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Effects of Fragrance on Emotions: Moods and Physiology
Abstract
Smelling a delightful aroma can be a very pleasurable experience, but can it be measured scientifically? Over the past 20 years International Flavors & Fragrances Inc. (IFF) has been working to refine its methods of measuring both the subjective and physiological effects of aromas and fragrances on emotions. We have developed a selfreport method called Mood Mapping™ that reliably measures the mood associations of aromas, whether simple ingredients or finished fragrances in consumer products (Warrenburg, 2002). Mood Mapping provides a choice of eight mood categories to panelists, who are asked to smell the aroma of a sample and ‘pick the mood category that best matches the aroma of the sample’. We found that this straightforward voting technique results in clearer and more reliable differentiation among aromas than do techniques that require respondents to rate each mood for each sample being evaluated. The resulting mood profiles of each aroma can be mapped by multidimensional scaling or principal component analysis. Figure 1 displays the voting results for clementine, a citrus aroma, versus vanilla. Both are equally pleasant, but the former is more stimulating and the latter more relaxing. The Mood Map reflects these differences by their positions in the Arousal (Y) dimension, yet also shows their hedonic similarity on the Positive/Negative (X) dimension. The other points are other aromas that evoke different patterns of the eight moods. Measurement of moods in this way can be conducted in combination with consumer research of fragranced (or flavored) products. When these results are mapped we have found that the four positive moods identify the major dimensions of the map. Thus, positive consumer reactions tend to reflect the major mood dimensions of happiness, stimulation, relaxation and sensuality that underlie a wide variety of specific attributes identified as applying to such products. Furthermore, we have found that this is true in populations tested around the world. We have built a database for our creative staff, called the Consumer Fragrance Thesaurus, that catalogs the moods, attributes, colors and other qualities of fragrances tested in different areas of the world (Warrenburg, 1999). One of our principal interests has been to discover whether fragrance can be used as a stress-relief agent in a consumer product. Stress is a global affliction, a fact that is not only acknowledged anec
... While smell is often considered a secondary sense [48], emerging research suggests that we use it more than we think. For example, previous work has shown that humans have scent-tracking abilities similar to dogs [42] and can detect emotions through the olfactory channel [59] (e.g., fear [14]). Moreover, prior studies show that scents not only regulate behavior [54] and evoke pleasant or unpleasant experiences [20], but also modulate mood [59], attention [29], stress [37], and memories [25]. ...
... For example, previous work has shown that humans have scent-tracking abilities similar to dogs [42] and can detect emotions through the olfactory channel [59] (e.g., fear [14]). Moreover, prior studies show that scents not only regulate behavior [54] and evoke pleasant or unpleasant experiences [20], but also modulate mood [59], attention [29], stress [37], and memories [25]. Supported by this evidence, the sense of smell is gaining increasing attention in several design contexts. ...
... It has long been known that the optimal design of products, systems, and experiences benefits from the broad consideration of all the senses [59]. Building on CC research allows us to think beyond single sensory stimulation and promotes the use of crosssensory associations in design. ...
It has long been known that our sense of smell is a powerful one that affects emotions and behaviors. Recently, interest in the sense of smell has been growing exponentially in HCI. However, the potential of smell to inspire design is still underexplored. In this paper, we first investigated crossmodal correspondences between scents and selected features relevant for design (clustered in sensory, bodily, and qualitative features). Then, we created a set of cards (EssCards) to visually summarize the key findings to inspire designers. We carried out two preliminary design exploration sessions using the EssCards. Based on our findings, we discuss how to inspire and challenge design opportunities around the sense of smell and reflect upon applications for smell as inspirational material for designing future interactions and experiences.
... While smell is often considered a secondary sense [48], emerging research suggests that we use it more than we think. For example, previous work has shown that humans have scent-tracking abilities similar to dogs [42] and can detect emotions through the olfactory channel [59] (e.g., fear [14]). Moreover, prior studies show that scents not only regulate behavior [54] and evoke pleasant or unpleasant experiences [20], but also modulate mood [59], attention [29], stress [37], and memories [25]. ...
... For example, previous work has shown that humans have scent-tracking abilities similar to dogs [42] and can detect emotions through the olfactory channel [59] (e.g., fear [14]). Moreover, prior studies show that scents not only regulate behavior [54] and evoke pleasant or unpleasant experiences [20], but also modulate mood [59], attention [29], stress [37], and memories [25]. Supported by this evidence, the sense of smell is gaining increasing attention in several design contexts. ...
... It has long been known that the optimal design of products, systems, and experiences benefits from the broad consideration of all the senses [59]. Building on CC research allows us to think beyond single sensory stimulation and promotes the use of crosssensory associations in design. ...
It has long been known that our sense of smell is a powerful one that affects emotions and behaviors. Recently, interest in the sense of smell has been growing exponentially in HCI. However, the potential of smell to inspire design is still underexplored. In this paper, we first investigated crossmodal correspondences between scents and selected features relevant for design (clustered in sensory, bodily, and qualitative features). Then, we created a set of cards (EssCards) to visually summarize the key findings to inspire designers. We carried out two preliminary design exploration sessions using the EssCards. Based on our findings, we discuss how to inspire and challenge design opportunities around the sense of smell and reflect upon applications for smell as inspirational material for designing future interactions and experiences.
... 21.3 Development of a methodology for measuring feelings in response to odors via verbal reports: a crosscultural approach 21.3.1 Methods from the literature and rationale of the approach Different emotional scales and emotional lexicons have been developed because emotional responses can highly depend on the product of interest, and more important, on the context of use. These tools are available in the literature and are related to food-specific domains (e.g., EsSense Profile Ô from Bhumiratana, Adhikari, & Chambers, 2014;Chaya et al., 2015;Ferrarini et al., 2010;King & Meiselman, 2010;Laros & Steenkamp, 2005;Ng et al., 2013aNg et al., , 2013bPineau, Rytz, Hudry, Maier, & Alexander, 2010;Rousset et al., 2005;Spinelli, Masi, Dinnella, Zoboli, & Monteleone, 2014;Thomson & Crocker, 2013) or to odors and fragrances (e.g., Berezina, 2014;Churchill & Behan, 2010;Desmet & Schifferstein, 2008;Rétiveau et al., 2004;Warrenburg, 2005; Geneva Emotion and Odor Scale from; Chrea et al., 2009;UniEOS from;ScentMoveÒ scale from;Porcherot et al., 2010). A more systematic comparison between existing food-and odor-related emotional lexicons was recently made by Gmuer, Guth, Runte, and Siegrist (2015). ...
... Results showed that the CATA method could be applied by using the terms provided by UniGEOS with more discrimination, especially when the within-subject randomization of terms was applied (by product and by subject randomization). The CATA approach has been applied by other authors (Jaeger, Cardello, & Schutz, 2013;Jiang, King, & Prinyawiwatkul, 2014;King, Meiselman, & Carr, 2013;Ng et al., 2013a;Warrenburg, 2005). King et al. (2013) found that this approach provided more differentiation at the higher levels of emotional frequency for a few select emotions, and the rating scale provided differentiation for more attributes at the lower levels of emotional response. ...
... King et al. (2013) found that this approach provided more differentiation at the higher levels of emotional frequency for a few select emotions, and the rating scale provided differentiation for more attributes at the lower levels of emotional response. Warrenburg (2005) suggested another approach consisting of picking only one of the emotional categories that best matches the feelings related to the fragrance and found more discrimination than by asking the consumers to rate each of the eight categories. This approach might, however, be too restrictive, as products may elicit multiple (mixed) emotions simultaneously rather than eliciting one single emotion (Desmet, 2003;Porcherot et al., 2010). ...
Personal and home care products are nowadays similar in terms of hedonic value and performance. In this context, the consideration of their emotional value, in harmony with consumer expectations, can be a differentiating factor for fragrance development. This chapter aims at providing examples that show how emotional responses to odors, personal products, and home care products can be measured. After describing the strong influence of olfaction on emotional processing and the role of associative learning, we propose a definition of emotion and feelings. We focus on the verbal report of feelings, or the verbalization of the subjective experience of emotions, by mainly referring to the conscious part of the emotional response elicited by odors and fragranced products. Although the unconscious part of the emotional response related to physiological and behavioral responses should not be underestimated, this topic is covered in part 1 of the book, which is dedicated to the basic studies of emotions. The current chapter provides a review of a methodology developed to measure food-elicited feelings or fragrance- elicited feelings, with consideration of cross-cultural differences. Fundamental ques- tions and critical choices that arise when such an approach is undertaken are also highlighted. A series of results is presented to illustrate the use of this methodology in sensory settings for product development. In this context, we propose that in- vestigations should be undertaken into the effects of changing the product label, packaging, and color of fragranced products on consumer emotional expectations and on the overall emotional response when the product is experienced in real-life situa- tions. Finally, we present measures other than verbal reports that examine the existence of automatic associations between odors and subtle emotions, with the caveat that we should continue asking about feelings in any fundamental or applied research.
... Our results show an increased SoA when participants were exposed to the pleasant scent compared to the unpleasant and neutral scents. These findings support that smell produces not only physiological responses [90] and modifies emotions [86,91] but also show for the first time that smell affects the feeling of agency. ...
... Odors not only evoke strong experiences of pleasure or displeasure [35], but also modulate mood [91], attention [53,89], stress [3,69] and memories [47]. Different scents have been shown to elicit specific physiological responses or emotional states. ...
... The fragrances we used are 100% pure essential oils not diluted. For positive emotion, we chose lavender scent (available in Plush Folly [76]) as it has been widely employed to produce pleasant emotions [90,91]. For negative emotion, we chose civet scent (available in Holland & Barret [10]) which is often used for perfumes base, and in its pure state, is considered unpleasant since it is the perineal gland secretion produced by the civet cat [50,82]. ...
The Sense of Agency (SoA) is crucial in interaction with technology, it refers to the feeling of 'I did that' as opposed to 'the system did that' supporting a feeling of being in control. Research in human-computer interaction has recently studied agency in visual, auditory and haptic interfaces, however the role of smell on agency remains unknown. Our sense of smell is quite powerful to elicit emotions, memories and awareness of the environment, which has been exploited to enhance user experiences (e.g., in VR and driving scenarios). In light of increased interest in designing multimodal interfaces including smell and its close link with emotions, we investigated, for the first time, the effect of smell-induced emotions on the SoA. We conducted a study using the Intentional Binding (IB) paradigm used to measure SoA while participants were exposed to three scents with different valence (pleasant, unpleasant, neutral). Our results show that participants? SoA increased with a pleasant scent compared to neutral and unpleasant scents. We discuss how our results can inform the design of multimodal and future olfactory interfaces.
... The most common motivation for designing with smell is to create more immersive experiences, mainly referring to concepts such as the sense of presence, immersion, and realism [3,50,64,105]. In addition, we see attempts to study the effect of scent stimuli on emotions (e.g. to reduce stress [2,127]) and behaviour (e.g. reduce distraction, help multi-tasking [52,58,82]). ...
... Emotional scent classification frameworks proposed in psychology and neuroscience studied this emotional effect further, for example by linking the arousing and relaxing effect with the neural system (e.g. [122,127]), or by describing the effect of scents for inducing happy or sad emotions (e.g. [26,122]). ...
... For this specific application case we wanted a relaxing scent that reduces the stress of the user and helps improve the user's performance. Rose, rosemary, and lavender are suggested in the literature as being relaxing [122,127], and hence provide the designer with different options to consider in the implementation of a smell-based application. ...
The human sense of smell is powerful. However, the way we use smell as an interaction modality in human–computer interaction (HCI) is limited. We lack a common reference point to guide designers’ choices when using smell. Here, we map out an olfactory design space to provide designers with such guidance. We identified four key design features: (i) chemical, (ii) emotional, (iii) spatial, and (iv) temporal. Each feature defines a building block for smell-based interaction design and is grounded in a review of the relevant scientific literature. We then demonstrate the design opportunities in three application cases. Each application (i.e., one desktop, two virtual reality implementations) highlights the design choices alongside the implementation and evaluation possibilities in using smell. We conclude by discussing how identifying those design features facilitates a healthy growth of this research domain and contributes to an intermediate-level knowledge space. Finally, we discuss further challenges the HCI community needs to tackle.
... [4,5] Fragrances are known to improve our health and well-being as they affect attention and mood positively; for instance, the scent of lavender finds common use for relaxation and stress reduction. [6] Beyond these psychological effects, the detection and identification of fragrances serve pivotal roles in diverse domains such as environmental monitoring, [7] food quality control, [8,9] and spoilage detection. [10] As technology advances, the integration of fragrance sensing methodologies into various fields promises enhanced efficiency, safety, and overall wellbeing across diverse sectors of society. ...
... [57] 2.1. 6 ...
Fragrance plays a crucial role in the daily lives. Its importance spans various sectors, from therapeutic purposes to personal care, making the understanding and accurate identification of fragrances essential. To fully harness the potential of fragrances, efficient and precise fragrance sensing and identification are necessary. However, current fragrance sensors face several limitations, particularly in detecting and differentiating complex scent profiles with high accuracy. To address these challenges, the use of atom‐thin materials in fragrance sensors has emerged as a groundbreaking approach. These atom‐thin sensors, characterized by their enhanced sensitivity and selectivity, offer significant improvements over traditional sensing technology. Moreover, the integration of Machine Learning (ML) into fragrance sensing has opened new opportunities in the field. ML algorithms applied to fragrance sensing facilitate advancements in four key domains: accurate fragrance identification, precise discrimination between different fragrances, improved detection thresholds for subtle scents, and prediction of fragrance properties. This comprehensive review delves into the synergistic use of atom‐thin materials and ML in fragrance sensing, providing an in‐depth analysis of how these technologies are revolutionizing the field, offering insights into their current applications and future potential in enhancing the understanding and utilization of fragrances.
... More specifically, lemon is known for its stimulating and exciting properties, and for its associated physiological measurements modulation (Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2008;Kikuchi, Yamagughi, Tanida, Abe, & Uenoyama, 1992;Keville & Green, 1995;Warrenburg, 2005;Martin & Cooper, 2007), as well as for stress-alleviating effect (Komiya, Takeuchi, & Harada, 2006;Lehrner, Eckersberger, Walla, P€ otsch, & Deecke, 2000). Indeed, some empirical studies observed lemon oil's effects on mood using self-report standardized questionnaires (e.g., Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2008). ...
... After lemon inhalation, the participants reported higher level of self-alertness assessed via the KSS as compared to the resting state condition (but not as compared to the control condition), suggesting stimulating and exciting properties of the fragrance. This is consistent with previous empirical studies that have observed stimulating properties of the lemon (e.g., Keville & Green, 1995;Kiecolt-Glaser et al., 2008;Kikuchi et al., 1992;Martin & Cooper, 2007;Warrenburg, 2005). We did not find differences regarding the level of alertness with the control condition, though. ...
Lemon fragrance is known for its stimulating properties, but its mechanisms of action are not well known yet. This study aimed to examine the effect of lemon essential oil inhalation on healthy participants' alertness level and their neural correlates using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Twenty-one healthy men underwent functional MRI scans in different conditions: a resting state condition, a condition where they were exposed to passive lemon smelling (alternating exposure to lemon and breathing fresh air), and a control condition without lemon fragrance diffusion -the order of the last two conditions being randomized. Alertness levels were assessed immediately after each condition using the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale. Voxel-wise whole-brain global functional connectivity and graph theory analyses were computed to investigate brain functional connectivity and network topology alterations. After lemon fragrance inhalation, we observed a higher level of alertness as compared to resting state -but not compared to control condition. During lemon fragrance inhalation, we found increased global functional connectivity in the thalamus, paralleled by decreased global connectivity in several cortical regions such as precuneus, postcentral and precentral gyrus, lateral occipital cortex and paracingulate gyrus. Graph theory analysis revealed increased network integration in cortical regions typically involved in olfaction and emotion processing such as olfactory bulb, hypothalamus and thalamus, while decreased network segregation in several regions of the posterior part of the brain during olfaction as compared to resting state. The present findings suggest that lemon essential oil inhalation could increase the level of alertness.
... It has been long known that the sense of smell influences how we experience the world around us and ourselves [41,80]. For instance, scents not only regulate approach and avoidance behavior [18] and evoke pleasant or unpleasant experiences [27], but also modulate mood [80], attention [45], stress [57], memories [39], and, as recently demonstrated, body image [12]. ...
... It has been long known that the sense of smell influences how we experience the world around us and ourselves [41,80]. For instance, scents not only regulate approach and avoidance behavior [18] and evoke pleasant or unpleasant experiences [27], but also modulate mood [80], attention [45], stress [57], memories [39], and, as recently demonstrated, body image [12]. The latter has been defined as the way we perceive our own body is not fixed, it changes continuously in response to sensory signals in the environment [76]. ...
Previous research has shown the influence of smell on emotions, memories, and body image. However, most of this work has taken place in laboratory settings and little is known about the influence of smell in real-world environments. In this paper, we present novel insights gained from a field study investigating the emotional effect of smell on memories and body image. Taking inspiration from the cultural design probes approach, we designed QuintEssence, a probe package that includes three scents and materials to complete three tasks over a period of four weeks. Here, we describe the design of QuintEssence and the main findings based on the outcomes of the three tasks and a final individual interview. The findings show similar results between participants based on the scent. For example, with cinnamon, participants experienced feelings of warmth, coziness, happiness, and relaxation; they recalled blurred memories of past moments about themselves and reported a general feeling of being calm and peaceful towards their bodies. Our findings open up new design spaces for multisensory experiences and inspire future qualitative explorations beyond laboratory boundaries.
... Beyond the aforementioned methodological and measurement issues, discrepancies may also emerge because activation properties of odors have been considered within different theoretical frameworks (e.g., Herz, 2009;Kaeppler & Mueller, 2013;Sowndhararajan & Kim, 2016). The circumplex model of affect (Feldman Barrett & Russell, 1998;Russell, 1980), is an influential model of emotion broadly used within the olfactory domain (Anderson et al., 2003;Bensafi et al., 2002;Chebat & Michon, 2003;Herz, Schankler, & Beland, 2004;Heuberger, Hongratanaworakit, Böhm, Weber, & Buchbauer, 2001;Jönsson, Olsson, & Olsson, 2005;Pössel, Ahrens, & Hautzinger, 2005;Schifferstein & Tanudjaja, 2004;Warrenburg, 2005). In this model, valence and arousal are thought of as two independent dimensions of emotions. ...
... The description of "Soothing-Peacefulness" and "Energizing-Cooling" as separate emotional dimensions leads to the possibility that Russell's arousal dimension might be thought of as a mixture of two independent dimensions rather than reflecting a single continuum ranging from relaxing to stimulating properties. So far however, only a few studies were designed to assess relaxing and stimulating properties of odors at the same time on two independent scales (e.g., strawberry, Porcherot et al., 2010; lily of the valley and hyacinth, Warren & Warrenburg, 1993;Warrenburg, 2002Warrenburg, , 2005. Interestingly, a strong positive correlation (r = 0.83) has been reported between soothing and energizing ratings for a large set of odors (Chrea et al., 2009), whereas a negative relationship would have been expected according to the unidimensional conception of relaxing/stimulating odor properties. ...
It is generally assumed that intensity can be used as a proxy of the arousing properties of odors: the more concentrated an odorant, the more intense an odor and the more stimulating and the less relaxing the odor. The aim of the present study was thus to investigate the relationship between relaxing and stimulating properties of odors when judged on two independent scales, for different levels of stimulus concentration. Thirty-three volunteers judged relaxing, stimulating, pleasantness, familiarity and intensity properties of four odors, namely strawberry, lavender, coffee, and lemon, at five concentrations. Our findings show that for all odors, higher stimulus concentration is associated with higher perceived intensity and higher stimulating judgments whereas it was not associated with lower relaxing judgments. On the contrary, lavender and strawberry were also judged more relaxing when stimulus concentration increased whereas coffee and lemon relaxing properties remained the same overall whatever the concentration. Odor familiarity increased with stimuli concentration as well as pleasantness (with the exception of coffee odor). Our results underline the need to use two separate unipolar scales when assessing the relaxing and stimulating properties of odors in self-report questionnaires. They also question the suitability of the commonly used bidimensional framework (valence vs. arousal) to describe olfactory emotions.
... Many studies have used these methods to demonstrate the impact of aromas on brain activity. They have analysed human responses to the scents by using EEG signals (Pinto et al., 2014), or they have examined the effects of aromas in terms of emotional mood and physiology (Warrenburg, 2005). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine FaceReader as a tool to compare the olfactory preferences of two selected countries. This paper examines the olfactory preferences of customers in the bakery department of a grocery store in the Slovak and the Spanish market.
Design/methodology/approach
The aim of this study is to examine subconscious/unconscious preferences in the selection of aromas suitable for the bakery department in the Slovak and the Spanish market. In this case, it is not a classical qualitative sensory testing of the perception of fragrances. The aim is to identify the associations of scents related to the selected sales department through images of the selected aromas. A special platform is used to obtain subconscious/unconscious feedback, which allows online collection of implicit feedback using the software FaceReader 7.
Findings
The authors noticed the different moods of the two groups of respondents when they answered the question about what they associate with the smell of bakery products. The Spanish respondents were slightly pleasantly disposed, while the Slovak respondents were slightly unpleasantly disposed. The smell of bakery products evoked more memories and emotions in the Spanish respondents than in the Slovak respondents, which can be explained by the higher pleasant mood. The main contribution of this work lies in the new opportunities to obtain feedback that can be used in marketing research and that rely not only on explicit but also implicit data. The extension of the methodological apparatus to implicit feedback presupposes some form of control of the data collected by the questionnaire. The use of biometric tools can represent an efficient alternative in terms of time and money to the use of neuroimaging tools in the selection/research of aromas for specific stores/departments.
Research limitations/implications
It must be noted that the sample is small, and adequate conclusions cannot be made about entire population. Based on empirical findings and pandemic-related limitations, the authors plan to conduct similar research with real aroma samples and with even larger sample of tested respondents, considering weather, season, olfactory sensitivity (anosmia, hyposmia and normosmia) and participant fatigue (beginning and end of the week).
Originality/value
Today, marketers are facing the greatest challenge of how to attract consumers’ attention. Every individual has a different perception of the shopping environment based on his own experience, beliefs and attitudes. This is why new marketing techniques and approaches are becoming increasingly popular in the marketing environment.
... Frankincense and myrrh in combination are noted to potentiate superior healing efficacy on ulcers when compared to orthodox triamcinolone acetonide drug (Cao et al., 2019). Though some researchers had investigated the therapeutic potential of the B. diazeilii plant with the ethanolic extract's lethal dose below 5000mg/kg/body weight (Vedekoi et al., 2019), its incense smoke on rodents using a smoke chamber (Ahmed et al., 2013) and the efficacy of its fragrance (Warrenburg, 2005), stem bark and root on heart rate and blood pressure (Abdulrahman et al., 2022), however, the tone of long-aged indigenous and cultural diligence as used in religions has not been considered. ...
According to my inherited custom, the dried West African Frankincense dalzielii undergo pyrolysis in a charcoal burner during religious services, actively undergoing metabolites' sublimation and the members eventually inhaled the resultant but major essential effluent smoke, and to date, the health benefits of the incense fragrance haven't been evaluated up till now, as traditionally used by our religious forefathers. The principle, "Let food be thy medicine, and medicine be thy food", advocated by Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the father of modern medicine is very germane. Hence, I thus investigated the beneficial role of B. dalzielii frankincense and myrrh smoke as it's usually applied during worship in most Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, Taoist, and Buddhist Chinese religious centers, and as it perhaps modulates the adiposity, cardiac rate, systolic and diastolic values of high fat fed Wistar male rats, within an acute duration of 60days using Tail cuff measuring device. Rats (n =21) were used in this study and equally divided into three groups, within which the third group fed high-fat chow were exposed to 30g of B. dalzielii frankincense and myrrh smoke for one hour, emanating from incense-charcoal burner twice daily, morning and night for 60 days. During the period, weights of all the rodents were measured, noted twice a week, and at exactly 24 hours after the last exposure, cardiac rate, systolic and diastolic values were quantified using a Tail cuff device at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan. Group 2 assaulted with the high fat diet (HFD) only, revealed a significant increase in adiposity, blood pressure, and heartbeat, while group 3 co-exposed to the smoke of B. dalzielii resources with the HFD showed a significant reduction in the latter to near normal group. More so, agility and active responses in the co-treated group were of imminent accomplishment. This investigation demonstrated that B. dalzielii smoke could attenuate high fat diet triggered adiposity, positive inotropism, and high heart pressure.
... In the broader field of human-computer interaction, sense of smell has been explored through 'digital olfaction' through the use of 'olfactory devices' [25,16]. Olfactory devices have been discussed focusing on improving immersive characteristics in virtual reality application [30,28,11], to influence behaviors (e.g., help with stress, work) [36,5], and enhance communication features such as notifications [39,26,40,1]. Furthermore, much work has used the olfactory sense as a part of multi-sensory experiences [30,28,29]. ...
Olfactory disorders can significantly affect a human’s quality of life. We sought to investigate whether there are opportunities for assistive technologies to support people with olfactory disorders in day-to-day life. To achieve this goal, we surveyed 70 people with olfactory disorders to understand their behaviors, experiences, technologies used, and challenges with olfaction. We then conducted 10 follow-up interviews to further discuss views on current technology for people with olfactory disorders and the design opportunities for assistive technologies for olfaction from their point of view. Our results illustrated participants’ varied
views on current technology, behaviors/technologies adopted when presented with particular scenarios, and potential solutions for designing assistive technologies for olfactory disorders. Through these findings, we discuss design considerations for assistive technology for olfaction.
... Odours and olfactory cues also influence health decision making, food choices and addiction maintenance behaviours (Tiggemann and Kemps, 2005;Patel et al., 2015;Kleinhans et al., 2020;Roose and Mulier, 2020;Sehrig et al., 2020). The olfactory sense also has a strong influence on emotion and wellbeing (Warrenburg, 2005). Different odours have been demonstrated to modulate mood, and feelings of stress and anxiety (Lehrner et al., 2000;Fukada et al., 2011;Kaimal et al., 2020). ...
Olfaction is understudied in neuroimaging research compared to other senses, but there is growing evidence of its therapeutic benefits on mood and well-being. Olfactory imagery can provide similar health benefits as olfactory interventions. Harnessing crossmodal visual-olfactory interactions can facilitate olfactory imagery. Understanding and employing these cross-modal interactions between visual and olfactory stimuli could aid in the research and applications of olfaction and olfactory imagery interventions for health and wellbeing. This review examines current knowledge, debates, and research on olfaction, olfactive imagery, and crossmodal visual-olfactory integration. A total of 56 papers, identified using the PRISMA method, were evaluated to identify key brain regions, research themes and methods used to determine the suitability of fNIRS as a tool for studying these topics. The review identified fNIRS-compatible protocols and brain regions within the fNIRS recording depth of approximately 1.5 cm associated with olfactory imagery and crossmodal visual-olfactory integration. Commonly cited regions include the orbitofrontal cortex, inferior frontal gyrus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The findings of this review indicate that fNIRS would be a suitable tool for research into these processes. Additionally, fNIRS suitability for use in naturalistic settings may lead to the development of new research approaches with greater ecological validity compared to existing neuroimaging techniques.
... Table 1. Types of scents and the sensations they evoke (Uslubaş ve Aydın, 2019;Warrenburg, 2005;Lehrner et al., 2000;Warm et al., 1991). ...
... In this study, two different scents, vanilla and menthol, were chosen for their clearly different connotations, being relaxing and energizing, respectively [25,26]. The participants were exposed to these odors while their brain (EEG) and electrodermal (EDA) activities were recorded. ...
It has been demonstrated that odors could affect humans at the psychophysiological level. Significant research has been done on odor perception and physiological mechanisms; however, this research was mainly performed in highly controlled conditions in order to highlight the perceptive phenomena and the correlated physiological responses in the time frame of milliseconds. The present study explored how human physiological activity evolves in response to different odor conditions during an ecological olfactory experience on a broader time scale (from 1 to 90 s). Two odors, vanilla and menthol, together with a control condition (blank) were employed as stimuli. Electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in four frequency bands of interest, theta, alpha, low beta, and high beta, and the electrodermal activity (EDA) of the skin conductance level and response (SCL and SCR) were investigated at five time points taken during: (i) the first ten seconds of exposure (short-term analysis) and (ii) throughout the entire exposure to each odor (90 s, long-term analysis). The results revealed significant interactions between the odor conditions and the time periods in the short-term analysis for the overall frontal activity in the theta (p = 0.03), alpha (p = 0.005), and low beta (p = 0.0067) bands, the frontal midline activity in the alpha (p = 0.015) and low beta (p = 0.02) bands, and the SCR component (p = 0.024). For the long-term effects, instead, only one EEG parameter, frontal alpha asymmetry, was significantly sensitive to the considered dimensions (p = 0.037). In conclusion, the present research determined the physiological response to different odor conditions, also demonstrating the sensitivity of the employed parameters in characterizing the dynamic of such response during the time. As an exploratory study, this work points out the relevance of considering the effects of continuous exposure instead of short stimulation when evaluating the human olfactory experience, providing insights for future studies in the field.
... Table 1. Types of scents and the sensations they evoke (Uslubaş ve Aydın, 2019;Warrenburg, 2005;Lehrner et al., 2000;Warm et al., 1991). ...
Temizkan, V. (2023). Scent Marketing. İ. Erdoğan Tarakçı and R. Aslan (Ed.), The Essentials of Today’s Marketing-2 into (ss.217-234), İstanbul, Efe Akademi Publishing.
... By changing this parameter cardiovascular stress can be regulated. Some of the physical exercises can be simulated 3) Fragrance [24], [25]. Smell remains one of the most important impact methods and can have significant relaxing or stimulating effect. ...
This paper states a description of the principles of measuring and increasing labor productivity using modern technologies and the author's concept of the socio-cyber-physical system named Smart Ergonomics and its technical implementation of decision making system Smart Ergonomics Management System (SEMS). The essence of this technology is the implementation of flexible planning of all processes of an employee's work time by dynamically adjusting the environment and applying individual methods of influencing an employee's physical and psychological condition, as well as maintaining employee's productive and relaxation phases and ensuring smooth transitions between them, using the collected in real-time data. As a result of the work, impact methods and information sources are analyzed and classified, the technologies used for collecting, storing and processing data, as well as the environment changing actors are described.
... They have been used for thousands of years for beneficial purposes, for physical and mental health. Nowadays, the importance of the sense of smell in the human species does not only relate to food, hygiene or beauty, but also plays a significant role in lived experiences [2]. An odour has the sensational ability to evoke a past experience that is dormant in our minds with extreme clarity, allowing us to materialise our memories, travel through time and bring back the moment when that particular scent struck us [3,4]. ...
“Seta e Ciliegia” and “Narguilé” fragrances were mixed to form a binary blend with chemically stable, non-volatile, odourless, simple bases of different lipophilicity widely used in skin care and hair care formulations, such as caprylic-capric triglyceride, glycerine, paraffin, dimethicone, isopropyl myristate and butylene glycol, with the objective to verify how the olfactory performance of fragrances can be influenced by skin or hair care ingredients. The semiquantitative approach applied in this study aims in providing a practical solution to appropriately combine a fragrance with cosmetic ingredients. Pure fragrance and binary blends were analysed by solid phase microextraction gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS), based on the assumption that the solid phase microextraction is able to extract volatile compounds, mimicking the ability of the nose to capture similar volatile compounds. Fifty-seven and forty-four compounds were identified by SPME-GC/MS in pure fragrances “Seta e Ciliegia” and “Narguilé”, respectively. Once mixed with the bases, the analysis of the blends revealed that a qualitative modification in the chromatograms could occur according to the characteristics of the bases. In general, for both fragrances, blends with glycerin and butylene glycol, which are the most hydrophilic bases among the ones tested, were able to release most of the peaks, that were thus still present in the chromatograms. Differently, in the blends with caprylic-capric triglyceride, most of the peaks are lost. Blends with paraffine, dimethicone and isopropyl myristate showed an intermediate behaviour. These results were thus compared with the sensory evaluation made by an experienced perfumer, capable of assessing the different olfactory performances of pure fragrances and their different binary blends. The evaluation made by the perfumer fitted well with the analytical results, and in the blends where most of the peaks were revealed in the chromatogram, the perfumer found a similar olfactory profile for example with glycerin, butylene glycol, while a modification of the olfactory profile was highlighted when several peaks were not still present in the chromatogram, as it was the case with caprylic-capric triglyceride. Interestingly, when the most typical peaks of a fragrance were still observed in the blend, even if some of them were lost, the olfactory performance was not lost, as was the case of paraffin and isopropyl myristate. In the case of dimethicone, its high volatility was considered responsible for a certain decrease in the fragrance “volume”. The results achieved with this investigation can be used to hypothesize that the different compounds of a fragrance, characterized for the first time by different volatility and solubility, could be differently retained by the bases: the more lipophilic are strongly retained by the lipophilic bases with a consequently reduced volatility that limits the possibility of being appreciated by the nose and that corresponds to disappearance or a percentage reduction from the chromatogram. Therefore, in a more accurate and helpful view for a formulator, we could come to the conclusion that based on the results achieved by our investigation, the inclusion of a less lipophilic base can be more appropriate to exalt more lipophilic fragrances.
... Each approach captures a different type of signal, and each brings a number of various advantages and disadvantages depending on the used measurement technique. There are many studies around the world that used neuroimaging and biometric methods to demonstrate the effect of odors on brain activity, which analyzed human response using the EEG signal [28] or the effect on emotions from a mood and physiology perspective [29][30][31]. In general, consumer neuroscience has helped gain new insights into consumer research by examining the effects of different aromas on affective and cognitive processes [20,21,32]. ...
In the current era of a strongly competitive business environment, it is more difficult for companies to attract customers. Consumer neuroscience has growing potential here, as it reveals internal consumer preferences by using innovative methods and tools, which can effectively examine consumer behavior and attract new customers. In particular, smell has a great ability to subconsciously influence customers and, thus, support profitability. This paper examines the importance of consumer neuroscience and its modern technologies used for exploring human perceptions to influence customers and benefit from the aromatization of business spaces. We focused our analysis on various service sectors. Despite the potential of the examined issue, there are a limited number of studies in the field of service providers that use neuroscience tools to examine the effect of aromas on human emotions. Most studies took place in laboratory conditions, and the used methodological procedures varied widely. Our analysis showed that, in spite of the positive impact of aromatization in the majority of aromatized spaces, service companies still do not use the potential of consumer neuroscience and aroma marketing to a sufficient degree. Innovative methods and tools, in particular, are still very underused.
... Odors affect behavior (Bensafi et al. 2002a(Bensafi et al. , 2002b, mood, and well-being (Alaoui-Ismaïli et al. 1997;Rétiveau and Milliken 2004;Warrenburg 2005) as well as cognitive processes, such as memory and preference acquisition (Leppänen and Hietanen 2003). ...
The purpose of this paper is to advance the theory and contribute to the practice of luxury perfumes' shelf management by decoding the relationship between attention on the shelf, purchase decision-making, and brand recall. It employs an eye-tracking experiment to analyze attention spans and fixations, which is combined with a questionnaire to uncover recall and purchase intent. The research identifies attention patterns and the influence of attention on recall and purchase intention. It further reveals the main factors that influence attention on the shelf in the luxury perfume industry. This is a milestone for further elaboration on the benefits of the fashion mainstream for luxury perfumes and the debate regarding whether luxury perfumes should be treated similar to mainstream fashion or similar to any other product in basic shelf management rules. This study enables shelf managers and marketers to place the perfumes both on the shelf and in consumer minds to maintain a top-of-the-mind brand position. Managerial implications are significant and address perfume industry packaging as well as shelf positioning.
... Scientific research has revealed that a pleasant smell has an enormous effect on creating good moods and positive mental function (Leffingwell and Leffingwell 2011). Moreover, some of the smell used to make human beings feel better and relaxed the stress level of the brain and rejuvenate the body action (Warrenburg 2005). The pleasant fragrance has an importance in the living room, car, office, bedroom, washroom etc. Different synthetic essential oil (lavender, jasmine etc.) based fragrance packets are available in the market (Sowndhararajan and Kim 2016). ...
A cellulosic fibre based well-being fragrance packet has been developed by Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT). Inside the packet, three layers of cotton nonwoven (gram per square meter 100) have been used as core material. Fragrance based natural essential oil (citronella oil) has been incorporated in the middle non-woven layer of the cotton. Volatile active species of the essential oil infused in the cotton non-woven slowly has been diffused through the upper and lower non-woven layers in the surrounding atmosphere through the pores of the paper based sheath material. As per feedback report, a fragrance released from the packet is satisfactory up to seven days in the 25-30 square feet area. Mosquito repellency of the well-being packet also has been examined by following the standard cone test method. It has been observed that the smell release from the pack is capable to repel mosquitoes (100%) up to five days after opening the pack. The intensity of the active ingredients of fragrance released from the packet with time has been measured by gas chromatography analysis. The engineered pack has lightweight, is biodegradable, delivers well-being fragrance and repels mosquitoes up to one week. 123 Cellulose https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-021-03974-9(0123456789().,-volV) (01234567 89().,-volV) Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... Scientific research has revealed that a pleasant smell has an enormous effect on creating good moods and positive mental function (Leffingwell and Leffingwell 2011). Moreover, some of the smell used to make human beings feel better and relaxed the stress level of the brain and rejuvenate the body action (Warrenburg 2005). The pleasant fragrance has an importance in the living room, car, office, bedroom, washroom etc. Different synthetic essential oil (lavender, jasmine etc.) based fragrance packets are available in the market (Sowndhararajan and Kim 2016). ...
A cellulosic fibre based well-being fragrance packet has been developed by Central Institute for Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCOT). Inside the packet, three layers of cotton nonwoven (gram per square meter 100) have been used as core material. Fragrance based natural essential oil (citronella oil) has been incorporated in the middle non-woven layer of the cotton. Volatile active species of the essential oil infused in the cotton non-woven slowly has been diffused through the upper and lower non-woven layers in the surrounding atmosphere through the pores of the paper based sheath material. As per feedback report, a fragrance released from the packet is satisfactory up to seven days in the 25–30 square feet area. Mosquito repellency of the well-being packet also has been examined by following the standard cone test method. It has been observed that the smell release from the pack is capable to repel mosquitoes (100%) up to five days after opening the pack. The intensity of the active ingredients of fragrance released from the packet with time has been measured by gas chromatography analysis. The engineered pack has lightweight, is biodegradable, delivers well-being fragrance and repels mosquitoes up to one week.
Graphic abstract
... Hatta fareler üzerinde yapılan bir çalışmada, lavanta kokusunun farelerde yatıştırıcı bir etkisinin olduğu ortaya konmuştur (Buchbauer ve ark., 1991). Bunlar dışında da pek çok farklı duygu durum (rahat, sakin, coşkun, üzgün) üzerinde farklı kokuların (vanilya, lavanta, portakal) etkileri olduğu bilinmektedir (Warrenburg, 2005). ...
... Hatta fareler üzerinde yapılan bir çalışmada, lavanta kokusunun farelerde yatıştırıcı bir etkisinin olduğu ortaya konmuştur (Buchbauer ve ark., 1991). Bunlar dışında da pek çok farklı duygu durum (rahat, sakin, coşkun, üzgün) üzerinde farklı kokuların (vanilya, lavanta, portakal) etkileri olduğu bilinmektedir (Warrenburg, 2005). ...
... Hatta fareler üzerinde yapılan bir çalışmada, lavanta kokusunun farelerde yatıştırıcı bir etkisinin olduğu ortaya konmuştur (Buchbauer ve ark., 1991). Bunlar dışında da pek çok farklı duygu durum (rahat, sakin, coşkun, üzgün) üzerinde farklı kokuların (vanilya, lavanta, portakal) etkileri olduğu bilinmektedir (Warrenburg, 2005). ...
... Hatta fareler üzerinde yapılan bir çalışmada, lavanta kokusunun farelerde yatıştırıcı bir etkisinin olduğu ortaya konmuştur (Buchbauer ve ark., 1991). Bunlar dışında da pek çok farklı duygu durum (rahat, sakin, coşkun, üzgün) üzerinde farklı kokuların (vanilya, lavanta, portakal) etkileri olduğu bilinmektedir (Warrenburg, 2005). ...
... Multiple-choice formats, in which a list of emotion terms are presented and respondents have to choose only one (or X) from a list of Y terms have also been used to obtain emotion data. For example, Warrenburg (2005) presented 8 emotion/mood words (happy, relaxed, sensuous, stimulated, irritated, stressed, depressed, apathetic) that spanned a two-dimensional space from negative to positive and low to high arousal to consumers. Aroma stimuli (fragrance ingredients) were used as test products (clementine and vanilla bean) and the participants were instructed to "pick the mood (sic) category that best matches the aroma of the sample." ...
Product emotion research is a burgeoning area of research within academia and industry. The explosion in the number of methods for measuring emotions and the rapidly growing range of applications for emotion research has created a situation filled with both important measurement and methodological issues. In this chapter we describe the measurement techniques that are currently available to capture emotional responses to products using self-report questionnaires. In addition, we address the fundamental issues related to the application of these measurement techniques, including scale issues, reliability of methods, temporal capture of self-reports and issues related to stimulus formats, presenting the most relevant research that addresses these issues. In this way, it is our hope to provide actionable guidance and direction to new investigators coming into this area of research, as well as to stimulate thought and ideas for new avenues of research related to the self-report of emotions using questionnaires.
... According to Cash (1988) the use of cosmetic products affects not only social impressions but also self-image (for example, body image, self-perceptions, and mood states). Some approaches to the research problem considered the emotional dimension of consumer behavior in particular industry segments such as luxury cosmetics (Kang et al, 2020;Anderlova & Pšurny, 2020.) or the perfume industry (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Warrenburg, 2005). However, other authors have examined the emotions in the cosmetic industry regarding the context of impulse purchasing (Yang & Lee, 2016). ...
Regarding the importance of psychological processes in the consumer behavior, the article examines the influence of emotional motivators on purchase decisions in cosmetics industry. The empirical research was conducted from February to March 2020, on the sample of 125 respondents in Serbia. The participants answered the questions about the positive and negative emotions that occurred during the purchasing process. When defining the questionnaire, we started from the fact that emotions, which influence consumer behavior can be integral or incidental emotions.
The aim of the study was to identify the emotions that have the strongest effect on consumers when purchasing cosmetic products. During the statistical data processing,
the following techniques and methods were implemented: the descriptive statistical measures (frequencies and percentage, arithmetical midranges), the measures of variability, the correlation method. The survey indicated that the most dominant
emotions that affect consumer purchasing decisions related to cosmetics products in the Republic of Serbia are positive emotions. The majority of respondents recognized hope as the most important emotion in their buying behavior.
... According to Cash (1988) the use of cosmetic products affects not only social impressions but also self-image (for example, body image, self-perceptions, and mood states). Some approaches to the research problem considered the emotional dimension of consumer behavior in particular industry segments such as luxury cosmetics (Kang et al, 2020;Anderlova & Pšurny, 2020.) or the perfume industry (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Warrenburg, 2005). However, other authors have examined the emotions in the cosmetic industry regarding the context of impulse purchasing (Yang & Lee, 2016). ...
Regarding the importance of psychological processes in the consumer behavior, the article examines the influence of emotional motivators on purchase decisions in cosmetics industry. The empirical research was conducted from February to March 2020, on the sample of 125 respondents in Serbia. The participants answered the questions about the positive and negative emotions that occurred during the purchasing process. When defining the questionnaire, we started from the fact that emotions, which influence consumer behavior can be integral or incidental emotions. The aim of the study was to identify the emotions that have the strongest effect on consumers when purchasing cosmetic products. During the statistical data processing, the following techniques and methods were implemented: the descriptive statistical measures (frequencies and percentage, arithmetical midranges), the measures of variability, the correlation method. The survey indicated that the most dominant emotions that affect consumer purchasing decisions related to cosmetics products in the Republic of Serbia are positive emotions. The majority of respondents recognized hope as the most important emotion in their buying behavior.
... Pleasant fragrances tend to evoke positive moods, while unpleasant odors enhance negative moods [17][18][19]. Fragrances have reported stress-relief effects, as revealed using psychophysiological methods such as electromyography [20] and EEG [21]. Among all senses, olfaction closely interacts with emotion processing [22][23][24]. ...
During mid-life, women experienced not only physical but also neurological transition. Because of this, many women suffer from physiological and/or psychological menopausal symptoms. Although hormone therapy (HT) was broadly used to alleviate menopausal symptoms, HT showed inconsistent effects in case of psychological symptoms. Moreover, mid-life women's brains have distinct characteristics than in other periods of life, it is needed to study psychological symptoms in shifted brain network of mid-life women. As an alternative, inhalation of fragrances may alleviate psychological menopausal symptoms. To characterize the alleviation mechanism by fragrances, we tested the effect of fragrances on menopausal symptoms using electroencephalographic (EEG) methods. We hypothesized that fragrance could restore mid-life women's brain response to stressful situations. We tested six fragrance conditions, including no-odor condition (solvent only) in twenty-eight mid-life women (49.75 years±3.49). Our results showed that fragrances increased alpha power and decreased β/α ratio depending on the severity of menopausal symptoms in a stressful situation. Our study would be helpful in psychological menopausal symptom alleviation as well as fragrance screening for well-being in mid-life.
... Özellikle duygusal olarak pozitif anıları geri getirmede kokular görsel bir uyarandan bile daha işlevsel olabilir (Rubin, Groth ve Goldsmith, 1984 (Wang, LaBar ve McCarthy, 2006). Örneğin; la-vanta, portakal, vanilya, müge gibi bazı kokuların duygudurumu pozitif yönde etkilediğine dair pek çok çalışma bulunmaktadır (Diego ve ark., 1998;Field ve ark., 2005;Lehrner ve ark., 2000Lehrner ve ark., , 2005Ludvigson ve Rottman, 1989;Moss ve ark., 2003, Warrenburg, 2005. Hatta kokuların etkisi sadece duygudurum bağlamında sınırlı kalmaz. ...
Koku duyusu, sahip olduğumuz beş temel duyu içerisinde en geri planda tuttuğumuz ve diğerleri kadar kullanmadığımız bir duyudur. Belki de bir tanesini kaybetmek durumunda kalsak ve seçim bizim elimizde olsa neredeyse herkesin feda edeceği duyudur koku. Bu geri planda tutmanın bir kefareti olarak zaman zaman koku duyusuna çok ilginç atıflarda da bulunabiliyoruz. Ten kokusunun ne kadar önemli olduğu, bazı kokuların nasıl da anıları canlandırdığı ve hatta bir duygu seline neden olduğu gibi söylemler de günlük hayatın içerisinde karşılaştığımız manzaralar olabiliyor. Şöyle bir düşünürseniz, koku duyusu ile ilgili bir sohbet ortamı meydana geldiğinde büyük ihtimalle ortamdaki insanlar bu duyunun farklı farklı pozitif özelliklerini sıralayacaklardır. Peki bu duyu ile ilgili ne kadar bilgiye sahibiz? Neden diğer duyularımız kadar net bir duyudan söz edemiyoruz ve neden hakkında konuştuğumuz “bilgi”lerin çoğu aslında muğlak bilgiler. Bu yazının amacı biraz bu duruma değinmektir. Kokular ile ilgili “gerçek” ve “efsane” arasındaki çizgiyi biraz daha görünür hâle getirmektir. Bunun için de iyi bir yol önerisi olarak kokularla ilgili duymaya aşina olduğumuz söylemlerimiz üzerinden gidebiliriz. Yani bilimsel bulgulardan tek tek yola çıkarak bir tümevarım yapmaktansa hâli hazırda var olan olguları bilimsel bulgularla destekleyerek tümdengelim yapabiliriz.
... Sensory experiences beyond those inherent to the activity have also been shown to have a substantial impact on consumer experiences and purchasing behavior (e.g., Morrison, Gan, Dubelaar, & Oppewal, 2011;Warrenburg, 2005). Some retail stores, for example, add pleasant aromas to enhance shoppers' experiences. ...
We evaluated 4 “experience industry” strategies for enhancing the quality of immediate experiences for 4-H youth: theming, adding multisensory experiences, personalizing interactions, and providing memorabilia. These strategies are commonly used by theme parks, restaurants, resorts, attractions, and other experience industry organizations, but their application to youth services is sporadic. 4-H youth (n = 30) participated in a series of 8 outdoor recreation activity sessions. Each activity session, 1 per week for 8 consecutive weeks, was structured using a unique combination of the 4 strategies. Participants completed questionnaires measuring 5 dimensions of experience quality after each activity session. Theme and personalization of experiences were found to significantly increase experience quality.
... Self-report questionnaires may ask directly about participants' evaluation of a stimulus, or may use indirect, or implicit, measures to evaluate participants' emotional responses without directly asking them (He, de Wijk, de Graaf, & Boesveldt, 2016). Physiological data can also be a valuable tool in examining emotional reactions, as changes in skin response, breathing, and heart rate may all reflect affective state (Herz, 2009;Marchand & Arsenault, 2002;Warrenburg, 2005). For the purposes of this study, two self-report measures were chosen: the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Interventions, 1988), and the Mood Signature Questionnaire (Jin, Haviland-Jones, Simon, & Tepper, 2018). ...
qPODs (Portable Olfactive Devices, Curion) are novel olfactory delivery systems which allow for sampling of a wide variety of stimulus types. Participants evaluate odors by opening a port at the top of the qPOD and sampling a controlled air stream. Though they are often used in marketing studies, their potential use in empirical research has yet to be investigated. We asked participants to smell citral, citronellol, geraniol, PEA, nonalactone, and vanillin delivered via qPODs and by traditional sniff jars, and compared both hedonic and emotional responses. Across four sessions, 31 participants evaluated the pleasantness and intensity of each odor in qPODs and sniff jars. Their emotional reactions to the odors were captured with the PANAS (Positive And Negative Affect Schedule) at the beginning of each testing session, and then again after exposure to each odor. They also completed the newly developed Mood Signature Questionnaire, which asks participants to assign a mood to each odor, rather than reporting how it makes them feel. Though odors presented in the sniff jars were rated significantly more intense (p < 0.001), there were no differences between presentation types for perceived pleasantness, changes in positive or negative mood following odor exposure, or which emotional descriptors (Mood Signatures) participants assigned to the odors. Our results suggest that responses to odor stimuli presented using qPODs are comparable to traditional sniff jars, thus establishing the qPOD as a potential new tool for studies employing a range of olfactory stimuli.
... Before each trial, the room was circulated by opening windows and allowed to keep fresh air. The reason for using mandarin odor was that citrus scents were common odors and rated as pleasant for people (Lehrner, Eckersberger, Walla, Potsch, & Deecke, 2000;Porcherot et al., 2010;Warrenburg, 2005). The mandarin odor was obtained from a local market and its emotions were assessed before these experiments. ...
Brainstorming is a widely used method for generating creative ideas. There is an interest in various techniques contributing to it; nevertheless, research examining the influence of an aromatic odor as a facilitator has been scarce. Two experiments were conducted for this purpose. In Experiment I, a mandarin odor was presented with either stimulating (relevant) or non-stimulating (irrelevant) words prior to the brainstorming session, then re-presented during it. The findings showed that re-presenting the odor during brainstorming increased flexible and unique ideas through retrieval of stimulating words from memory. Flexibility also played a mediator role between mandarin odor and unique ideas. In Experiment II, odor presentation times were changed. It was presented prior to brainstorming, during it or both. The first odor presentation enhanced idea generation only when there was a second odor presentation. The findings suggested that it was the combination of the odors, presented before (and alongside a list of stimulating words) and during brainstorming, that contributed to the use of stimulating words during brainstorming. These two experiments revealed the role of mandarin odor on flexible thinking and idea generation via memory retrieval. Moreover, the odor increased recalling performance, even when the stimuli were given implicitly and recently learned.
... The ability of scents to elicit specific emotional reactions has been long recognized in many disciplines including HCI (e.g., (Ghinea and Ademoye, 2012;Willander and Larsson, 2007;Kaye, 2004;Murray et al., 2016)). Our sense of smell is often defined as an emotional system due to the shared brain areas (i.e., amygdala) involved in the processing of both smell and emotions (Warrenburg, 2005;Vernet-Maury et al., 1999). Smell has been shown to be particularly effective in priming emotional changes because the pleasantness (valence) of the scent is the primary dimension which impacts our initial emotional reaction (Delplanque et al., 2017). ...
Interactive technologies are transforming the ways in which people experience, interact and share information. Advances in technology have made it possible to generate real and virtual environments with breath-taking graphics and high-fidelity audio. However, without stimulating the other senses such as touch and smell, and even taste in some cases, such experiences feel hollow and fictitious; they lack realism. One of the main stumbling blocks for progress towards creating truly compelling multisensory experiences is the lack of appropriate tools and guidance for designing beyond audio-visual applications. Here we focus particularly on the sense of smell and how smell-based design can be enabled to create novel user experiences. We present a design toolkit for smell (i.e., OWidgets). The toolkit consists of a graphical user interface and the underlying software framework. The framework uses two main components: a Mapper and Scheduler facilitating the device-independent replication of olfactory experiences. We discuss how our toolkit reduces the complexity of designing with smell and enables a creative exploration based on specific design features. We conclude by reflecting on future directions to extend the toolkit and integrate it into the wider audio-visual ecosystem.
... New brands/attractions may want to use the background scent strategies to create pleasurable experiences which do not distract. Although research of scents in experience creation has been rather fragmented, there are studies which consider them mostly in relation to different aspects of marketing (Chebat & Michon, 2003;Bone & Jantrania, 1992;Mitchell, Kahn & Knasko, 1995;Morrin & Ratneshwar, 2000;Spangenberg, Crowley & Henderson, 1996;Michon, Chebat & Turley, 2005) but also those in relation to their effect on emotions (Warrenburg, 2005;Sellaro et al., 2014). The latter type of studies detects different impacts of individual scents (cinnamon, lavender, peppermint, mint, lemon, rosemary, etc.) on emotions and moods, which is a useful resource for experience creation. ...
Effective implementation of microencapsulation technique and cyclodextrin for the production of cosmetic textiles can be introduced as a technical textiles-based product. α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrin can be applied for the aromatherapic textile as host molecule, because it exhibits qualities of controlled release which may be beneficial for the improvement of human lifestyle. Cyclodextrin molecules are capable of forming inclusion compounds with fragrances that fit into the cone-shaped hydrophobic cavity. As a result, the release-fragrance rates are greatly decreased. There are many possibilities for the development of new textile products with advanced properties based on cyclodextrin. Microencapsulation technology is an effective technique used to control the release properties of active ingredients that prolong the functionality of cosmetic textiles. Focusing on the field of cosmetic textiles, the major interest in microencapsulation is currently in the application of attractive fragrances, vitamins, essential oils, skin moisturizing agents, skin cooling agents etc.
Emotions and food products are intimately related. Individuals’ emotions modulate eating behaviors, and negative emotions may induce food disorders. On the other hand, the consumption of food or drink products may trigger different emotional states in individuals. Thus, the relationship between food or drink products and emotion is dynamic and complex. In this chapter, after describing the strong link between food products and emotions and the role of associative learning, we propose a definition of emotion and feelings. The chapter mainly focuses on the measure of verbal emotional responses triggered by food products. This measure refers to feelings, or the conscious verbalization of the emotional response. Although the unconscious emotional response related to physiological and behavioral responses should not be underestimated and is described, the chapter provides a broader review on a methodology developed to measure food-elicited feelings in consideration of cross-cultural differences. A series of examples is presented to illustrate the use of this methodology in sensory and consumer test settings for food product development. We also propose that investigations should be undertaken into the effects of changing the product label, packaging, and color on consumer emotional expectations and on the overall emotional response when the product is experienced. Finally, examples of research conducted in ecological settings and virtual environments are provided.Key wordsEmotionsFeelingsFoodsExpectationCulture
Spiking beverages with aroma molecules is one of the primary methods to investigate the contribution of individual volatile compounds to key sensory attributes such as primary descriptors, intensity, pleasantness, preference, persistence, and dominance. The purpose of this procedure is to outline basic steps for preparing stock solutions from pure molecule standards in liquid and solid state, perform dilutions adapted to representative concentrations in beverages, present samples to participants, and keep reagents in viable conditions.Key wordsAromasBeverageSpikingSensory evaluationDilutions
To support a healthy human mental state, controlling the environment is one of the best-known solutions. However, it is difficult to design an environmental control system because of the uniqueness of individual preferences and mental state fluctuations. Here, we propose “Buddy system” as an adaptive mental state support solution that controls devices in the environment, depending on the recognized user’s mental state at the time and how it could be improved, serving a role similar to a “buddy” to individuals. The recognition of mental states and the locus of actions to control one’s surrounding environment are implemented on the basis of a brain-derived theory of computation known as active inference and free-energy principles, which provide biologically plausible computations for perceptions and behavior in a changing world. For the generation of actions, we modify the general calculations of active inference to adjust to individual environmental preferences. In the experiments, the Buddy system sought to maintain the participants’ concentration while a calculation task was conducted. As a result, the task performance for most of the participants was improved through the aid of the Buddy system. The results indicated that the Buddy system can adaptively support to improve the mental states of individual users.
Encapsulation of fragrances into porous materials is a technique to preserve or mask the odor of aroma compounds as well as to enhance their thermal and oxidative stability. There is great interest in studying the potential of essential oil-derived fragrance carriers using low-cost materials such as zeolitic structures for healthcare, food, textiles or agricultural applications. Two zeolite structures, faujasite (FAU) and mordonite (MOR) were used as carriers for encapsulation of different fragrances present in essential oils, in order to prepare stable fragrance carriers. To this purpose, commercial vanillin (Van) was encapsulated in NaMOR, commercial D-limonene (Lim) and cinnamaldehyde (Cinn), extracted from cinnamon stick, were encapsulated into NaY and NaX, respectively, and methyl anthranilate (MA), a synthetized fragrance with a fruity grape scent, was encapsulated in NaY. The retention of fragrances in zeolite structures increased in the order NaX < NaY < MOR for cinnamaldehyde, limonene, methyl anthranilate or vanillin. The most promising fragrance carriers prepared, [email protected] and [email protected], were monitored for 24 months, and fragrances release was determined by TGA analysis, being 64.5 % for [email protected] and 63.2 % for [email protected] A zero-order desorption kinetic model was determined for both fragrance carriers.
Olfaction is the most ancient sense and is directly connected with emotional areas in the brain. It gives rise to perception linked to emotion both in everyday life and in memory-recall activities. Despite its emotional primacy in perception and its role in sampling the real physical world, olfaction is rarely used in clinical psychological settings because it relies on stimuli that are difficult to deliver. However, recent developments in virtual-reality tools are creating novel possibilities for the engagement of the sense of smell in this field. In this article, we present the relevant features of olfaction for relaxation purposes and then discuss possible future applications of involving olfaction in virtual-reality interventions for relaxation. We also discuss clinical applications, the potential of new tools, and current obstacles and limitations.
Emotions have a major role in social interactions (Russell et al., 2003; Sander et al., 2005) and in determining the consumption behavior. Emotion measurement often provides important information beyond the subject’s preferences, such as physiological and psychological characteristics and affective consumer’s state. The present chapter is focused on the most commonly used methods to investigate the emotions of nonfood products and concerns mainly advertising and marketing fields, design, cosmetics, fragrances, and odors. Medical and clinical applications were not approached.
Nowadays, the evaluation of fragrances is a key parameter to build or confirm the good performance of a product, especially when the product is dedicated to beauty. The fragrance sector covers a wide range of products: fine fragrance, personal care, home care, and oral care. Depending on the research objectives, odor quantification or characterization are needed to validate a change in the formula (perceptible or not), to characterize the fragrance, or to establish links between sensory and consumer data. Two approaches can be followed to support and validate the creation process of a scent: (1) sensory, such as descriptive analyses (with classic and alternative protocols) and discrimination testing, and (2) consumer, such as hedonic tests.
The affective appraisal of odors is known to depend on their intensity (I), familiarity (F), detection threshold (T), and on the baseline affective state of the observer. However, the exact nature of these relations is still largely unknown. We therefore performed an observer experiment in which participants (N = 52) smelled 40 different odors (varying widely in hedonic valence) and reported the intensity, familiarity and their affective appraisal (valence and arousal: V and A) for each odor. Also, we measured the baseline affective state (valence and arousal: BV and BA) and odor detection threshold of the participants. Analyzing the results for pleasant and unpleasant odors separately, we obtained two models through network analysis. Several relations that have previously been reported in the literature also emerge in both models (the relations between F and I, F and V, I and A; I and V, BV and T). However, there are also relations that do not emerge (between BA and V, BV and I, and T and I) or that appear with a different polarity (the relation between F and A for pleasant odors). Intensity (I) has the largest impact on the affective appraisal of unpleasant odors, while F significantly contributes to the appraisal of pleasant odors. T is only affected by BV and has no effect on other variables. This study is a first step towards an integral study of the affective appraisal of odors through network analysis. Future studies should also include other factors that are known to influence odor appraisal, such as age, gender, personality, and culture.
Emotions can be expressed by the five major external senses of human beings (i.e. vision, hearing, touch, smell and taste) via metaphors. Previous studies have mainly explored the relation between the five senses and emotions from the perspectives of physiology and cognition, and research on the five senses focuses on their semantic meanings. This paper attempts to investigate their relation based on corpus linguistics, centering on sensory verbs and emotional words. It is found that in Mandarin Chinese, five basic emotions (i.e., happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and surprise) can be expressed via olfactory, tactile, visual, and auditory modalities while among these five basic emotions, surprise cannot be expressed through taste.
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