No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Microaerobic denitrification in Neisseria meningitidis
Abstract
The major aetiological agent of human bacterial meningitis is Neisseria meningitidis. During the course of disease and host colonization, the bacterium has to withstand limited oxygen availability. Nitrogen oxide and nitrogen oxyanions are thought to be present, which may constitute an alternative sink for electrons from the N. meningitidis respiratory chain. A partial denitrification pathway is encoded by the aniA nitrite reductase gene and the norB nitric oxide reductase gene. Analysis of the completed genome sequences of two N. meningitidis strains is used to generate a model for the membrane-associated respiratory chain of this organism. Analysis of aniA expression indicates it to be controlled primarily by oxygen and secondarily by nitrite. The ability of N. meningitidis to denitrify relies on microaerobic growth conditions. Here we show that under microaerobic conditions nitrite supplements oxygen as an alternative respiratory substrate.
... c/TMPD/Asc reduction system supports that the quinol moiety of MD binds specifically to NmqNOR as predicted from the sequence alignment (Fig. S1). Thus quinol compounds, supposedly ubiquinol (since N. meningitidis cannot synthesize menaquinone 36 ), most likely function as the physiological electron donor. This means that although N. meningitidis has a bc 1 complex and several soluble c cytochromes (as well as a C-type HCuO), electrons for NO reduction branch off at the quinol level 36 . ...
... Thus quinol compounds, supposedly ubiquinol (since N. meningitidis cannot synthesize menaquinone 36 ), most likely function as the physiological electron donor. This means that although N. meningitidis has a bc 1 complex and several soluble c cytochromes (as well as a C-type HCuO), electrons for NO reduction branch off at the quinol level 36 . ...
Bacterial nitric oxide reductases (NORs) catalyse the reduction of NO to N2O and H2O. NORs are found either in denitrification chains, or in pathogens where their primary role is detoxification of NO produced by the immune defense of the host. Although NORs belong to the heme-copper oxidase superfamily, comprising proton-pumping O2-reducing enzymes, the best studied NORs, cNORs (cytochrome c-dependent), are non-electrogenic. Here, we focus on another type of NOR, qNOR (quinol-dependent). Recombinant qNOR from Neisseria meningitidis, a human pathogen, purified from Escherichia coli, showed high catalytic activity and spectroscopic properties largely similar to cNORs. However, in contrast to cNOR, liposome-reconstituted qNOR showed respiratory control ratios above two, indicating that NO reduction by qNOR was electrogenic. Further, we determined a 4.5 Å crystal structure of the N. meningitidis qNOR, allowing exploration of a potential proton transfer pathway from the cytoplasm by mutagenesis. Most mutations had little effect on the activity, however the E-498 variants were largely inactive, while the corresponding substitution in cNOR was previously shown not to induce significant effects. We thus suggest that, contrary to cNOR, the N. meningitidis qNOR uses cytoplasmic protons for NO reduction. Our results allow possible routes for protons to be discussed.
... In contrast, cNOR is not electrogenic and the protons required for the reduction of NO are taken up from the periplasm 3 . Whilst cNOR is predominantly found in denitrifying organisms, qNORs are also found in several pathogenic bacteria, where the enzyme detoxifies NO produced by the host's immune response 4,5 . ...
Quinol-dependent nitric oxide reductases (qNORs) are considered members of the respiratory heme-copper oxidase superfamily, are unique to bacteria, and are commonly found in pathogenic bacteria where they play a role in combating the host immune response. qNORs are also essential enzymes in the denitrification pathway, catalysing the reduction of nitric oxide to nitrous oxide. Here, we determine a 2.2 Å cryoEM structure of qNOR from Alcaligenes xylosoxidans, an opportunistic pathogen and a denitrifying bacterium of importance in the nitrogen cycle. This high-resolution structure provides insight into electron, substrate, and proton pathways, and provides evidence that the quinol binding site not only contains the conserved His and Asp residues but also possesses a critical Arg (Arg720) observed in cytochrome bo3, a respiratory quinol oxidase.
... Most of the microorganisms causing sepsis are facultative anaerobes and thus are described as being more flexible and with more capacity to survive, and proliferate in a variety of environmental conditions (Haas and Goebel 1992;Miller and Britigan 1997;Minasyan 2016Minasyan , 2017. The pathogens that are not facultative anaerobes, may adopt some additional respiratory mechanisms, such as a denitrification pathway (Rock and Moir 2005;. ...
Bloodstream infections (BSIs) and subsequent organ dysfunction (sepsis and septic shock) are conditions that rank among the top reasons for human mortality and have a great impact on healthcare systems. Their treatment mainly relies on the administration of broad-spectrum antimicrobials since the standard blood culture-based diagnostic methods remain time-consuming for the pathogen's identification. Consequently, the routine use of these antibiotics may lead to downstream antimicrobial resistance and failure in treatment outcomes.
Recently, significant advances have been made in improving several methodologies for the identification of pathogens directly in whole blood especially regarding specificity and time to detection. Nevertheless, for the widespread implementation of these novel methods in healthcare facilities, further improvements are still needed concerning the sensitivity and cost-effectiveness to allow a faster and more appropriate antimicrobial therapy.
This review is focused on the problem of BSIs and sepsis addressing several aspects like their origin, challenges, and causative agents. Also, it highlights current and emerging diagnostics technologies, discussing their strengths and weaknesses.
... term= eiken ella+ corro dens+% 5Borgn% 5D+ nitra te+ reduc tase). However, according to genomic information and studies other Neisseria species 26,30,34 can express partial denitrification pathways, possessing genes necessary for the reduction of nitrite to nitrous oxide, via nitrite reductase AniA, and NO reductase NorB 37 , under limited oxygen conditions; and finally do not possess a known nitrate reductase 37 . ...
The effects of respiratory inhibitors, quinone analogues and artificial substrates on the membrane-bound electron transport system of the fastidious β-proteobacterium Eikenella corrodens grown under O2-limited conditions were studied. NADH respiration in isolated membrane particles were partially inhibited by rotenone, dicoumarol, quinacrine, flavone, and capsaicin. A similar response was obtained when succinate oxidation was performed in the presence of thenoyltrifluoroacetone and N,N’-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. NADH respiration was resistant to site II inhibitors and cyanide, indicating that a percentage of the electrons transported can reach O2 without the bc1 complex. Succinate respiration was sensitive to myxothiazol, antimycin A and 2-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline-N-oxide (HQNO). Juglone, plumbagin and menadione had higher reactivity with NADH dehydrogenase. The membrane particles showed the highest oxidase activities with ascorbate-TCHQ (tetrachlorohydroquinone), TCHQ alone, and NADH-TMPD (N,N,N’,N’-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine), and minor activity levels with ascorbate-DCPIP (2,6-dichloro-phenolindophenol) and NADH-DCPIP. The substrates NADH-DCPIP, NADH-TMPD and TCHQ were electron donors to cyanide-sensitive cbb' cytochrome c oxidase. The presence of dissimilatory nitrate reductase in the aerobic respiratory system of E. corrodens ATCC 23834 was demonstrated by first time. Our results indicate that complexes I and II have resistance to their classic inhibitors, that the oxidation of NADH is stimulated by juglone, plumbagin and menadione, and that sensitivity to KCN is stimulated by the substrates TCHQ, NADH-DCPIP and NADH-TMPD.
... There are three types of respiratory bacterial NORs: cytochrome c-dependent NORs (cNORs), dicopper NORs (Cu A NORs) and qNORs (Hendriks et al., 2000;Hino et al., 2010;Matsumoto et al., 2012;Shiro et al., 2012;Al-Attar & De Vries, 2015). Whilst cNORs are predominantly found in denitrifying organisms as a respiratory enzyme, qNORs are also found in several pathogenic bacteria, including the Gram-negative, human-pathogenic bacterium N. meningitidis, as an enzyme that is responsible for the detoxification of NO produced by the host (Hendriks et al., 2000;Anjum et al., 2002;Rock & Moir, 2005). High-resolution structure determination of N. meningitidis qNOR (NmqNOR) is of importance to provide a framework for developing a knowledge-based strategy for the design of new antibacterial agents, as well as to help to understand the chemistry of NO reduction, 2NO + 2 H + + 2e À ! ...
Neisseria meningitidis is carried by nearly a billion humans, causing developmental impairment and over 100000 deaths a year. A quinol-dependent nitric oxide reductase (qNOR) plays a critical role in the survival of the bacterium in the human host. X-ray crystallographic analyses of qNOR, including that from N. meningitidis (NmqNOR) reported here at 3.15Å resolution, show monomeric assemblies, despite the more active dimeric sample being used for crystallization. Cryo-electron microscopic analysis of the same chromatographic fraction of NmqNOR, however, revealed a dimeric assembly at 3.06Å resolution. It is shown that zinc (which is used in crystallization) binding near the dimer-stabilizing TMII region contributes to the disruption of the dimer. A similar destabilization is observed in the monomeric (∼85kDa) cryo-EM structure of a mutant (Glu494Ala) qNOR from the opportunistic pathogen Alcaligenes (Achromobacter) xylosoxidans, which primarily migrates as a monomer. The monomer-dimer transition of qNORs seen in the cryo-EM and crystallographic structures has wider implications for structural studies of multimeric membrane proteins. X-ray crystallographic and cryo-EM structural analyses have been performed on the same chromatographic fraction of NmqNOR to high resolution. This represents one of the first examples in which the two approaches have been used to reveal a monomeric assembly in crystallo and a dimeric assembly in vitrified cryo-EM grids. A number of factors have been identified that may trigger the destabilization of helices that are necessary to preserve the integrity of the dimer. These include zinc binding near the entry of the putative proton-transfer channel and the preservation of the conformational integrity of the active site. The mutation near the active site results in disruption of the active site, causing an additional destabilization of helices (TMIX and TMX) that flank the proton-transfer channel helices, creating an inert monomeric enzyme.
... Although N. meningitidis fails to grow under strictly anaerobic conditions, under oxygen limitation the bacterium expresses a denitrification pathway (reduction of nitrite to nitrous oxide via nitric oxide) and this pathway supplements growth. The expression of the gene aniA, which encodes nitrite reductase, is regulated by oxygen depletion and nitrite availability via transcriptional regulator FNR and two-component sensor-regulator NarQ/NarP respectively [40,41] . All sepsis causing bacteria produce superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase and glutathione peroxidases, that protect them against oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species. ...
The majority of bacteremias do not develop to sepsis: bacteria are cleared from the bloodstream. Oxygen released from erythrocytes and humoral immunity kill bacteria in the bloodstream. Sepsis develops if bacteria are resistant to oxidation and proliferate in erythrocytes. Bacteria provoke oxygen release from erythrocytes to arterial blood. Abundant release of oxygen to the plasma triggers a cascade of events that cause: 1. oxygen delivery failure to cells; 2. oxidation of plasma components that impairs humoral regulation and inactivates immune complexes; 3. disseminated intravascular coagulation and multiple organs' failure. Bacterial reservoir inside erythrocytes provides the long-term survival of bacteria and is the cause of ineffectiveness of antibiotics and host immune reactions. Treatment perspectives that include different aspects of sepsis development are discussed.
... Under oxygen limitation, nitrite can replace oxygen as an alternative respiratory substrate since N. meningitidis is able to express a truncated denitrification pathway. Nitrite (NO−2) is first reduced to nitric oxide (NO) by the copper nitrite reductase AniA, and NO is then further reduced to nitrous oxide (N2O) by the quinol-oxidizing nitric oxide reductase NorB (Rock et al., 2005; Rock and Moir, 2005). The expression of aniA is subject to complex regulation in response to oxygen depletion and nitrite availability (Bartolini et al., 2006; Huis in ‘t Veld, 2011). ...
A longstanding question in infection biology addresses the genetic basis for invasive behavior in commensal pathogens. A prime example for such a pathogen is Neisseria meningitidis. On the one hand it is a harmless commensal bacterium exquisitely adapted to humans, and on the other hand it sometimes behaves like a ferocious pathogen causing potentially lethal disease such as sepsis and acute bacterial meningitis. Despite the lack of a classical repertoire of virulence genes in N. meningitidis separating commensal from invasive strains, molecular epidemiology suggests that carriage and invasive strains belong to genetically distinct populations. In recent years, it has become increasingly clear that metabolic adaptation enables meningococci to exploit host resources, supporting the concept of nutritional virulence as a crucial determinant of invasive capability. Here, we discuss the contribution of core metabolic pathways in the context of colonization and invasion with special emphasis on results from genome-wide surveys. The metabolism of lactate, the oxidative stress response, and, in particular, glutathione metabolism as well as the denitrification pathway provide examples of how meningococcal metabolism is intimately linked to pathogenesis. We further discuss evidence from genome-wide approaches regarding potential metabolic differences between strains from hyperinvasive and carriage lineages and present new data assessing in vitro growth differences of strains from these two populations. We hypothesize that strains from carriage and hyperinvasive lineages differ in the expression of regulatory genes involved particularly in stress responses and amino acid metabolism under infection conditions.
... Furthermore, both groups identify numerous targets of FnrS, and demonstrate that FnrS is involved in downregulating genes with aerobic functions and genes with housekeeping functions in energy metabolism and biosynthesis that are not needed for anaerobic metabolism. While E. coli is a facultative anaerobe, which can quite easily adapt its metabolism and grow under complete anaerobiosis, meningococcus fails to grow under strictly anaerobic conditions but instead has a truncated denitrification pathway which allows it to survive anaerobiosis (Anjum et al., 2002;Rock and Moir, 2005). This is an important difference between the two systems with respect to the regulatory circuit that they require. ...
Small non-coding RNAs (sRNA) are emerging as key elements of post-transcriptional gene regulation in bacteria. The conserved Hfq protein is thought to function as an RNA chaperone and facilitate base-pairing between sRNAs and mRNA targets. In this study we identify a novel sRNA of Neisseria meningitidis through global gene expression studies of regulated transcripts in the Hfq mutant. The synthesis of this sRNA, named AniS, is anaerobically induced through activation of its promoter by the FNR global regulator. Whole-genome expression analyses led to the identification of putative mRNA targets, two of which are predicted to base pair with AniS. We show that Hfq binds the AniS transcript in vitro and is necessary for the downregulation of the identified target mRNAs in vivo. Contrary to many Hfq-dependent sRNA of the Enterobacteriaceae, Hfq promotes decay of AniS in N. meningitidis. Our analysis shows that the AniS regulator is part of the FNR regulon and may be responsible for the downregulation of FNR-repressed genes. Furthermore the presence of similar conserved regulatory sequences in all Neisseria spp. to date suggests that an analogous FNR-regulated sRNA, with a variable 5' sequence, may be ubiquitous to all commensals and pathogens of the Genus.
... Thus, reduction of endogenous NO may contribute to anaerobic respiration, especially if nitrite is unavailable or the function of AniA is impaired. It has been demonstrated that Neisseria meningitidis can respire anaerobically (16,(55)(56)(57). However, AniA is functional in only some strains of N. meningitidis, and it is not required for pathogenesis (63). ...
Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the etiologic agent of gonorrhea, which has been among the most frequently reported communicable diseases in the United
States since 1960. Women frequently do not exhibit symptoms, which can lead to chronic infection. N. gonorrhoeae readily forms biofilms over abiotic surfaces, over primary and transformed cervical epithelial cells, and over cervical tissues
in vivo. Biofilms are often associated with chronic infection, which suggests a link between biofilm formation and asymptomatic gonorrhea
in women. Proteins involved in anaerobic metabolism and oxidative-stress tolerance are critical for normal biofilm formation
of N. gonorrhoeae. Therefore, we examined the spatial profiles of anaerobic respiration in N. gonorrhoeae, using an aniA′-′gfp transcriptional fusion. Nitric oxide (NO) can elicit biofilm dispersal when present at sublethal concentrations in the surrounding
medium. Some reports indicate that NO may also encourage biofilm formation at higher, potentially lethal concentrations. NO
is produced by polymorphonuclear lymphocytes (PMNs) and cervical endothelial and epithelial cells. Thus, we also examined
the effect of NO on N. gonorrhoeae biofilms. We found that anaerobic respiration occurs predominantly in the substratum of gonococcal biofilms and that expression
of aniA is induced over time in biofilms. Treatment with high concentrations of a rapid-release NO donor prevents biofilm formation
when supplied early in biofilm development but can also enhance biofilm formation once anaerobic respiration is initiated.
NO treatment partially restores biofilm formation in an aniA::kan insertion mutant, which suggests that N. gonorrhoeae in biofilms may use NO as a substrate for anaerobic growth but prefer nitrite.
... Under oxygen limitation the bacterium expresses a denitrification pathway. This reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide, via nitrite reductase, EC 1.7.2.1 (NMB1623), is regulated by oxygen depletion and nitrite availability [60,61]. Thus, under microaerobic conditions nitrite can replace oxygen as an alternative respiratory substrate in N. meningitidis. ...
... Furthermore, both groups identify numerous targets of FnrS, and demonstrate that FnrS is involved in downregulating genes with aerobic functions and genes with housekeeping functions in energy metabolism and biosynthesis that are not needed for anaerobic metabolism. While E. coli is a facultative anaerobe , which can quite easily adapt its metabolism and grow under complete anaerobiosis, meningococcus fails to grow under strictly anaerobic conditions but instead has a truncated denitrification pathway which allows it to survive anaerobiosis (Anjum et al., 2002; Rock and Moir, 2005). This is an important difference between the two systems with respect to the regulatory circuit that they require. ...
The well-conserved protein Hfq has emerged as the key modulator of riboregulation in bacteria. This protein is thought to
function as an RNA chaperone and to facilitate base pairing between small regulatory RNA (sRNA) and mRNA targets, and many
sRNAs are dependent on the Hfq protein for their regulatory functions. To address the possible role of Hfq in riboregulated
circuits in Neisseria meningitidis, we generated an Hfq mutant of the MC58 strain, and the knockout mutant has pleiotropic phenotypes; it has a general growth
phenotype in vitro in culture media, and it is sensitive to a wide range of stresses, including those that it may encounter
in the host. Furthermore, the expression profile of a vast number of proteins is clearly altered in the mutant, and we have
identified 27 proteins by proteomics. All of the phenotypes tested to date are also restored by complementation of Hfq expression
in the mutant strain. Importantly, in ex vivo and in vivo models of infection the Hfq mutant is attenuated. These data indicate
that Hfq plays a key role in stress response and virulence, and we propose a major role for Hfq in regulation of gene expression.
Moreover, this study suggests that in meningococcus there is a large Hfq-mediated sRNA network which so far is largely unexplored.
... Under oxygen limitation the bacterium expresses a denitrification pathway. This reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide, via nitrite reductase, EC 1.7.2.1 (NMB1623), is regulated by oxygen depletion and nitrite availability [60,61]. Thus, under microaerobic conditions nitrite can replace oxygen as an alternative respiratory substrate in N. meningitidis. ...
Neisseria meningitidis is a human pathogen that can infect diverse sites within the human host. The major diseases caused by N. meningitidis are responsible for death and disability, especially in young infants. At the Netherlands Vaccine Institute (NVI) a vaccine against serogroup B organisms is currently being developed. This study describes the influence of the growth rate of N. meningitidis on its macro-molecular composition and its metabolic activity and was determined in chemostat cultures. In the applied range of growth rates, no significant changes in RNA content and protein content with growth rate were observed in N. meningitidis. The DNA content in N. meningitidis was somewhat higher at the highest applied growth rate. The phospholipid and lipopolysaccharide content in N. meningitidis changed with growth rate but no specific trends were observed. The cellular fatty acid composition and the amino acid composition did not change significantly with growth rate. Additionally, it was found that the PorA content in outer membrane vesicles was significantly lower at the highest growth rate. The metabolic fluxes at various growth rates were calculated using flux balance analysis. Errors in fluxes were calculated using Monte Carlo Simulation and the reliability of the calculated flux distribution could be indicated, which has not been reported for this type of analysis. The yield of biomass on substrate (Y(x/s)) and the maintenance coefficient (m(s)) were determined as 0.44 (+/-0.04) g g(-1) and 0.04 (+/-0.02) g g(-1) h(-1), respectively. The growth associated energy requirement (Y(x/ATP)) and the non-growth associated ATP requirement for maintenance (m(ATP)) were estimated as 0.13 (+/-0.04) mol mol(-1) and 0.43 (+/-0.14) mol mol(-1) h(-1), respectively. It was found that the split ratio between the Entner-Doudoroff and the pentose phosphate pathway, the sole glucose utilizing pathways in N. meningitidis, had a minor effect on ATP formation rate but a major effect on the fluxes going through for instance the citric-acid cycle. For this reason, we presented flux ranges for underdetermined parts of metabolic network rather than presenting single flux values, which is more commonly done in literature.
... This indicates that NO reduction is independent of the bc 1 complex and also serves as a control to assure us that the myxothiazol is acting specifically rather than behaving as a general inhibitor of respiration. The evidence from these studies supports a respiratory chain organized as shown in the scheme in Figure 1(D), which is similar to that proposed in our earlier model [4]. ...
The ability of Neisseria meningitidis to utilize both oxygen and nitrogen oxides as respiratory substrates allows it to thrive in the diverse environment of the human host. Genome analysis highlighted genes encoding a cbb(3) cytochrome oxidase, the aniA nitrite reductase gene and the norB nitric oxide reductase gene. In the present study, we used myxothiazol as an inhibitor of the bc(1) complex in intact cells and demonstrated that electron flow to nitrite reductase and the cytochrome oxidase, but not NO reductase, passes via the cytochrome bc(1) complex. UV-visible spectrophotometry of intact cells demonstrated that oxygen oxidizes c-type and b-type cytochromes. Oxidation of cytochromes by nitrite was only seen in microaerobically precultured whole cells, and the predominant oxidizable cytochromes were b-type. These are likely to be associated with the oxidation of a b-haem-containing nitric oxide reductase. Nitrite inhibits the oxidation of cytochromes by oxygen in a nitrite reductase-independent manner, indicating that nitrite may inhibit oxidase activity directly, as well as via the intermediate of denitrification, nitric oxide.
... Under oxygen limitation the bacterium expresses a denitrification pathway. This reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide, via nitrite reductase, EC 1.7.2.1 (NMB1623), is regulated by oxygen depletion and nitrite availability[60,61]. Thus, under microaerobic conditions nitrite can replace oxygen as an alternative respiratory substrate in N. meningitidis. ...
Neisseria meningitidis is a human pathogen that can infect diverse sites within the human host. The major diseases caused by N. meningitidis are responsible for death and disability, especially in young infants. In general, most of the recent work on N. meningitidis focuses on potential antigens and their functions, immunogenicity, and pathogenicity mechanisms. Very little work has been carried out on Neisseria primary metabolism over the past 25 years.
Using the genomic database of N. meningitidis serogroup B together with biochemical and physiological information in the literature we constructed a genome-scale flux model for the primary metabolism of N. meningitidis. The validity of a simplified metabolic network derived from the genome-scale metabolic network was checked using flux-balance analysis in chemostat cultures. Several useful predictions were obtained from in silico experiments, including substrate preference. A minimal medium for growth of N. meningitidis was designed and tested successfully in batch and chemostat cultures.
The verified metabolic model describes the primary metabolism of N. meningitidis in a chemostat in steady state. The genome-scale model is valuable because it offers a framework to study N. meningitidis metabolism as a whole, or certain aspects of it, and it can also be used for the purpose of vaccine process development (for example, the design of growth media). The flux distribution of the main metabolic pathways (that is, the pentose phosphate pathway and the Entner-Douderoff pathway) indicates that the major part of pyruvate (69%) is synthesized through the ED-cleavage, a finding that is in good agreement with literature.
... The ability to use nitrite is justified by the presence of genes coding for a putative nitrite reductase, a NO-reductase, and several electron transporters such as the bc1 complex and a putative azurin (10,14), which could represent the partner of nitrite reductase at the beginning of the electron transport chain. As recently shown (19), the presence of nitrite allows meningococcal growth under microaerobic conditions, speeding up from a linear to an exponential mode, but surprisingly does not allow N. meningitidis to grow under strictly anaerobic conditions (15). Thus, it was suggested that oxygen metabolism is constitutively activated in this bacterium, but it is integrated by the nitrite metabolism under oxygen limitation as further demonstrated by the fact that an aniA-deficient strain was still able to grow in the presence of nitrite under oxygen limiting conditions, but only in a linear manner, resembling the wild-type bacterium in the absence of nitrite (15). ...
The present study evaluates sequence conservation in the gene coding for nitrite reductase (aniA) and AniA expression from a panel of Neisseria meningitidis isolates. Sequence analysis of the coding region in 19 disease-associated and 4 carrier strains notwithstanding a high degree of sequence similarity showed a number of nucleotide changes, some of which possibly resulted in premature translation termination or function loss. In particular, in one disease-associated strain a 9-residues insertion was found to be located close to the type I Cu-site and a catalytic histidine at position 280 was mutated into a leucine. In two strains from carriers, a sequence corresponding to a portion of a transposase gene within the aniA was also found. The AniA protein was always expressed, except for these two carriers strains and for other two strains in which the presence of the premature stop codons was recognized. The biochemical properties of the cloned soluble domain of the enzyme (sAniA) from N. meningitidis reference MC58 strain and from a clinical invasive isolate were studied. In particular, biochemical analysis of sAniA from MC58 demonstrated a clear dependence of its catalytic activity upon acidification, while the clinical isolate-derived sAniA was not functional. Thus, the results obtained suggest that the presence of a conserved and functional aniA gene is not essential for meningococcal survival.
The glyoxylate shunt (GS) is a two-step metabolic pathway (isocitrate lyase, aceA; and malate synthase, glcB) that serves as an alternative to the TCA cycle. The GS bypasses the carbon dioxide-producing steps of the TCA cycle and is essential for acetate and fatty acid metabolism in bacteria. GS can be upregulated under conditions of oxidative stress, antibiotic stress, and host infection, which implies that it plays important but poorly explored roles in stress defense and pathogenesis. In many bacterial species, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, aceA and glcB are not in an operon, unlike in Escherichia coli. In P. aeruginosa, we explored relationships between GS genes and growth, transcription profiles, and biofilm formation. Contrary to our expectations, deletion of aceA in P. aeruginosa improved cell growth under conditions of oxidative and antibiotic stress. Transcriptome data suggested that aceA mutants underwent a metabolic shift toward aerobic denitrification; this was supported by additional evidence, including upregulation of denitrification-related genes, decreased oxygen consumption without lowering ATP yield, increased production of denitrification intermediates (NO and N2O), and increased cyanide resistance. The aceA mutants also produced a thicker exopolysaccharide layer: a phenotype consistent with aerobic denitrification. A bioinformatic survey across known bacterial genomes showed that only microorganisms capable of aerobic metabolism possess the glyoxylate shunt. This trend is consistent with the hypothesis that the GS plays a previously unrecognized role in allowing bacteria to tolerate oxidative stress.
The ability of Rubrivivax to adapt to its environment (aerobic versus anaerobic) relay on its ability to assemble different complexes involved respiration or photosynthesis pathways. These complexes require cofactors such as heme or chlorophylls, and metals such as magnesium, iron and copper. In particular, copper (Cu) is an essential trace element required for the assembly and the activity of the cytochrome c oxidase in the aerobic respiratory chain. Excess Cu however, is toxic and can originate in various cellular damages. In the absence of a tight control of copper entrance in the cells, bacteria have evolved different efflux systems to control copper concentration within the cytoplasm and the membrane. Very few data are available on the copper homeostasis systems in photosynthetic bacteria. We therefore studied the copper homeostasis system in Rubrivivax gelatinosus to understand how these microorganisms can deal with excess copper. In this work, I have identified several genes involved in copper tolerance. Central to this system, the P1B-type Cu⁺-ATPase CopA plays a major role in copper tolerance and translocates copper from the cytoplasm to the periplasm. The outlet of copper in the periplasm varies depending on the species. Cu can be sequestrated, oxidized or released outside the cells. Here I describe the identification CopI, a periplasmic protein present in many proteobacteria including Pseudomonas and Cupriavidus and show its requirement for copper tolerance in Rubrivivax under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Expression of both CopA and CopI is induced under excess copper and is regulated by CopR, a MerR regulator sensitive to changes in copper concentration. Rubrivivax genome encodes two P1B-type Cu⁺-ATPases, CopA and CtpA. My work confirmed that despite the sequence homology between these copper ATPases, they fulifill two different physiological roles in the cell. CopA is vital for tolerance to Cu while CtpA has a role in the insertion of Cu within cuproproteines. Furthermore, I showed that excess copper in the copA⁻ null mutant resulted in a substantial decrease of the cytochrome c oxidase and the photosystem under microaerobic and anaerobic conditions together with the extrusion of coproporphyrin III. Analyses of the mutant indicated that copper targeted the tetrapyrrole biosynthesis pathway at the level of the coproporphyrinogen III oxidase HemN and thereby affects the heme and chlorophyll containing complexes, the oxidase and the photosystem. These results, as well as published work by Macomber (Macomber and Imlay 2009) suggest that Cu target the 4Fe-4S clusters and that this metal may have played a role in the emergence of bimetallic enzymes to replace 4Fe-4S clusters during the appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere.Analyses of CopI expression and the copI⁻ null mutant, demonstrate that CopI is required for copper tolerance, and in the absence of an E. coli Cus-like copper efflux system in R. gelatinosus, my results strongly suggest that CopI is the major copper handling protein within the membrane. Altogether, my results allowed me to draw a comprehensive picture of the copper tolerance system within the purple photosynthetic bacterium Rubrivivax gelatinosus and probably other proteobacteria that possess a homologue of copI gene.
Unlabelled:
Genomic data predict that, in addition to oxygen, the bacterial plant pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum can use nitrate (NO3(-)), nitrite (NO2(-)), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrous oxide (N2O) as terminal electron acceptors (TEAs). Genes encoding inorganic nitrogen reduction were highly expressed during tomato bacterial wilt disease, when the pathogen grows in xylem vessels. Direct measurements found that tomato xylem fluid was low in oxygen, especially in plants infected by R. solanacearum. Xylem fluid contained ~25 mM NO3(-), corresponding to R. solanacearum's optimal NO3(-) concentration for anaerobic growth in vitro. We tested the hypothesis that R. solanacearum uses inorganic nitrogen species to respire and grow during pathogenesis by making deletion mutants that each lacked a step in nitrate respiration (ΔnarG), denitrification (ΔaniA, ΔnorB, and ΔnosZ), or NO detoxification (ΔhmpX). The ΔnarG, ΔaniA, and ΔnorB mutants grew poorly on NO3(-) compared to the wild type, and they had reduced adenylate energy charge levels under anaerobiosis. While NarG-dependent NO3(-) respiration directly enhanced growth, AniA-dependent NO2(-) reduction did not. NO2(-) and NO inhibited growth in culture, and their removal depended on denitrification and NO detoxification. Thus, NO3(-) acts as a TEA, but the resulting NO2(-) and NO likely do not. None of the mutants grew as well as the wild type in planta, and strains lacking AniA (NO2(-) reductase) or HmpX (NO detoxification) had reduced virulence on tomato. Thus, R. solanacearum exploits host NO3(-) to respire, grow, and cause disease. Degradation of NO2(-) and NO is also important for successful infection and depends on denitrification and NO detoxification systems.
Importance:
The plant-pathogenic bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum causes bacterial wilt, one of the world's most destructive crop diseases. This pathogen's explosive growth in plant vascular xylem is poorly understood. We used biochemical and genetic approaches to show that R. solanacearum rapidly depletes oxygen in host xylem but can then respire using host nitrate as a terminal electron acceptor. The microbe uses its denitrification pathway to detoxify the reactive nitrogen species nitrite (a product of nitrate respiration) and nitric oxide (a plant defense signal). Detoxification may play synergistic roles in bacterial wilt virulence by converting the host's chemical weapon into an energy source. Mutant bacterial strains lacking elements of the denitrification pathway could not grow as well as the wild type in tomato plants, and some mutants were also reduced in virulence. Our results show how a pathogen's metabolic activity can alter the host environment in ways that increase pathogen success.
Many illnesses and infections are exacerbated and/or caused by biofilms. Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the etiologic agent of gonorrhea, is frequently asymptomatic in women, which can lead to persistent infection. Persistent infection can result in pelvic inflammatory disease, tubo-ovarian abscesses, infertility, and ectopic pregnancy. N. gonorrhoeae has been shown to form biofilms over glass, primary and immortalized cervical cells, and during natural cervical infection. Asymptomatic infection occurs in only 1% of infected males, and the infection site is subject to periodic rapid fluid flow, which may limit biofilm formation. Thus, biofilm formation may specifically play an important role in the infection of women and could contribute to the infrequent occurrence of symptoms. Prior to work presented in this dissertation, little was known about biofilm formation by N. gonorrhoeae. Therefore, we elected to compare the transcriptional profiles of biofilms to their planktonic counterparts, to identify genetic pathways involved in biofilm formation and maintenance. We found that 3.8% of the genome was differentially regulated, and that genes involved in anaerobic metabolism and oxidative stress tolerance were up-regulated in biofilm, while genes involved in aerobic metabolism were down-regulated. We determined that expression of aniA , ccp, and norB is required for robust biofilm formation over glass and human cervical cells, and anaerobic respiration occurs in the substratum of gonococcal biofilms. Disruption of the norB gene resulted in severe attenuation of biofilm formation. We determined that the accumulation of nitric oxide (NO) contributes to the phenotype of a norB mutant and can retard biofilm formation when present at sublethal concentrations. However, higher concentrations of NO can enhance biofilm formation in the absence of nitrite. NO enhances biofilm formation in an aniA mutant, but cannot completely restore biofilm formation, suggesting that NO can support anaerobic growth, although nitrite is preferred. We determined that the majority of the genes involved in gonococcal oxidative stress tolerance are required for normal biofilm formation, as mutations in the following genes resulted in biofilm attenuation over cervical cells and/or glass: oxyR, gor, prx, mntABC, trxB, and estD. Overall, biofilm formation may represent an adaptation for coping with the stresses present in the female genitourinary tract.
Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are the only pathogenic species of the genus Neisseria. Although these two species are closely related, they specialized on survival in completely different environments within the human host-the nasopharynx in the case of N. meningitidis versus the urogenital tract in the case of N. gonorrhoeae. The genetic background of these differences has not yet been determined. Here, we present a comparison of all characterized transcriptional regulators in these species, delineating analogous functions and disclosing differential functional developments of these DNA-binding proteins with a special focus on the recently characterized regulator FarR and its contribution to divergent host niche adaptation in the two Neisseria spp. Furthermore, we summarize the present knowledge on two-partner secretion systems in meningococci, highlighting their overall expression among meningococcal strains in contrast to the complete absence in gonococci. Concluding, the decisive role of these two entirely different factors in host niche adaptation of the two human pathogenic Neisseria species is depicted, illuminating another piece of the puzzle to locate the molecular basis of their differences in preferred colonization sites and pathogenicity.
Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the etiologic agent of gonorrhea, is frequently asymptomatic in women, often leading to chronic infections. One factor contributing
to this may be biofilm formation. N. gonorrhoeae can form biofilms on glass and plastic surfaces. There is also evidence that biofilm formation may occur during natural cervical
infection. To further study the mechanism of gonococcal biofilm formation, we compared transcriptional profiles of N. gonorrhoeae biofilms to planktonic profiles. Biofilm RNA was extracted from N. gonorrhoeae 1291 grown for 48 h in continuous-flow chambers over glass. Planktonic RNA was extracted from the biofilm runoff. In comparing
biofilm with planktonic growth, 3.8% of the genome was differentially regulated. Genes that were highly upregulated in biofilms
included aniA, norB, and ccp. These genes encode enzymes that are central to anaerobic respiratory metabolism and stress tolerance. Downregulated genes
included members of the nuo gene cluster, which encodes the proton-translocating NADH dehydrogenase. Furthermore, it was observed that aniA, ccp, and norB insertional mutants were attenuated for biofilm formation on glass and transformed human cervical epithelial cells. These
data suggest that biofilm formation by the gonococcus may represent a response that is linked to the control of nitric oxide
steady-state levels during infection of cervical epithelial cells.
The homotrimeric copper-containing nitrite reductase (NiR) contains one type-1 and one type-2 copper center per monomer. Electrons enter through the type-1 site and are shuttled to the type-2 site where nitrite is reduced to nitric oxide. To investigate the catalytic mechanism of NiR the effects of pH and nitrite on the turnover rate in the presence of three different electron donors at saturating concentrations were measured. The activity of NiR was also measured electrochemically by exploiting direct electron transfer to the enzyme immobilized on a graphite rotating disk electrode. In all cases, the steady-state kinetics fitted excellently to a random-sequential mechanism in which electron transfer from the type-1 to the type-2 site is rate-limiting. At low [NO(-)(2)] reduction of the type-2 site precedes nitrite binding, at high [NO(-)(2)] the reverse occurs. Below pH 6.5, the catalytic activity diminished at higher nitrite concentrations, in agreement with electron transfer being slower to the nitrite-bound type-2 site than to the water-bound type-2 site. Above pH 6.5, substrate activation is observed, in agreement with electron transfer to the nitrite-bound type-2 site being faster than electron transfer to the hydroxyl-bound type-2 site. To study the effect of slower electron transfer between the type-1 and type-2 site, NiR M150T was used. It has a type-1 site with a 125-mV higher midpoint potential and a 0.3-eV higher reorganization energy leading to an approximately 50-fold slower intramolecular electron transfer to the type-2 site. The results confirm that NiR employs a random-sequential mechanism.
The gammaproteobacterium Nitrosococcus oceani (ATCC 19707) is a gram-negative obligate chemolithoautotroph capable of extracting energy and reducing power from the oxidation of ammonia to nitrite. Sequencing and annotation of the genome revealed a single circular chromosome (3,481,691 bp; G+C content of 50.4%) and a plasmid (40,420 bp) that contain 3,052 and 41 candidate protein-encoding genes, respectively. The genes encoding proteins necessary for the function of known modes of lithotrophy and autotrophy were identified. Contrary to betaproteobacterial nitrifier genomes, the N. oceani genome contained two complete rrn operons. In contrast, only one copy of the genes needed to synthesize functional ammonia monooxygenase and hydroxylamine oxidoreductase, as well as the proteins that relay the extracted electrons to a terminal electron acceptor, were identified. The N. oceani genome contained genes for 13 complete two-component systems. The genome also contained all the genes needed to reconstruct complete central pathways, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnass and pentose phosphate pathways. The N. oceani genome contains the genes required to store and utilize energy from glycogen inclusion bodies and sucrose. Polyphosphate and pyrophosphate appear to be integrated in this bacterium's energy metabolism, stress tolerance, and ability to assimilate carbon via gluconeogenesis. One set of genes for type I ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase was identified, while genes necessary for methanotrophy and for carboxysome formation were not identified. The N. oceani genome contains two copies each of the genes or operons necessary to assemble functional complexes I and IV as well as ATP synthase (one H(+)-dependent F(0)F(1) type, one Na(+)-dependent V type).
The Cu-containing nitrite reductase from Alcaligenes faecalis S-6 catalyzes the one-electron reduction of nitrite to nitric oxide (NO). Electrons enter the enzyme at the so-called type-1 Cu site and are then transferred internally to the catalytic type-2 Cu site. Protein film voltammetry experiments were carried out to obtain detailed information about the catalytic cycle. The homotrimeric structure of the enzyme is reflected in a distribution of the heterogeneous electron-transfer rates around three main values. Otherwise, the properties and the mode of operation of the enzyme when it is adsorbed as a film on a pyrolytic graphite electrode are essentially unchanged compared to those of the free enzyme in solution. It was established that the reduced type-2 site exists in either an active or an inactive conformation with an interconversion rate of approximately 0.1 s(-1). The random sequential mechanism comprises two routes, one in which the type-2 site is reduced first and subsequently binds nitrite, which is then converted into NO, and another in which the oxidized type-2 site binds nitrite and then accepts an electron to produce NO. At high nitrite concentration, the second route prevails and internal electron transfer is rate-limiting. The midpoint potentials of both sites could be established under catalytic conditions. Binding of nitrite to the type-2 site does not affect the midpoint potential of the type-1 site, thereby excluding cooperativity between the two sites.
Analysis of the Neisseria gonorrhoeae DNA sequence database revealed the presence of two genes, one encoding a protein predicted to be 37. 5% identical (50% similar) in amino acid sequence to the Escherichia coli FNR protein and the other encoding a protein 41% and 42% identical (54 and 51% sequence similarity) to the E. coli NarL and NarP proteins respectively. Both genes have been cloned into E. coli and insertionally inactivated in vitro. The mutated genes have been transformed into gonococci and recombined into the chromosome. The fnr mutation totally abolished and the narP mutation severely diminished the ability of gonococci to: (i) grow anaerobically; (ii) adapt to oxygen-limited growth; (iii) initiate transcription from the aniA promoter (which directs the expression of a copper-containing nitrite reductase, AniA, in response to the presence of nitrite); and (iv) reduce nitrite during growth in oxygen-limited media. The product of nitrite reduction was identified to be nitrous oxide. Immediately upstream of the narL/narP gene is an open reading frame that, if translated, would encode a homologue of the E. coli nitrate- and nitrite-sensing proteins NarX and NarQ. As transcription from the aniA promoter was not activated during oxygen-limited growth in the presence of nitrate, the gonococcal two-component regulatory system is designated NarQ-NarP rather than NarX-NarL. As far as we are aware, this is the first well-documented example of a two-component regulatory system working in partnership with a transcription activator in pathogenic neisseria. A 45 kDa c-type cytochrome that was synthesized during oxygen-limited, but not during oxygen sufficient, growth was identified as a homologue of cytochrome c peroxidases (CCP) of other bacteria. The gene for this cytochrome, designated ccp, was located, and its regulatory region was cloned into the promoter probe vector pLES94. Transcription from the ccp promoter was repressed during aerobic growth and induced during oxygen-limited growth and was totally FNR dependent, suggesting that the gonococcal FNR protein is a transcription activator of at least two genes. However, unlike AniA, synthesis of the CCP homologue was insensitive to the presence of nitrite during oxygen-limited growth.
Neisseria meningitidis, the causative agent of meningococcal disease in humans, is likely to be exposed to nitrosative stress during natural colonization
and disease. The genome of N. meningitidis includes the genes aniA and norB, predicted to encode nitrite reductase and nitric oxide (NO) reductase, respectively. These gene products should allow the
bacterium to denitrify nitrite to nitrous oxide. We show that N. meningitidis can support growth microaerobically by the denitrification of nitrite via NO and that norB is required for anaerobic growth with nitrite. NorB and, to a lesser extent, the cycP gene product cytochrome c′ are able to counteract toxicity due to exogenously added NO. Expression of these genes by N. meningitidis during colonization and disease may confer protection against exogenous or endogenous nitrosative stress.
The aniA gene of Neisseria gonorrhoeae encodes an outer membrane lipoprotein which is strongly induced when gonococci are grown anaerobically in vitro in the presence of nitrite. Database searches with the amino acid sequence derived from the aniA structural gene revealed significant homologies to copper-containing nitrite reductases from several denitrifying bacteria. We constructed an insertional mutation in the aniA locus of strain MS11 by allelic replacement, to determine whether this locus was necessary for growth in oxygen-depleted environments, and to demonstrate that AniA was indeed a nitrite reductase. The mutant was severely impaired in its ability to grow micro-aerophilically in the presence of nitrite, and we observed a loss in viability over several hours of incubation. No measurable nitrite reductase activity was detected in the aniA mutant strain, and activity in the strain with a wild-type locus was inducible. Finally, we report investigations to determine whether AniA protein is involved in gonococcal pathogenesis.
Nitric oxide (NO) reductase was purified from Ralstonia eutropha (formerly Alcaligenes eutrophus) using a two step chromatographic procedure. Unlike the common NO reductases, the enzyme consists of a single subunit of 75 kDa which contains both high-spin and low-spin heme b, but lacks heme c. One additional iron atom, probably a ferric non-heme iron, was identified per enzyme molecule. Whereas reduced cytochrome c was ineffective as electron donor, NO was reduced at a specific activity of 2.3 micromol/min per mg of protein in the presence of 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinol.
This review presents the microbiological dynamic and therapeutic options in the management of purulent nasopharyngitis (NPT). The nasopharynx (NP) of healthy children is generally colonized by relatively non-pathogenic aerobic and anaerobic organisms, some of, which possess the ability to interfere with the growth of potential pathogens. Conversely, carriage of potential respiratory aerobic pathogen such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis, as well as some anaerobic bacteria (Peptostreptococcus, Fusobacterium and Prevotella spp.) increases during purulent NPT. The development of purulent NPT in children is associated with the pre-existing colonization by potential pathogens and the absence of interfering organisms in the NP. Controversy exists regarding the management of NPT as no conclusive evidence exists to date that the administration of antimicrobials will shorten the illness.
Respiratory enzyme synthesis in enterobacteria is controlled in response to electron acceptor availability. The iron-sulphur protein Fnr and the sensor-regulator proteins ArcB-ArcA control respiratory gene transcription in response to oxygen and quinone pool redox status respectively. The sensor-regulator proteins NarX-NarL and NarQ-NarP control anaerobic respiratory gene expression in response to nitrate and nitrite. Our laboratory recently engineered the lac operon to replace the primary operator O1-lac with the NarL and NarP protein binding site from the nirB operon. Expression of the lacZ gene from this construct is repressed by nitrate in Nar+ strains. Here, we found that lacZ gene expression was repressed in aerated cultures of narQ+narX null strains. This repression was not observed in narX+narQ+ or narX+narQ null strains. Thus, the NarQ sensor responds to aeration as well as to nitrate and nitrite. The NarX and NarQ sensors are composed of three distinct modules: an amino-terminal sensory module, a carboxyl-terminal transmitter module and a central module of unknown function. Experiments with NarX-NarQ hybrid proteins suggest that the NarQ protein central module is necessary for response to aeration. The physiological significance of this additional sensory role for the NarQ sensor remains obscure.
Cytochrome cbb(3) oxidases are found almost exclusively in Proteobacteria, and represent a distinctive class of proton-pumping respiratory heme-copper oxidases (HCO) that lack many of the key structural features that contribute to the reaction cycle of the intensely studied mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase (CcO). Expression of cytochrome cbb(3) oxidase allows human pathogens to colonise anoxic tissues and agronomically important diazotrophs to sustain N(2) fixation. We review recent progress in the biochemical characterisation of these distinctive oxidases that lays the foundation for understanding the basis of their proposed high affinity for oxygen, an apparent degeneracy in their electron input pathways and whether or not they acquired the ability to pump protons independently of other HCOs.
A method to predict lipoprotein signal peptides in Gram-negative Eubacteria, LipoP, has been developed. The hidden Markov model (HMM) was able to distinguish between lipoproteins (SPaseII-cleaved proteins), SPaseI-cleaved proteins, cytoplasmic proteins, and transmembrane proteins. This predictor was able to predict 96.8% of the lipoproteins correctly with only 0.3% false positives in a set of SPaseI-cleaved, cytoplasmic, and transmembrane proteins. The results obtained were significantly better than those of previously developed methods. Even though Gram-positive lipoprotein signal peptides differ from Gram-negatives, the HMM was able to identify 92.9% of the lipoproteins included in a Gram-positive test set. A genome search was carried out for 12 Gram-negative genomes and one Gram-positive genome. The results for Escherichia coli K12 were compared with new experimental data, and the predictions by the HMM agree well with the experimentally verified lipoproteins. A neural network-based predictor was developed for comparison, and it gave very similar results. LipoP is available as a Web server at www.cbs.dtu.dk/services/LipoP/.
- I Brook
Brook, I. (2003) Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 67, 1047–1053
- R Cramm
- A Pohlmann
- B Friedrich
Cramm, R., Pohlmann, A. and Friedrich, B. (1999) FEBS Lett. 460, 6–10
- A S Juncker
- H Willenbrock
- G Heijne
- N Neilsen
- S Brunak
- A Krogh
Juncker, A.S., Willenbrock, H., von Heijne, G., Neilsen, N., Brunak, S. and
Krogh, A. (2003) Protein Sci. 12, 1652–1662
- J Mellies
- J Jose
- T F Meyer
Mellies, J., Jose, J. and Meyer, T.F. (1997) Mol. Gen. Genet. 256, 525–532
- S Lissenden
- S Mohan
- T Overton
- T Regan
- H Crooke
- J A Cardinale
- T C Householder
- P Adams
- C D Conner
- V L Clark
Lissenden, S., Mohan, S., Overton, T., Regan, T., Crooke, H., Cardinale, J.A.,
Householder, T.C., Adams, P., O'Conner, C.D., Clark, V.L. et al. (2000) Mol.
Microbiol. 37, 839–855
- V Stewart
- L.-L Chen
- H.-C Wu
Stewart, V., Chen, L.-L. and Wu, H.-C. (2003) Mol. Microbiol. 50,
1391–1399