ or ‘Moderate’ in school classrooms, child daycare centers and elderly nursing homes, respectively
In this study, measurements were performed to determine the indoor air quality and thermal comfort, evaluated to ASHRAE standard during the model making process of the students in the studios where architectural education was given, and whether the low indoor air quality obtained had an effect on the health of the students was determined by the survey method. As a result of the measurements, it was determined that the size of the studio space was largely effective in maintaining the indoor air quality for a long time, and although the natural ventilation continued uninterrupted during the model making, the indoor quality in the studios reached the values that would threaten the health of the students. In addition, it was determined that female students were more disturbed by the low indoor quality than male students.
Okullarda bakım, onarım ve tadilat iş ve işlemleri eğitim hedeflerinin
gerçekleştirilmesinde önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Okullarda akademik başarı,
okul katılımcılarının sağlığı, öğretim hedeflerinin gerçekleştirilmesi mevcut bina,
tesis ve çevrelerinin bakım, onarım ve tadilat işlerinin aksamadan düzenli ve
etkili bir şekilde gerçekleştirilmesine bağlıdır.
The education sector has suffered a catastrophic setback due to ongoing COVID-pandemic, with classrooms being closed indefinitely. The current study aims to solve the existing dilemma by examining COVID transmission inside a classroom. In this work, a standard 5m x 3m x 5m classroom is considered where 24 students are seated, accompanied by a teacher. A computational fluid dynamics simulation based on OpenFOAM is performed using a Eulerian-Lagrangian framework. Based on the stochastic dose response framework, we have evaluated the infection risk in the classroom for two distinct cases: (i) certain students are infected (ii) the teacher is infected. If the teacher is infected, the probability of infection could reach 100% for certain students. When certain students are infected, the maximum infection risk for a susceptible person reaches 30%. The commonly used cloth mask proves to be ineffective in providing protection against infection transmission reducing the maximum infection probability by approximately 26% only. Another commonly used solution in the form of shields installed on desks have failed to provide adequate protection against infection reducing the infection risk only by 50%. Furthermore, the shields serves as a source of fomite mode of infection. Screens suspended from the ceiling have been proposed as a novel solution that reduces the infection risk by 90% and 95% compared to the no screen scenario besides being completely devoid of fomite infection mode. In the case of screens, the maximum infection risk reached the value of only 0.2 (20 % infection probability) in 1325s (22 min).
Measurements were carried out to determine the PM2.5, PM10 and, CO2 levels in schools located in the urban areas of Imphal, Manipur. The particulate matters (PM2.5 and PM10) were monitored gravimetrically with standardised particulate samplers, while the CO2 in the air was measured by gas chromatography. Average PM2.5 and PM10 concentration in the classrooms was 41.0 ± 9.0 µg/m3 and 79.4 ± 20.2 µg/m3, respectively, and it was comparatively higher than the outdoor concentration of 34.8 ± 8.0 µg/m3 and 64.7 ± 18.9 µg/m3, respectively. The average concentration of CO2 in the indoor and outdoor air was 1250.6 ± 131.3 ∙ 103 µg/m3 and 885.7 ± 94.7 ∙103 µg/m3. The highest levels of PM2.5 (58.3 µg/m3), PM10 (112.5 µg/m3) and CO2 (1457.5 ∙ 103 µg/m3) were recorded indoors, in a school located at the heart of the city, whereas the lowest levels of PM2.5 (25.0 µg/m3), PM10 (45.8 µg/m3) and CO2 (1045.7 ∙ 103 µg/m3) were recorded in a school located away from the city centre. The levels of PM2.5 and PM10 in the air were found to exceed the permissible limits prescribed by the National Ambient Air Quality Standards in more than half of the sampling. There was a strong positive correlation between indoor and outdoor pollutant concentrations.
Today, millions of standardized English as a foreign language proficiency tests are administered globally each year. A large portion of this is conducted as a paper-based test in which the listening section is commonly delivered through loudspeakers to groups of test takers, a method in which the audio signals are exposed to the acoustic tendencies of each particular venue. As it is well-established in the literature that non-native listeners are more susceptible to adverse listening conditions compared to their native counterparts, there is a need for an objective examination of the acoustic quality of such environments. This study examined the speech transmission index for public address systems (STIPA) for three types of sound sources (wall-mounted speakers, radio cassette player, and amplified speaker) and reverberation time (RT) in 10 unoccupied classrooms commonly used as test rooms at a university in Japan. The results revealed that STI was found to be statistically significantly different for the amplified speaker compared to both or one other sound source in eight out of 10 rooms. The amplified speaker also recorded the highest STI among the three sound sources in eight out of 10 rooms and the most rooms with STI entirely above 0.66, a minimum target value prescribed in IEC 60268–16:2020 as exhibiting high speech intelligibility. Additionally, ≥ 0.66 STI was consistently observed in rooms with RT0.5-2kHz ≤ 0.7 s. Further observations are discussed to better understand the current conditions under which these tests are administered
Indoor Environmental Quality has an impact on the health of its users, especially in educational centres due to the vulnerability of its occupants and high occupancy density. This study aims to analyse the hygrothermal comfort of three case studies with different ventilation systems located in the same city by monitoring. For this purpose, a three-phase methodology was proposed. First, a characterization of the case studies has been made. Second, the results obtained in the monitoring of temperature, relative humidity and CO2 concentration during the occupied period have been analysed. Third, the hygrothermal comfort according to UNE-EN 16798 for each classroom has been compared. As a result, overall better comfort is achieved during summer than in winter. The ventilation system used in each centre has not had a great impact comparing the classrooms, being all of them in comfort for more than 80% of the occupied period. All classrooms had comfortable temperatures more than 80% of the time in summer and 70% in winter but the gymnasiums presented very low temperatures, especially during winter. In conclusion, comfort has been achieved as well in naturally as in mechanically ventilated classrooms.
Purpose
A building's Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has a direct impact on the health and productivity on its occupants. Understanding the effects of IAQ in educational buildings is essential in both the design and construction phases for decision-makers. The purpose of this paper is to outline the impact air quality has on occupants' performance, especially teachers and students in educational settings.
Design/methodology/approach
This study aims to evaluate the effects of IAQ on teachers' performances and to deliver air quality requirements to building information modelling-led school projects. The methodology of the research approach used a quasi-experiment through questionnaire surveys and physical measurements of indoor air parameters to associate correlation and deduction. A technical college building in Saudi Arabia was used for the case study. The study developed an artificial neural network (ANN) model to define and predict relationships between teachers' performance and IAQ.
Findings
This paper contains a detailed investigation into the impact of IAQ via direct parameters (relative humidity, ventilation rates and carbon dioxide) on teacher performance. Research findings indicated an optimal relative humidity with 65%, ranging between 650 to 750 ppm of CO 2 , and 0.4 m/s ventilation rate. This ratio is considered optimum for both comfort and performance
Originality/value
This paper focuses on teacher performance in Saudi Arabia and used ANN to define and predict the relationship between performance and IAQ. There are few studies that focus on teacher performance in Saudi Arabia and very few that use ANN in data analysis.
This article proposes the integration of IoT sensor and communication paradigms with business process management software systems, intending to develop a service model aimed at the environmental comfort of users in shared spaces. The model involves users in the input of data to the system, developing services that are adapted to their needs. To deploy the necessary infrastructure, a hardware device has been designed and developed that measures the environmental parameters (\(CO_2\), temperature, humidity, particles, etc.) of the classrooms and automatically controls the actuators (ventilation, lighting, air conditioning, etc.) of interest. Together with this device, the management software has been designed, which will be deployed through a platform of digital services (monitoring dashboard, process algorithms, etc.) that allow maintenance staff to keep track, act when appropriate and/or design preventive and predictive actions. In addition, this platform integrates users into the system, allowing them to consult information and interact to improve their perception of the comfort and environmental quality of the classroom around them.KeywordsComfortIoTBPMEmbedded devicesEnvironmental qualityClassrooms
This research aimed to examine the thermal comfort performance of students in naturally ventilated secondary schools’ classrooms in Makassar. The analysis compared the thermal balance and the adaptive model. The study analyzed data gathered from surveys conducted at eight secondary schools and local weather stations. The data consists of the measured indoor thermal environment of 48 classrooms. The personal data, users’ perceptions, and adaptive behaviors of 1,594 students were recorded in the questionnaire sheets. The questionnaire also recorded the thermal perception of students about the thermal environments of classrooms. In terms of thermal sensation, the study found that the neutral temperature estimated by PMV was overestimated the neutral temperature developed by actual votes of students. The PMV model estimated the neutral temperature of students at 23.0 °C which was about 7 °C lower than the neutral temperature calculated using the students’ actual thermal sensation votes (30.2 °C). This was a very big discrepancy between the predicted and the actual. The adaptive thermal comfort model produces more appropriate results than the PMV model. The modified Humphrey’s model predicted more close neutral temperature to the actual one which was 29.1 °C. Students adapt to the thermal environment through several activities. This adaptation makes students remain comfortable even in the hot thermal environment.
Managing indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is a challenge in educational buildings in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Adequate indoor air quality is essential to ensure that indoor spaces are safe for students and teachers. In fact, poor IEQ can affect academic performance and student comfort. This study proposes a framework for integrating occupants’ feedback into the building information modelling (BIM) methodology to assess indoor environmental conditions (thermal, acoustic and lighting) and the individual airborne virus transmission risk during teaching activities. The information contained in the parametric 3D BIM model and the algorithmic environment of Dynamo were used to develop the framework. The IEQ evaluation is based on sensor monitoring and a daily schedule, so the results show real problems of occupants’ dissatisfaction. The output of the framework shows in which range the indoor environmental variables were (optimal, acceptable and unacceptable) and the probability of infection during each lecture class (whether or not 1% is exceeded). A case study was proposed to illustrate its application and validate it. The outcomes provide key information to support the decision-making process for managing IEQ and controlling individual airborne virus transmission risks. Long-term application could provide data that support the management of ventilation strategies and protocol redesign.
The main purpose of this study is to explore the impact of the indoor thermal condition on people’s stress and thermal comfort under acute stress. Therefore, an experiment was carried out on 20 human subjects in the climate chamber. Three thermal conditions (PMV = −1, PMV = 0 and PMV = 1) were created. Trier social stress test was used as the program to stimulate acute stress and was divided into three stages: Pre-stressor, Stressor task and Post-stressor under each thermal condition. To analyse stress and thermal sensation, a survey was conducted and human subjects completed questionnaire provided about their responses. Furthermore, the psychophysiological responses of subjects were measured by electroencephalogram at different thermal conditions. The results indicate that subject’s stress is not significantly related to the thermal environment conditions in the stage of Pre-stressor. However, a neutral and slightly cold environment can reduce the stress of the subjects in the Stressor task, while a slightly warm environment would increase more acute stress. The thermal environment and psychological stress were found to have a combined effect, which could affect the thermal sensation, thermal comfort and acceptability of the environment when subjects were under acute stress stimulation.
Objective
: To determine whether school infrastructure is associated with health and academic outcomes among elementary school children with asthma.
Methods
: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of linked medical, academic, and facilities data from a large mid-Atlantic school district of the United States. All K—5 students with asthma who were enrolled under the state's Children's Health Insurance Program were included. We estimated associations of the infrastructure quality of the student's school, as assessed by an engineering firm in Summer 2011 and represented by the Facility Condition Index (FCI), with asthma health outcomes, absenteeism, and standardized test scores in math and reading in the two academic years thereafter.
Results
: 6,558 students were identified, the majority non-Hispanic Black, across 130 schools. Most schools (97/130, 75%) were in very poor or worse condition. In cluster-adjusted models accounting for demographics, grade, school-specific area deprivation, and inhaled corticosteroid use, a one standard deviation increase in FCI, corresponding to greater infrastructure deficiency, was associated with higher rates of asthma-related hospitalizations (incidence rate ratio [IRR] 1.16; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03, 1.32), more absenteeism (IRR 1.05; 95% CI 1.01, 1.08), and lower scores in math (mean difference [MD] –3.3; 95% CI –5.5, –1.2) and reading (MD –3.0; 95% CI –5.1, –0.9). There were no differences in rates of asthma-related emergency visits or steroid prescriptions.
Conclusions
: Children with asthma attending schools with poorer infrastructure had worse health and academic outcomes. Public policy emphasizing reinvestment in school infrastructure may be a potential means of addressing asthma disparities.
In the last few decades, building design has been shifting toward more energy-efficient and better-performing buildings. Although the main focus is usually on the reduction of energy use for the operation and construction of buildings, the awareness regarding the benefits of higher occupant comfort and health has shifted the focus toward a more holistic treatment of building design. The exposed notion was further emphasized during the last two and a half years. Firstly, the COVID-19 pandemic and the realization that the indoor environment is directly related to occupants' health, and secondly, the energy insecurity fulled by the Ukrainian war. Therefore, we have to realize that contemporary high-performance buildings will not only have to be energy efficient but will also have to address synergetic interconnectedness between indoor environment, user health and comfort while at the same time being sustainable and resilient. A task that is not easily achieved and is further complicated by the issues of the present anthropogenically induced global warming that necessitates adaptation of buildings to the future climate already during the design phase. With the exposed complexity and interconnectedness of parameters influencing the design of high-performance buildings, a crucial research question emerges – "how to accomplish appropriate optimization among opposing and contrasting demands of different fields governing the design of high-performance buildings?" This question, of course, is not answered in the present reprint book of a Special Issue of the Sustainability journal. Nevertheless, papers published in it represent essential contributions that broaden the knowledge in the field of architectural engineering and, as such, provide a small but valuable contribution to creating a sustainable and resilient built environment.
The content of the Special Issue and the present reprint book can be roughly divided into two parts. The first one includes papers primarily concerned with the functioning of the building and its components concerning energy use. In contrast, the second part addresses the occupant's comfort concerning the building. The book's first part consists of chapters 1 to 5 and covers some interesting aspects related to building design. Chapter 1 deals with building envelope optimization, and integration of passive cooling measures in buildings design by adopting a building simulation approach. Chapter 2 highlights the risks associated with buildings designed with the bioclimatic approach in the context of uncertain future climates. This chapter especially talks about the overheating problem in central Europe's residential buildings. Chapter 3 mentions retrofitting buildings with phage change materials and aerogel to adapt the building to extreme heatwave conditions. It also reports that using the above materials significantly reduces energy use, peak cooling load, CO2 emissions and operational energy cost for a typical Australian house in the Melbourne climate. Chapter 4 highlights the impact of the building shape factor on energy demand and CO2 emission in the cold Oceanic climate of southern Chile. Through case studies, the authors concluded that a shape factor below 0.767 leads to a decrease in energy demand under the studied climate. Chapter 5 addresses the issue of the urban heat island effect (UHI) and associated energy consumption in buildings. Through the paper, the authors conducted a systematic literature review of white roofing materials in emerging economies in the context of parameters such as energy performance cost-benefit, maintenance and consumer indifference.
The second part of the book consists of chapters 6 to chapter 9. An adaptive thermal comfort study in university hostel dormitories is presented in chapter 6 of the book. This chapter put forth the characteristics of the subject's seasonal thermal perception and adaptive actions to restore comfort in the hostel dormitories of the composite climate of India. Chapter 7 reflects the impact of the high albedo materials used in the tall buildings on pedestrian streets in an urban environment. Authors in their study found that diffusely reflective façades did not increase the incident radiation at the pedestrian level by more than 30%. However, in the case of a specular reflective façade, the situation worsened due to an increase in incident radiation by 100% to 300% and should therefore be avoided. A student spends a considerable amount of time in education buildings during her or his education, starting from kindergarten to the university level. It is also evident from the published research that adequate thermal comfort impacts students' learning curve. Chapter 8 of the book highlights the recent advancement in thermal comfort in educational buildings and the associated issues. Lastly, Chapter 9, through the literature review, addresses the parameters that affect thermal comfort and the instruments used in field surveys to record thermal comfort parameters. This chapter emphasized understanding occupant's behaviour and individualized approaches.
Ultimately, we must acknowledge that the Special Issue and this reprint book would not exist without the authors' contributions. Therefore, we thank everyone for their valuable and interesting contributions that will undoubtedly increase our knowledge in the field of high-performing buildings. Of course, the Special Issue would never have come about without the opportunity to edit it given to us by the MDPI and the editorial board of the Sustainability journal, for which we are grateful. Lastly, we would like to extend appreciation for support to our families, loved ones and our current and past colleagues that have all in some way contributed to the creation of the reprint book and Special Issue.
The aim of this study is (i) to reveal the bioclimatic comfort zones depending on the Discomfort Index (DI) in Şanlıurfa province with the help of geographic information system (GIS), and (ii) to determine the relationship between bioclimatic comfort levels and Air Quality Index (AQI) levels in the Şanlıurfa city. For all analyzes made in the study, annual and monthly average values of meteorological (temperature, relative humidity, wind speed) and air pollutant parameters (for PM10 and SO2) between the years 2006–2021 were used. In this context, meteorological parameters, air pollutant parameters, temporal changes of DI and AQI (for PM10 and SO2) parameters were determined by Mann-Kendal (MK) trend analysis and the relationships between all these parameters were determined by Pearson correlation analysis. The most suitable (21 ≤ DI < 24) months in terms of bioclimatic comfort in Şanlıurfa province were June and September. In the Şanlıurfa city, annual and monthly average AQIPM10 values were generally in the “good” and “moderate” class, while AQISO2 values were in the “good” class in all years and all months. While the annual average temperature values showed a statistically significant increase, the annual average wind speed and PM10 and AQIPM10 values showed a statistically significant decrease. There was a negative “weak” correlation (r = − 0.028) between DI and AQIPM10, and a positive “moderate” correlation between DI and AQISO2 (r = 0.449; p < 0.05). In addition, correlations between DI, PM10, and SO2 were significant at the p < 0.05 level.
Given the forecasts of global warming and heatwaves, concern is growing about the exacerbation of overheating in dwellings in severe cold and cold regions of China. This concern, however, has been neglected by Chinese national building codes and standards. The focus in these regions has been to preserve heat during winter, lacking in definite measures prescribed for heat protection during summer. Although many studies have examined the situations in Europe, limited effort has been devoted to investigating overheating in China. The aim of this research is to use validated simulation results and empirical data to reveal overheating risk in these regions of China and identify deficiencies in local standards. The indoor temperature of residential buildings in four representative cities (Yichun, Harbin, Shenyang and Dalian) was measured from May to September 2021. To extend the observation period and enhance the reliability of the results, this study carried out building performance simulations using typical weather data over 15 years (2004–2018). Having the models validated, the results revealed the severity of overheating phenomenon. During the summertime (May to September), overheating were recorded for 6, 191, 483 and 578 h out of total 3672 h (accounted for 0.4%, 12.4%, 31.6% and 37.6%) in the south-facing bedrooms of Yichun, Harbin, Shenyang and Dalian respectively. It is therefore suggested that the design standards should consider a trade-off between thermal retention in winter and overheating in summer. The findings provide useful information and guidance for policymakers contemplating low-carbon building schemes and regulations on thermal comfort.
It is widely acknowledged that mental health disorders in children are increasing and that they are spending more time within the built environment. This paper explores the potential benefits of implementing interior green walls in schools on the anxiety, stress, mood and well-being of children. Analysis of primary data was conducted to broaden the understanding of exterior and interior nature elements currently used in London elementary schools. Secondary data was collected and analysed to explore the impacts of indoor plants, interior green walls and nature views on anxiety, stress, mood and well-being. Additionally, secondary data was analysed to explore the hypothesis that the length of exposure to a nature element impacts positively on well-being. The key findings indicate that nature elements do immediately reduce levels of stress, anxiety and increase well-being and mood. Stress and anxiety levels were most positively influenced in the presence of a window view and indoor plants. While the benefits of the nature element on mood and well-being were noted to reduce after 2–5 weeks of exposure. This research highlights the benefits of introducing nature elements into the built environment in order to increase well-being for elementary school age children, however, further research is required to ensure these benefits are maximised.
The SARS‐CoV‐2 pandemic, which suddenly appeared at the beginning of 2020, revealed our knowledge deficits in terms of ventilation and air pollution control. It took many weeks to realize that aerosols are the main route of transmission. The initial attempt to hold back these aerosols through textile masks seemed almost helpless, although there is sufficient knowledge about the retention capacity of fabric filters for aerosols. In the absence of a sufficient number of permanently installed heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems, three main approaches are pursued: (a) increasing the air exchange rate by supplying fresh air, (b) using mobile air purifiers, and (c) disinfection by introducing active substances into the room air. This article discusses the feasibility of these different approaches critically. It also provides experimental results of air exchange measurements in a school classroom that is equipped with a built‐in fan for supplying fresh air. With such a fan and a window tilted at the appropriate distance, an air exchange rate of 5/h can be set at a low power level and without any significant noise pollution. Heat balance calculations show that no additional heat exchanger is necessary in a normal classroom with outside temperatures above 10°C. Furthermore, a commercial mobile air purifier is studied in a chamber and a test room setup in order to examine and evaluate the efficiency of such devices against viable viruses under controlled and realistic conditions. For this purpose, bacteriophages of the type MS2 are used. Both window ventilation and air purifiers were found to be suitable to reduce the concentration of phages in the room.
University library spaces play an important role in the learning experience of students. However, the traditional designs for these learning spaces no longer meet the needs of users, and researchers have been turning their attention to university library space renovation. By combing existing theories and practices, this study determined a framework of six university library space renovation design principles and subsequently conducted a survey to examine university library space user learning experience in two university libraries in Wuhan, China. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS. From the questionnaire-based survey results, this study determined seven design elements that affect the learning experience of university library users. The results of binary logistic regression showed that two elements, indoor physical space comfort and indoor acoustic environment comfort, have positive effects on the frequency and length of visits to the library. Key spatial elements that can promote library space users’ learning experience were also identified, thus providing data that can reliably inform future design strategies for the space renovation of university libraries.
Minor illnesses, such as colds and influenza, are frequent, widespread and a major cause of absenteeism from work and education. Yet the clinical symptoms of such illnesses may not be so great as to stop people from working or from carrying out everyday activities. It is therefore important to determine whether these viral infections alter central nervous system function and change performance efficiency. Data on this topic are almost non-existent, which in part reflects the difficulties inherent in carrying out such studies. In real life it is almost impossible to predict when such illnesses will occur, and difficult to establish which virus produced the illness. This problem was overcome by studying experimentally induced infections and illnesses at the Medical Research Centre (MRC) Common Cold Unit in Salisbury. Results from this research programme show that: (i) colds and influenza have selective effects on performance; (ii) even sub-clinical infections can produce performance impairments; (iii) performance may be impaired during the incubation period of the illness; (iv) performance impairments may still be observed after the clinical symptoms have gone. These results have strong implications for occupational safety and efficiency and it is now essential to assess the impact of naturally occurring colds and influenza on real-life activities.
We investigated the relationship of ventilation rates with the performance of advice nurses working in a call center. Ventilation rates were manipulated; temperatures, humidities, and CO2 concentrations were monitored; and worker performance data, with 30-minute resolution, were collected. Multivariate linear regression was used to investigate the association of worker performance with building ventilation rate, or with indoor CO2 concentration (which is related to ventilation rate per worker). Results suggest that the effect of ventilation rate on worker performance in this call center was very small (probably less than 1%) or nil, over most of the range of ventilation rate (roughly 12 L s-1 to 48 L s-1 per person). However, there is some evidence of worker performance improvements of 2% or more when the ventilation rate per person was very high, as indicated by the indoor CO2 concentration exceeding the outdoor concentration by less than 75 ppm.
In previous studies, increased ventilation rates and reduced indoor carbon dioxide concentrations have been associated with improvements in health at work and increased performance in work-related tasks. Very few studies have assessed whether ventilation rates influence performance of real work. This paper describes part one of a two-part analysis from a productivity study performed in a call center operated by a health maintenance organization. Outside air ventilation rates were manipulated, indoor air temperatures, humidities, and carbon dioxide concentrations were monitored, and worker performance data for advice nurses, with 30-minute resolution, were analyzed via multivariate linear regression to look for an association of performance with building ventilation rate, or with indoor carbon dioxide concentration (which is related to ventilation rate per worker). Results suggest that the effect of ventilation rate on worker performance in this call center was very small (probably less than 1%) or nil, over most of the range of ventilation rate experienced during the study (roughly 12 L sâ»Â¹ to 48 L sâ»Â¹ per person). However, there is some evidence suggesting performance improvements of 2% or more when the ventilation rate per person is very high, as indicated by indoor COâ concentrations exceeding outdoor concentrations by less than 75 ppm.
Thirty-two subjects (16 male and 10 female students aged (8-25 yr) performed sedentary work in a climate chamber under two different conditions. The subject wore a light standard clothing (0.6 clo) on one occasion and a heavy clothing ensemble (1.5 clo) on the other. Each subject was exposed singly, for 2-5 hr on each occasion. During the exposures the air temperature was continuously adjusted up or down at the subject's request, as indicated on a dial voting apparatus, so that he remained in thermal comfort. Skin temperatures were measured throughout. Performance measures were obtained on a numerical addition task, a recognition memory task, and on a test of cue-utilization. Subjects rated their effort, arousal and fatigue, and the freshness of the air on semantic differential scales. No significant differences in performance could be shown between the two conditions. Subjective effort, arousal and fatigue did not differ, but subjects considered that the air was fresher in the cool air/heavy clothing condition. Skin temperatures were significantly loss uniform over the body surface in this condition, although the average skin temperature was the same under both conditions, Male subjects maintained a significantly higher mean skin temperature and a significantly higher evaporative weight loss under bath clothing conditions than did female subjects, However, there were no significant differences between the air temperatures preferred by male and female subjects. The average preferred air temperature was 23-2° and 18.7°C for 0.6 and 1.15 clo, respectively,
To determine the acute effects of ozone exposure, the authors conducted a short follow-up study of respiratory illness in a population of 111 preschool children frequently exposed to ozone levels that regularly exceed 0. 120 parts per million (ppm). The children attended a private kindergarten in the southwestern part of Mexico City. Parents completed a questionnaire on demographic data, medical history, and potential sources of indoor air pollution. To determine the relation of ozone and respiratory-related school absenteeism, the authors used a logistic regression model for longitudinal data. During the 3-month follow-up, 50% of the children had at least one respiratory-related absenteeism period, and 11. 7% had two or more. Children exposed for 2 consecutive days to high ozone levels (≥0. 13 ppm)had a 20% increment in the risk of respiratory illness. For children exposed for 2 consecutive days to a high ozone level and the previous day to low temperature (≤5. 1°C), the risk reached 40% (odds ratio=1. 44, 95% confidence interval 1. 37–1.52). This study suggests that ozone exposure might be positively associated with the risk of respiratory illness in children and that it may have an interactive effect with low temperature exposure. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136: 1524–31
The Australian indoor goal for formaldehyde in non-occupational settings is 10Oppb. However formaldehyde has been associated with respiratory symptoms in both adults (1) and children (2) at levels below this guideline. No mechanisms for these findings have been established. In order to investigate the possible inflammatory effects of formaldehyde at low levels (typically found in the home) we measured exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) in 224 healthy children (6-13 years; 116 girls) and monitored formaldehyde levels in their homes. Formaldehyde was monitored in homes using passive sampling devices that were placed in the living room and child's bedroom for at least 3 days. Children made one visit to the Respiratory Medicine Department at Princess Margaret Hospital where they underwent a lung function test (spirometry) and measurements of exhaled nitric oxide using a fast response nitric oxide analyser (Seivers NOA280). There was no effect of formaldehyde levels measured in homes on lung function. There was, however, a small but significant increase in eNO levels in children living in homes with average formaldehyde levels >50ppb. Exhaled NO levels (Geometric mean) were 15.5ppb (95%CI 1Q.5-22.9ppb) for children from homes with formaldehyde concentrations >50ppb compared with 8.7ppb (7.9-9.6) for children from homes with formaldehyde concentrations <50ppb (p<0.05). These results suggest that exposure to formaldehyde in homes may invoke a sub-clinical inflammatory response in the airways of healthy children.
The indoor environment of 80 houses in the Latrobe Valley, Victoria, Australia was assessed during six visits performed bi-monthly over a period of one year. Children between 7 and 14 years of age residing in the houses were included, resulting in 148 study children, 53 of whom were asthmatic. A respiratory health questionnaire was completed and skin prick tests performed. Significant risk factors for asthma were: exposure to a gas stove (OR=3.15, 95% CI 1.28-7.72), and indoor pets (OR= 2.68, 95% CI 1.07-6.70). Exposure to airborne Aspergillus spores (+10 CFU/m3, OR=1.51, 95% CI 1.05-2.18) was a risk factor for atopy, while exposure to a gas stove (OR=2.32, 95% CI 1.04-5.18) was a risk factor for respiratory symptoms. In conclusion, exposure to gas stoves, fungal spores and pets in the home were identified as statistically significant risk factors for respiratory health in children.
The commonly measures of productivity and their links with factors in the indoor environment related to heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system performance are discussed. Measures of productivity are classified in terms of traditional and non-traditional figures of merit (FOM). FOMs can be standardized for specific building functional categories (BFC) but site-specific modifications are needed. To identify FOMs that are measurable and controllable, it is important to identify links between occupant performance and productivity and a set of factors including systems, exposures, and human responses.
The author investigates the relationship between students' absenteeism during a principles of microeconomics course and their subsequent performance on exams. Records were maintained regarding the specific class periods that each student missed during the semester. Records were also kept of the class meeting when the material corresponding to each multiple-choice test question was covered. A qualitative choice model reveals that students who missed class on a given date were significantly more likely to respond incorrectly to questions relating to material covered that day than students who were present.
Five floors of a 20-year old 6-story office building were investigated using an integrated step-by-step investigation strategy. This involved a walkthrough inspection, an occupant questionnaire, and targeted environmental monitoring of indoor air quality and comfort parameters. The initial questionnaire survey revealed a high occurrence of building-related symptoms. The walkthrough inspection and environmental monitoring identified deposits of surface dust (indoor surface pollution - ISP) on carpets and hard surfaces, and elevated levels of carbon dioxide and respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP) throughout the building. An intervention study (blinded to the occupants) was targeted at reducing ISP levels by replacing normal carpet cleaning practices with higher performance vacuum cleaners and improved cleaning practices. The intervention reduced ISP levels and significantly lowered RSP concentrations by approx. 80% from initial values and against control floors. A follow-up SBS questionnaire revealed significant reductions in all but two of the symptoms. The most significant reductions occurred with symptoms of eye irritation, throat irritation, dry unproductive cough, and nose irritation. The study showed that in older buildings with poor ventilation, a build-up of ISP, and elevated RSP levels, using higher performance carpet cleaning practices can reduce RSP to acceptable levels and can reduce SBS symptoms.
Background: The risk for and determinants of transmission of tuberculosis in hospitals caring for moderate numbers of patients with tuberculosis remain uncertain. Objective: To study the association of tuberculin conversion among health care workers with ventilation of patient care areas. Design: Cross-sectional observational survey. Setting: 17 acute-care community or university hospitals. Participants: All personnel who worked at least 2 days per week in the respiratory and physiotherapy departments or in selected nursing units. Measurements: Participating workers underwent tuberculin skin testing and completed self-administered questionnaires. Previous tuberculin tests and bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccinations were verified. Records of patients with tuberculosis who were hospitalized in the 3 years preceding the study were reviewed. Air exchanges per hour in patient care areas were measured by using a tracer gas technique. Multivariate proportional hazards regression was used to estimate the effect of occupational factors on documented tuberculin conversion, after adjustment for nonoccupational factors, among participants with at least one previous negative result on tuberculin skin testing. Results: Tuberculin conversion was associated with ventilation of general or nonisolation patient rooms of less than 2 air exchanges per hour (adjusted hazard ratio, 3.4 [95% Cl, 2.1 to 5.8]); with work in moderate- to high-risk hospitals (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.2 [Cl, 1.3 to 3.5]); and with work in the nursing (adjusted hazard ratio, 4.3 [Cl, 2.7 to 6.9]), respiratory therapy (adjusted hazard ratio, 6.1 [CI, 3.1 to 12.0]), and physiotherapy (adjusted hazard ratio, 3.3 [Cl, 1.5 to 7.2]) departments or housekeeping (adjusted hazard ratio, 4.2 [Cl, 2.3 to 7.6]). Conversion was not associated with inadequate ventilation of respiratory isolation rooms (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.0 [Cl, 0.8 to 1.3]). Conclusion: Tuberculin conversion among health care workers was strongly associated with inadequate ventilation in general patient rooms and with type and duration of work, but not with ventilation of respiratory isolation rooms.
The influence of indoor climate factors on symptoms of the sick building syndrome was investigated in Greater Copenhagen, Denmark. Altogether, 2369 office workers in 14 buildings, where indoor climate measurements were made, filled out a questionnaire. Multivariate logistic regression analyses of the multifactorial effects on the prevalence of work-related mucosal irritation and work-related general symptoms among the office workers showed that the concentration of macromolecular organic floor dust, the floor covering, the number of workplaces in the office, the age of the building, the type of ventilation, and two easily recognizable factors, the shelf factor and the fleece factor, were associated with the prevalence of symptoms.
Abstract We describe a military hospital building with severe, repeated and enduring water and mold damage, and the symptoms and diseases found among 14 persons who were employed at the building. The exposure of the employees was evaluated by measuring the serum immunoglobulin G (IgG)-antibodies against eight spieces of mold and yeast common in Finnish water and mold damaged buildings and by sampling airborne viable microbes within the hospital. The most abundant spieces was Sporobolomyces salmonicolor. All but one of the employees reported some building-related symptoms, the most common being a cough which was reported by nine subjects. Four new cases of asthma, confirmed by S. salmonicolor inhalation provocation tests, one of whom was also found to have alveolitis, were found among the hospital personnel. In addition, seven other workers with newly diagnosed rhinitis reacted positively in nasal S. salmonicolor provocation tests. Skin prick tests by Sporobolomyces were negative among all 14 workers. Exposure of the workers to mold and yeast in the indoor air caused an outbreak of occupational diseases, including asthma, rhinitis and alveolitis. The diseases were not immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated but might have been borne by some other, as yet unexplained, mechanism.
Abstract Abstract Mucosal irritation remains a common complaint among travelers and flight attendants in aircraft cabins. Despite the fact that very low humidity is routinely encountered, few studies of its effects have been conducted in the cabin environment. The authors reviewed chamber and field studies in the experimental literature to explore whether there is an association and, if so, at what level it was likely to be present. Subjects who participated in prior research were not always able to perceive low humidity or changes in the humidity level and, at times, this inability has been confused in the literature with the lack of a humidity effect. The studies with more powerful experimental designs have demonstrated the effects of low humidity, such as drying of the skin and mucus membranes, and that a modest increase in relative humidity seems to alleviate a great number of symptoms. The exposure duration below during which the effects of low humidity are not noticeable is in the order of 3 to 4 h. It is conceivable that some symptoms experienced by flight attendants and passengers, especially on flights lasting 3 h or longer, may stem from low humidity.
Objectives:
To present national population-based estimates of the prevalence of parent-reported emotional and/or behavioral problems in children with asthma and the relationship of medical comorbidity and asthma severity with behavior problems.Design:
Cross-sectional study of the 1988 National Health Interview on Child Health.Main Outcome Measures:
Parent responses to a checklist of child health conditions were used to assign school-age children (5 to 17 years old) into one of four groups: children without reported chronic conditions; children with asthma alone; children with asthma and additional reported chronic conditions; and children with the same chronic conditions, but without asthma. Parental responses to the Behavior Problem Index (BPI) were used for construction of an overall BPI score, as well as subscale scores. Crosstabulation and linear and logistic regression were used to determine the relation of the different condition categories to emotional and/or behavioral problems expressed by relative values of the BPI.Results:
Children with asthma and comorbid conditions had a mean BPI score of 7.3, compared with 5.4 for children without chronic conditions, and all subscale scores, except those for antisocial antisocial conduct and immature behavior, were significantly elevated. Using logistic regression to control for confounding variables, children with severe asthma alone had nearly three times the odds (odds ratio, 2.96; 95% confidence interval, 1.22 to 7.17) and children with asthma plus comorbid conditions nearly twice the odds (odds ratio, 1.86; 95% confidence interval, 1.20 to 2.90) of children without chronic conditions to have severe behavior problems.Conclusions:
Severe asthma and asthma with medical comorbidity represent significant risk factors for emotional and/or behavioral problems. Clinicians caring for children with asthma and their families should be aware of the relationship between asthma and emotional and/or behavioral problems and anticipate that a substantial number of their patients may have mental health services needs.(Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1995;149:565-572)
The effects of teachers' use of objectives during instruction, allocated learning time, students' entering achievement levels and absenteeism on achievement in a new social studies curriculum program were analyzed. The sample included 168 students and 8 teachers from grades six through eight. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that entering achievement level and teacher use of objectives during instruction were statistically significant predictors of student achievement.
We investigated the relationship between ventilation rates and work performance in a call center. We randomized the ventilation controls and measured ventilation rate, differential carbon dioxide (ÎCOâ) concentration, temperature, humidity, occupant density, degree of under-staffing, shift length, time of day, and time required to complete two different work performance tasks (talk and wrap-up). ÎCOâ concentrations ranged from 13 to 611 ppm. We used multi-variable regression to model the association between the predictors and the responses. We found that agents performed talk tasks fastest when the ventilation rate was highest, but that the relationship between talk performance and ventilation was not monotone. We did not find a statistically significant association between wrap-up performance and ventilation. At high temperatures agents were slower at both the talk and wrap-up tasks. Agents were slower at wrap-up during long shifts and when the call center was under-staffed.
A comprehensive survey of 200 student folders revealed that elementary school (ES) nonpromotion is primarily associated with low academic achievement and low IQ, whereas a junior high school (JHS) nonpromotion is mainly correlated to behavioral suspensions and excessive absenteeism. Having an ES nonpromotion increases the risk of a later grade retention five fold. During the year following an ES nonpromotion, the behavioral and academic outcome is significantly improved and is generally satisfactory. This is clearly not the case after a JHS grade retention.
A field study was carried out to investigate the internal and external carbon monoxide (CO) concentration levels of a public school building in Athens, Greece. Simultaneous measurements of indoor and outdoor CO concentrations were conducted using a non-dispersive infrared analyzer. Measurements of mean hourly CO concentrations inside and outside the sampling room were conducted on a 24-h basis for 13 consecutive days during May and June 1999 and for 14 consecutive days during December 1999. The aim of the study was to investigate the attenuation pattern of external pollution levels within the building. The diurnal concentration variations reported for different days during the week show that indoor CO concentrations are in general lower than the respective outdoor levels, and that the morning peaks of indoor concentrations show a delay of 1h or less compared to the morning peaks of outdoor concentrations. The measured indoor to outdoor concentration ratios show a seasonal variation. An indoor air quality model for the prediction of indoor concentration levels developed by Hayes (J. Air Pollut. Control Assoc. 39 (11) (1989) 1453; J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc. 41 (2) (1991) 161) is coded as a computer program and evaluated using the experimental data. The model results are in good agreement with the indoor concentration measurements, although in some cases the model cannot respond adequately to sharp outdoor concentration changes. The ratio between measured and predicted daily maximum indoor concentration ranges between 0.88 and 1.23. The regression curve between predicted by the model and measured hourly indoor concentrations, for a continuous period of 96h, has a slope of 0.64 and a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.69.
A linear correlation between indoor relative humidity and percent absenteeism was obtained in twelve Saskatoon public schools, showing a 20% reduction in all absenteeism as average relative humidity during school hours was increased from 22 to 35%. Results were supported by data obtained in six Halifax, Nova Scotia public schools, a Swiss Kindergarten, and in American army barracks. Sufficient evidence leads to the conclusion that there is a significant reduction in respiratory disease with an increase in relative humidity of occupied spaces.
Associations between environmental factors and work-related health conditions were assessed using regression techniques with environmental and health data for 2435 respondents in 80 office buildings included in the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Health Hazard Evaluation program. The health conditions analyzed included two symptom groupings—multiple lower respiratory symptoms and multiple atopic symptoms—and the presence of asthma diagnosed after beginning work in the building. Four categories of environmental variables were included: heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system design; HVAC maintenance; building design; and building maintenance. Female gender and age over 40 years showed increased relative risks (RRs) for each health condition. In regression models adjusted for age and gender, RRs of multiple lower respiratory symptoms were increased for variables in the HVAC design and maintenance categories, with the highest RR for presence of debris inside the air intake [RR = 3.1, confidence interval (CI) = 1.8, 5.2] and for poor or no drainage from drain pans (RR = 3.0, CI = 1.7, 5.2). Elevated RRs of multiple atopic symptoms were found for variables in three of the four environmental categories, with the highest for presence of suspended ceiling panels (RR = 2.3, CI = 1.0, 5.5). The RR of asthma was highest if recent renovation with new drywall had been performed (RR = 2.5, CI = 1.4, 4.5). These data are from office spaces about which there was some level of occupant concern, and thus it may not be appropriate to use them to estimate the magnitude and distribution of symptoms found in all office spaces within U.S. buildings. Furthermore, the high degree of correlation among environmental variables makes it difficult to disentangle which are the most important predictors of work-related health conditions. The analysis is useful, however, for determining factors that may be associated with development of health conditions in the office environment and which might be considered in any building plan to reduce indoor air-related symptoms.
Little research has been done on the need to repair and refurbish school buildings because of the impact that the condition of buildings has on the students, rather than just the need to maintain local government's capital investment. This study uses Washington, DC, as a case study showing that the size of a public school's Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) budget is positively related to the school building 's condition. The condition is, in turn, shown to be statistically related to the student's academic achievement. An improvement in the school's condition by one category, say from poor to fair. is associated with a 5.5 point improvement in average academic achievement scores.
Eight studies reported in the literature compare absence from work or number and duration of respiratory illnesses of the occupants of two building or two rooms, one of which is maintained at a higher relative humidity than the other. In six of the eight studies, the absence from work or the occurrence of respiratory illnesses is significantly lower in the humidified space. This paper reports the latest study that was conducted in hospitals and discusses the difficulties in assessing the results of the investigations. It concludes there is a high probability that increased indoor relative humidity in winter decreases the number of respiratory illnesses and that further experiments are warranted in view of the cost of absenteeism from work.
1.0 ABSTRACT The existing literature offers relatively strong evidence that characteristics of buildings and indoor environments significantly influence prevalences of respiratory disease, allergy and asthma symptoms, symptoms of sick building syndrome, and worker performance. Theoretical considerations, and limited empirical data, suggest that existing technologies and procedures can improve indoor environments in a manner that significantly increases health and productivity. At present, we can develop only crude estimates of the magnitude of productivity gains that may be obtained by providing better indoor environments; however, the projected gains are very large. For the U.S., we estimate potential annual savings and productivity gains in 1996 dollars of $6 to $14 billion from reduced respiratory disease; $2 to $4 billion from reduced allergies and asthma, $15 to $40 billion from reduced symptoms of sick building syndrome, and $20 to $200 billion from direct improvements in worker performance that are unrelated to health. In two example calculations, the potential financial benefits of improving indoor environments exceed costs by factors of 9 and 14. Further research is recommended to develop more precise and compelling benefit-cost data that are needed to motivate changes in building codes, designs and operation and maintenance policies.
Causal associations between "Sick Building Syndrome" (SBS) symptoms and specific environmental stressors were explored using a recently developed approach employing Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and Logistic Regression (1). This approach was applied to data collected by the U.S. EPA from 1995 to 1996 in 28 large U.S. office buildings in the Building Assessment Survey and Evaluation study. PCA was used to apportion measurements of 13 VOC species and carbon monoxide into source-related vectors. A reduced set of four source-based exposure vectors, tentatively identified as photocopiers, automotive emissions, environmental tobacco smoke, and latex paints were derived from the data. Regression analyses indicate statistically significant associations between mucous membrane related symptoms and the PCA photocopier vector (odds ratio=1.2, p=0.04), after adjustment for age, gender, smoking status, presence of carpeting, and thermal exposure. Similar relationships (odds ratio=1.2, p=0.03) were found between sore throat symptoms and the PCA paint vector. Odds ratios are given per unit increase in PCA vector which range over 5-6 units.
Airborne endotoxin and β-1,3-glucan were measured in buildings in which complaints of eye and airway irritation as well as fatigue and skin symptoms had been numerous. The presence of symptoms was evaluated using question naires. Dose-response relationships were found between levels of β-1,3-glucan and eye and throat irritation, dry cough and itching skin. The data suggest that β-1,3-glucan may be responsible for symptoms seen among persons in sick buildings.
Research show that one in five U.S. schools has indoor air quality (IAQ) problems; 36 percent have inadequate heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems; and there appears to be a correlation between IAQs and the proportion of a school's students coming from low-income households. This report examines the IAQ issue in U.S. public schools and discusses: the IAQ investigations conducted in school facilities; the factors that determine microorganism growth in HVAC systems and production of volatile emissions; humidity control and the impact on IAQ, volatile organic compounds and other chemical compounds that affect IAQ; the control of indoor environments with HVAC systems; and the impact of IAQ on productivity and satisfaction in the learning environment. The research indicates that proper outdoor air ventilation and humidity control are necessary but that too often, in practice, one is obtained at the expense of the other. Additionally, research indicates that IAQ problems in school facilities are preventable by: providing adequate outdoor air ventilation on a continuous basis (15 cfm per student); controlling the space relative humidity between 30 and 60 percent; and providing effective particulate filtration of the outdoor air. (Contains 104 references). (GR)
This study investigated the relationship between the achievement of tenth graders on the Hawaii State Test of Essential Competencies (HSTEC) and such variables as student socioeconomic status, family structure, ethnicity, previous educational experiences, types of schools attended, elementary grades, achievement test scores, and rate of absenteeism. (Author/SJL)
This report presents detailed results from a survey and critical review of existing published literature and reports on indoor air quality (IAQ), ventilation, and IAQ- and building-related health problems in schools, particularly California schools. The findings: (1) identify the most commonly reported building-related health symtoms involving schools; (2) assemble, evaluate, and summarize existing measurement data on key indoor air pollutants most likely to be related to these symptoms; e.g., carbon dioxide, volatile organic compounds, and bioaerosols; (3) assemble and summarize existing measurements of ventilation rates in schools; and (4) summarize information on causes of indoor air quality and health symptom problems in schools. Appendices contain data tables. (Contains 193 references.) (EV)
We examined the association between the presence of an allergic sensitization and seasonal allergic diseases or symptoms and the exposure to road traffic in Basel, Switzerland. Traffic counts at the domiciles of subjects ranged from 24 to 32,504 cars per 24 hours, with a median of 1,624. To investigate the relation of road traffic and allergies, we matched the data of the traffic inventory of Basel with those of the 820 participants of the SAPALDIA study (Swiss Study on Air Pollution and Lung Diseases in Adults), ages 18-60 years, who had completed a detailed respiratory health questionnaire and had undergone allergy testing (skin prick tests and serologic examinations). We observed a positive association with a sensitization to pollen that was most pronounced among persons with a duration of residence of at least 10 years. The odds ratios (adjusted for educational level, smoking behavior, number of siblings, age, sex, and family history of atopy) for cars, contrasting four exposure categories with the lowest quartile as referent category, were 1.99 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.91-4.38], 2.47 (95% CI = 1.06-5.73), and 2.83 (95% CI = 1.26-6.31). These results suggest that living on busy roads is associated with a higher risk for a sensitization to pollen and could possibly be interpreted as an indication for interactions between pollen and air pollutants. We did not, however, find a similar relation between motor vehicle traffic and hay fever or seasonal allergic symptoms, and we saw no trend that increasing traffic exposure was associated with a rise in sensitization rates to indoor allergens.