Article

Relationship between Mental Toughness and Physical Endurance

March 2005
Perceptual and Motor Skills 100(1):192-4

DOI:10.2466/PMS.100.1.192-194

Source
PubMed

Authors:

Lee Crust

Independent Researcher

Peter Joseph Clough

Manchester Metropolitan University

This study tested the criterion validity of the inventory, Mental Toughness 48, by assessing the correlation between mental toughness and physical endurance for 41 male undergraduate sports students. A significant correlation of .34 was found between scores for overall mental toughness and the time a relative weight could be held suspended. Results support the criterion-related validity of the Mental Toughness 48.

IDO MOVEMENT FOR CULTURE

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Jan 2023

Aim. One of the applications of sport psychology is to help to improve performance, learn and implement skills. The main goal of this study was to determine the effect of psychological toughness and self-efficacy in the acquisition of the martial arts leg kick skill. Materials. The present research was practical in terms of purpose, and correlation in terms of nature. The statistical population was all the martial arts athletes in the city of Tabriz, some 1480 in 2020, of whom 305 were selected randomly based on the Cochran formula. In this study, three questionnaires: self-efficacy, psychological toughness and acquisition skills, and the skill of the leg kick were used in taekwando and karate to collect data. The data was analyzed using the SPSS 20 software, regression test. Results. The results showed that psychological toughness and self-efficacy play a significant role in the acquisition of the martial arts leg kick by combat athletes. Self-efficacy and mental toughness are the most important characteristics of a successful athlete. Conclusion. Athletes can have a positive effect on their performance by increasing mental toughness and self-efficacy.

Mental toughness among national soccer officials: A comparative analysis

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Dec 2022

Few studies have looked at the psychological mechanisms that govern soccer officials’ performance to this point. The main goal of the study is to identify age-related changes in mental toughness among officials. Sixty active national officials were chosen at random from the All-India Football Federation’s national officials’ roster (AIFF). Group A is 25-30 years old, with a mean and SD of 27.4±3.39 (lower age group); Group B is 31-35 years old, with a mean and SD of 31.8±1.28 (middle age group); and Group C is 36-40 years old, with a mean and SD of 37.6±1.98 (higher age group). The Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI), developed by James E. Loehr in 1982, was chosen as the research’s test item. This instrument evaluates seven aspects of mental toughness, including selfconfidence, negative energy control, attention control, visualisation and imagery control, motivation, positive energy control, and attitude control. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), with a significance threshold of 0.05, was used as the statistical approach to assess the study’s hypothesis. The finding of the research paper shows no significant difference among various groups.

Gender Differences and Relationship of 2D:4D-Ratio, Mental Toughness and Dark Triad Traits among Active Young Adults

Article

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Jun 2022

There is consistent evidence that prenatal exposures to higher testosterone and lower estrogen concentrations during the first trimester of embryonal and fetal development are associated with a lower 2D:4D-ratio that is to say: The index finger (2D) is shorter, compared to the ring finger (4D). Compared to non-active, athletes show lower 2D:4D ratios. However, athletes also report specific personality traits such as mental toughness, assertiveness, and competitive behavior. Here, we tested, if 2D:4D-ratios were related to specific personality traits. We further investigated possible gender differences. A total of 460 active young adults (mean age: 24.81 years; 67% females) completed a series of self-rating questionnaires covering sociodemographic information and traits of the dark triad and mental toughness. Participants also provided a scan of their right palm hand to measure and calculate 2D:4D-ratios. T-tests, Pearson’s correlations, and multiple regression analysis were performed to analyze data. Compared to male participants, female participants had a higher 2D:4D-ratio. Female and male participants did not differ as regards dark triad traits and mental toughness traits. Irrespective of gender, and based on correlational computations, 2D:4D-ratios were unrelated to the dark triad (DT) and mental toughness (MT) scores. Higher DT scores were modestly associated with higher MT scores among females, but not among males. Lower 2D:4D-ratios were associated with higher constancy scores and the male gender. The constancy and male gender appeared to be associated with lower 2D:4D-ratios.

Effect of green exercise on stress level, mental toughness, and performance of taekwondo athletes

Article

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Dec 2024

Background and Study Aim: Green exercise, while in direct contact with the actual natural environment, delivers synergetic health benefits for the individuals, and active engagement with nature initiating the stress recovery process. The cognitive aims of this case study is knowledge about the effect of green exercise on stress level and mental toughness and its effect on the performance of junior taekwondo athletes in the competition period. Material and Methods: Three Latvian national taekwondo athletes (n = 2 females and n = 1 male) aged 17 were selected. All participants had at least ten years of experience in taekwondo. The Depression and Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), the Vienna Determination Test, and the mental toughness questionnaire were used, and the performance assessment was based on their best results in the International Sweden Taekwondo Competition. The intervention involved twelve 40-minute nature walks, done thrice weekly for four weeks before the competitions. Results: Group analysis showed significant stress reduction in the Vienna Determination Test (p = 0.01) but not in the DASS (p = 0.17) or mental toughness metrics (confidence p = 0.38, constancy p = 0.74, control p = 0.67). Athletes A, B, and C had varied stress reductions (22.6% to 75%) and inconsistent changes in mental toughness, with determination improving for all. Conclusions: Green exercise significantly improved stress levels based on the Determination Test but not on the DASS questionnaire or mental toughness metrics. Individual results showed varied stress reductions, suggesting the potential benefits of nature-based physical activity in competitive settings. Further research is necessary on representative groups of people with different experience of physical activity and also using other tests in order to select a tool with the highest predictive value.

Evaluation of the 10-item Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ10): cross-cultural assessment and scrutiny of method effects

Article

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Sep 2024
CURR PSYCHOL

The 10-item Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ10) is an easy to administer, global measure of mental toughness. Previous analysis established that the MTQ10 was psychometrically superior to the preceding, widely used, 18-item version. Nevertheless, the MTQ10 is potentially undermined by a method effect arising from the inclusion of negatively phrased items. Noting this, the present paper further assessed the measurement properties of the MTQ10 via cross-cultural comparisons. This involved assessing the factor composition in samples from the UK (N = 596), Greece (N = 1230), and Italy (N = 425). Rather than a strict method effect, analyses found effects specific to pairs of negative items. The emergent model demonstrated partial invariance across countries. National variations in mental toughness scores were ascribable to societal differences. Convergent validity was demonstrated using theoretically related variables (Dark Triad and Life Satisfaction). Overall, results supported the use of the MTQ10 as a global mental toughness measure. Additionally, outcomes suggested that further cross-cultural comparison would provide useful insights into the nature of mental toughness.

PATTERN -ASSESSMENT OF COACHES' THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Silvia Ilieva-Sinigerova

Taekwon-do is a martial arts, making it an immeasurable sport. Good knowledge of the sports regulations is extremely important for successful performance in sports competitions. The aim of the present study is to assess the knowledge of coaches related to pattern discipline of Taekwon-do. Methodology: The study was carried out in April-May 2020. The study involved 61 Taekwon-do coaches (32.74±9.34 years) with different sports experience and degree from 19 local Taekwon-do clubs in Bulgaria. The online form test contains a total of 27 questions (4 personal and 23 specialized questions). Results: The largest accumulation of values (most coaches) received a result in the range of 35-46 points (68.58% of all tested). Most tasks have very good discrimination (0.50≤DP≤0.71). The calculated difficulty P of the questions used is in the range of 44-61%. Conclusion: Empirical data show that the test has good statistical characteristics and can be used to assess the theoretical knowledge of coaches about the sports regulations. The data obtained from the pedagogical experiment give grounds to claim that the level of knowledge of Taekwon-do coaches are at different levels. The regular use of a test to assess knowledge related to the rules of competition will increase the knowledge of coaches and reduce missed matches at critical moments.

SPARING AND SELF-DEFENSE -ASSESSMENT OF COACHES' THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Silvia Ilieva-Sinigerova

Successful performance and high sports achievements in sport depend on the various aspects of sports training-physical, technical, tactical, and psychological training. On the other hand, a good knowledge of the sports regulations is extremely important for successful performance in sports competitions. The aim of the present study is to assess the knowledge of coaches related to the sparing and self-defense of Taekwon-do. Methodology: The study was carried out in April-May 2020. The study involved 38 Taekwon-do coaches (38.44±9.52 years) with different sports experience and degree from 15 local Taekwon-do clubs in Bulgaria. The online form test contains a total of 32 questions (4 personal and 28 specialized questions). Results: The largest accumulation of values (most coaches) received a result in the range of 17-31 points (81.58% of all tested). Most tasks have very good discrimination (0.40≤DP≤0.80). The calculated difficulty P of the questions used is in the range of 55-90%. Conclusion: Empirical data show that the test has good statistical characteristics and can be used to assess the theoretical knowledge of coaches about the sports regulations. The data obtained from the pedagogical experiment give grounds to claim that the level of knowledge of Taekwon-do coaches are at different levels. The regular use of a test to assess knowledge related to the rules of competition will increase the knowledge of coaches and reduce missed matches at critical moments.

Comparative Study on Selected Fitness Components Between Individual and Team Games Players and its Relationship with Their Mental Toughness

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Jun 2024

The study aimed to compare selected fitness components and their relationship with mental toughness between individual and team game players. Participants included 200 male players (100 each from individual and team sports), aged 18 to 26, from Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Uttarakhand, India. The fitness components measured were explosive strength (medicine ball throw), muscular endurance (bent knee sit-ups), muscular power (standing broad jump), speed (50m dash), and cardiovascular endurance (800m run/walk test). Mental toughness was assessed using the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) by Sheard, Golby, and Van Wersch (2009). Descriptive statistics, t-tests, and Pearson's Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) were used for data analysis, with significance set at 0.05. Results indicated significant differences in speed, explosive strength, muscular power, cardiovascular endurance, and mental toughness between individual and team players, but no significant difference in muscular endurance. There was a significant positive relationship between cardiovascular endurance and mental toughness, and a significant negative relationship between mental toughness and speed, explosive strength, muscular power, and muscular endurance. The study concluded that male team game players outperformed their individual counterparts in speed, explosive strength, muscular power, and cardiovascular endurance. Both groups were similar in muscular endurance. Additionally, mental toughness was positively related to cardiovascular endurance but negatively related to other fitness components in both groups at the university level.

Characteristics of mental toughness in young basketball players of different age groups

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Purpose Assessing the development of skills that ensure personal mental toughness in adolescence is important because adolescents’ increasing autonomy and socialisation during adolescence inevitably create the conditions for an increasing number of external stressors to emerge. Paradoxically, adolescents’ confidence in their ability to cope with external stressors decreases during adolescence, which may lead to poorer sports performance in adolescent athletes. This study aimed to determine and analyse mental toughness skills in the cadet and junior age groups of young basketball players. Another aim was to reveal how general (total) mental toughness and age predict each athletic mental toughness skill. Methods This study surveyed 378 young basketball players using a two-stage cluster sampling approach. The Mental Toughness Questionnaire 48 (MTQ48) was chosen to assess general mental toughness skills. The Performance Inventory-Alternative (PPI-A) was chosen to assess athletic mental toughness skills. Results The study’s results revealed that players in the junior age group scored significantly higher on challenge (p < 0.001; d = –0.41), commitment (p < 0.001; d = –0.65), emotional control (p < 0.001; d = –0.76), life control (p = 0.02; d = –0.26), overall control (p < 0.001; d = –0.64), self-confidence in one’s abilities (p < 0.001; d = –0.73), self-confidence in interpersonal interactions (p < 0.001; d = –0.50), overall self-confidence (p < 0.001; d = –0.73), total mental toughness (MTQ-48) (p < 0.001; d = –0.78), determination (p < 0.001; d = –0.47) and visualisation (p < 0.001; d = –0.81). Significant correlations (r ranges from 0.12 to 0.37) were found between mental toughness skills and age groups for all scales mentioned above, except positive cognition and self-belief. Total mental toughness strongly predicted athletic mental toughness skills, but age did not predict determination and self-belief skills. Conclusions The findings of the present study suggest that promoting mental toughness can lead to improved athletic mental toughness indicators, emphasising its relevance for coaches, trainers, and sports psychologists in enhancing athletes’ development and performance.

Mental Toughness in Sports People

Preprint

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Mental toughness (MT) has yet to be systematically compared among elite athletes. Key distinctions include individual resilience and team dynamics. The research included N=28 athletes from sports such as rugby (team sport) and mixed martial arts (MMA) (individual sport). By examining these differences, the research aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of MT across different sports contexts. Using the Repertory Grid Technique and Multidimensional Scaling (MDS) for data collection and analysis, personal constructs of MT were examined (Kelly, 1955; Bell, 2001). Analysis revealed distinct themes such as perseverance, resilience, determination, composure, and integrity in individual athletes, contrasting with commitment, leadership qualities, and vulnerability in team sports participants (Clough et al., 2002; Jones & Harwood, 2008). Athletes also described strategies for developing and maintaining MT, crucial for performance in high-pressure environments. The study highlights MT's multidimensional nature and suggests expanding existing models to include interpersonal and emotional dimensions (Connaughton et al., 2008). Results advocate for the development of a new, more precise instrument for measuring MT, aiming to enhance diagnostic and interventional strategies. This research provides substantial implications for athletes, coaches, and sport psychology practitioners, underlining the need for sophisticated application of MT across various sports disciplines.

Interrelation of mental toughness, religiosity, and happiness of elite adolescent athletes based on gender, type of sport, and level of education

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May 2024

There are no studies that comprehensively discuss mental toughness, religiosity, and satisfaction based on gender, type of sport, and different school levels, especially in the context of elite youth athletes. In fact, this variable is believed to be a very important construct in relation to athletes' performance and achievements on the field. The purpose of this research is to explore athlete’s mental toughness, religiosity, and life happiness based on gender, type of sport, and school level. A total of 97 elite youth athletes were included in the study (age = 15.22 ± 1.34; F = 36, M = 61). Research data were collected using standard instruments used by scientists around the world, namely the Mental Toughness Index (MTI), Spirituality in Sports Test (SIST), and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Analysis of variance, correlation, and path analysis were used to understand more deeply the three research variables based on the athlete’s gender, type of sport, and school level. This study found that there was a significant difference only in the athlete's religiosity variable based on school level (F = 6.212, p ≤ .01). Athletes' mental toughness has a significant relationship with religiosity (r = .343; ρ = .323; p ≤ .01) and happiness in life (r = .340; ρ = .200; p ≤ .01). Apart from that, it also appears that religiosity has a significant relationship with happiness in life (r = .475; ρ = .406; p ≤ .01) and athlete age is significantly correlated with religiosity (r = .233; ρ = .200; p ≤ .05). Athletes' mental toughness has a significant relationship directly to satisfaction and indirectly through religiosity. These three variables have an important role in competitive sports so coaches or athlete coaches need to provide psychological intervention to improve these three variables. Keywords: elite youth athletes, mental toughness, religiosity, satisfaction.

Is Mental Toughness Related with Motor Learning in Wrestling?

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Oct 2022

Background: In sport context learning a skill, and performing it flawlessly is of great importance. There is a unanimous consensus among sport scientists, coaches, and athletes, that along with physical, technical and tactical skills, psychological skills are also necessary for an optimal sport performance. Objectives: The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of mental toughness in motor learning and sport performance in wrestling. Methods: This study was semi-experimental and its population were physical education students of the University of Tehran in 2018. Using intensive sampling method, 28 student-athletes, who never had any past wrestling skill practices, were selected. Subsequently, using Mental Toughness-48 questionnaires, they were divided into two equal groups of high and low in mental toughness. After that, all participants were randomly assigned into two groups of equal size and 30 wrestling skills were taught to them twice a week for 3 months by two professional wrestling coaches. Their motor learning was assessed by three other professional coaches in the last week of training and one week after the last session. Motor learning score was obtained by calculating the mean scores of acquisition and retention stages. Then, two groups with high and low levels of mental toughness were compared regarding their motor learning scores. Tools used in this study included demographic consent form, wrestling skills test and The Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 (MTQ 48). Results: The results suggested that mentally tough student-athletes demonstrated significantly higher motor learning scores compared with their counterparts who had lower levels of mental toughness (P ≤ 0/05). This advantage was persistent both in the acquisition and retention stages (P ≤ 0/05). Conclusions: It was concluded that mental toughness could be considered as a key factor in motor learning. Therefore, it is recommended to coaches and athletes to develop mental toughness in order to enhance motor learning and achieve successful performance.

Development of Mental Toughness among Basketball Sports School Students

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Apr 2024

The development of mental toughness in student athletes within sports schools is crucial for identifying strengths and improving weaknesses to optimize performance. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a mental toughness development program for basketball sports school students. Sixty-two male student athletes, aged 15.83 ± 0.37 years, participated, with 30 in the experimental group and 32 in the control group. They completed the Mental Toughness Questionnaire 48 (MTQ48) before and after the 6-week intervention program. Pearson’s correlations were calculated for study variables. A repeated measures MANOVA followed by one-way ANOVA analyzed differences in mental toughness skills between groups and over time. Results showed a significant effect of the intervention program on mental toughness skills, with small and medium effect sizes. Post-program, the experimental group exhibited higher levels of various skills compared to controls, including skills related to challenge, commitment, emotional control, life control, overall control, self-confidence in interpersonal interactions, self-confidence in one’s abilities, overall self-confidence, and total MTQ48. These findings underscore the utility of interventions for enhancing mental toughness among basketball sports school students, emphasizing the importance of tailored approaches in such intervention programs.

The Relationships Between Role Strain, Mental Toughness and Mental Health Amongst Adolescent Athletes

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An investigation into the associations between psychological skills, anaerobic fitness, and aerobic fitness in elite Iranian taekwondo athletes

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Jul 2023
PLOS ONE

This study investigated the relationship between psychological skills and fitness levels among elite taekwondo athletes. A total of ten Iranian male elite taekwondo athletes (mean age of 20.6±2 years, BMI 18.78±0.62 kg/m², and fat percentage of 8.87±1.46%) participated in the study. The Sports Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, Sports Success Scale, Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire, and Mindfulness Inventory for Sport were used to assess psychological factors. The Wingate test was used to determine anaerobic power, and the Bruce test to determine aerobic fitness. Descriptive statistics and Spearman rank correlation coefficients were utilised to examine any relationships between subscales. Statistically significant correlations were recorded between the evaluation of feelings (EI scale) and VO2peak (ml/kg/min) (r = -0.70, p = 0.0235) and between social skills (EI scale) and relative peak power (W/kg) (r = 0.84, p = 0.0026). Also, between optimism (EI scale) and VO2peak (ml/kg/min) (r = -0.70, p = 0.0252) and between optimism (EI scale) and HR-MAX (r = -0.75, p = 0.0123); and, finally, between control (mental toughness scale) and relative peak power (W/kg) (r = 0.67, p = 0.0360). These findings demonstrate relationships between psychological factors and the advantages of good anaerobic and aerobic capabilities. Finally, the study also demonstrated that elite taekwondo athletes have high mental performance abilities that are interrelated with anaerobic and aerobic performance.

Investigation the Relationship between Mental Toughness and Courage Levels of Sports Sciences Faculty Students for Sustainable Performance

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Jun 2023

This research aimed to explore any links between mental toughness and courage in sports among students enrolled in the faculty of Sports science, employing a relational screening model with a sample consisting of 340 university students who were selected using a convenience sampling method. Research data were collected through a Personal Information Form, the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ), and the Sport Courage Scale (SCS). Data Analysis included independent groups T-test, One-Way ANOVA, and Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient. Significant differences were detected in the SMTQ and SCS, as well as in the total scale scores, based on the gender variable, which is one of the demographic variables. SMTQ and SCS subdimensions and total scale scores differed significantly according to the university department. Furthermore, the study identified significant differences in the SMTQ and the SCS subdimensions and total scale scores based on the academic year variable. However, no significant Relationship was found between age and SMTQ and SCS subdimensions and total scale scores. The findings of this study indicate a significant and positive correlation between the SMTQ and SCS subdimensions and the total scale scores. Therefore, it can be concluded that as the mental toughness levels of the students in sports science increase, their courage levels also increase.

Mental Toughness and Osteoarthritis: Postsurgery Improvement in Knee Pain/Functionality in Older Adults

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

Purpose: To investigate longitudinally the role of mental toughness (MT) in knee rehabilitation in terms of perceived pain and functionality in a sample of older adults with arthritis who adhered to their postsurgery clinic-based rehabilitation protocols and provide suggestions to rehabilitation psychologists. Design: To strengthen the internal validity of this study, we designed our methods and implementation in a way to minimize bias by utilizing the National Institute of Health Quality Assessment Tool for Before-After (Pre-Post) Studies With No Control Group. The data were collected from 92 older-adult patients, who had a diagnosis of osteoarthritis and underwent knee surgery. All patients were diagnosed, underwent surgery, and were evaluated by the same physician. We administered the Oxford Knee Score (OKS) to measure rehabilitation outcomes in terms of pain and functionality and the MT Index (MTI) to measure MT levels three times: 1 day before and 1 and 6 months after the surgery. We used a multilevel growth model to examine the change in the OKS across administrations using MTI scores as a time-varying covariate and sex, age at surgery, and knee as time-invariant covariates. Results: About 62% of the variability in OKS was due to between-patient differences. Of the variability that was attributable to differences within-patient across time, MT accounted for about 38% of the variability. Conclusions: MT could be another, positive psychology-based tool rehabilitation psychologists use to contribute to health promotion efforts to reduce the incidence of disability of older adults with osteoarthritis who undergo knee replacement surgery. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of mental toughness on athletic performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

Mental toughness (MT) is an important predictor of athletic performance with a growing number of studies examining the effects of MT on athletic performance. However, there is a lack of clear understanding regarding the exact effects. Therefore, we aimed to synthesise the extant literature regarding the MT-athletic performance effect by systematic review and meta-analysis. Using related keywords of mental toughness, sport, and performance, we searched ten major academic databases from January 2000 to August 2022. Results found that the 16 studies we examined showed moderate to high publication quality, moderate heterogeneity, low sensitivity, and low publication bias. Furthermore, using a random effect estimate-r, we found a moderate to a high correlation between MT and athletic performance, yielding an overall effect size of r = 0.36. Moreover, we found the MT-athletic performance relationship was moderated by age group (r = 0.20 for adolescents and r = 0.41 for adults); sports category (r = 0.73 for combat sports, r = 0.30 for ball sports, and r = 0.32 for endurance sports); sports type (r = 0.73 for individual sports and r = 0.21 for team sports); athletic performance measure (r = 0.33 for objective measure and r = 0.62 for subjective measure); and measure of MT (r = 0.56 for MTQ group, r = 0.32 for PPI-A group, r = 0.33 for MTI group, and r = 0.13 for others). We thus concluded that MT is a broad and multi-factored concept with diverse components in measures. We suggested future studies continuously examining the MT-athletic performance effect with updated measures.

The Effect of Covid-19 Fear on Anxiety, Depression, and Stress in Athlete Students: The Mediating Role of Psychological Resilience

Article

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Dec 2022

Yunus Sinan Biricik

The COVID-19 pandemic is likely to have short- and long-term psycho-social consequences on individuals besides serious physical and mental effects, especially for young people. These days, when psychological problems are more noticeable, especially in young athletes, it is possible to trigger various anxiety disorders such as depression, anxiety, and stress caused by the pandemic. Considering that psychological characteristics such as depression, anxiety, and stress in young people may increase the risk of psycho-social disorders, this study aims to examine the effect of the fear of COVID-19 on the depression, anxiety, and stress levels of undergraduate athlete students and to seek an answer to the question of whether psychological resilience has a mediating role. The research was carried out with 372 athlete students studying at the undergraduate level and continuing their sports lives actively. Structural equation modeling was used to determine the direct and indirect predictive effects between variables in data analysis. The results of the study show that psychological resilience has a significant predictor effect on depression, anxiety, and stress.

Is Mental Toughness Related with Motor Learning in Wrestling?

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Jan 2023

A Comparative Study on Mental Toughness Between National and State Football Referee in India

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Background of the Study- One of the most frequently used but poorly understood concepts in applied sport psychology is mental toughness (MT) (Goldberg, 1998). It's crucial to understand that developing mental toughness is a taught talent, that it is essential for all athletes to master, and that it requires regular, serious training just like your physical body does. In the football mental game, mental toughness includes resilience in both players and coaches. You must possess a few qualities in order to be resilient, including the ability to endure pressure, stress, and hardship, the ability to bounce back from setbacks or overcome them, the persistence or unwillingness to give up, a lack of sensitivity or toughness, and superior mental abilities. Purpose of the study- The purpose of the current research was to evaluate the level of mental toughness of football referees at the national and state levels in India. Material and Method- A total of 30 referees were chosen from various Indian states and union territories for the investigation (15 national and 15 state referees). The Psychological Performance Inventory, developed by Loehr (1986), was used to collect data using a mental toughness questionnaire. The questionnaire contained 42 questions focused on the subdomains of mental toughness, including Self-Confidence, Control of Negative Energy, Attention, Visualization, Motivation, Positive Energy, and Attitude Control. Independent "t" test was used for data analysis, with a 0.05 level of significance. Results- According to the study's findings, there was a statistically significant difference between the mental toughness of Indian football referees at the national and state levels in particular subvariables including visualisation and attitude control. The study's conclusion was that other all psychological traits related to mental toughness were not significant. Conclusion- The study found out that National Level Refrees has a considerable better mental toughness in terms of visualization and attitude control.

A Comparative Study on Mental Toughness Between National and State Football Referee in India

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

The purpose of the current research was to evaluate the level of mental toughness of football referees at the national and state levels in India.

The Relationship of Mental Toughness and Emotional Eating: The Example of a Female Wrestler

Article

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Oct 2022

Emotional eating is the act of eating to cope with stress and pressure, and it is assumed that this behavior increases as the level of self-control decreases. Several factors, including anxiety about winning and fear of injury, can cause stress in athletes. An athlete's high mental toughness is closely related to their ability to easily cope with such stress factors. It is still a matter of curiosity how negative psychological factors affect emotional eating in athletes with low mental toughness. This study investigated the relationship between emotional eating and mental toughness in female wrestlers. Emotional Eating Questionnaire and Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire were applied to 69 female wrestlers. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, T-test, ANOVA, and Pearson correlation tests. It was found that the participants were low emotional eaters and accepted all of the mental toughness sub-dimensions. There was a significant difference in emotional eating total score and "disinhibition" score according to nationality status (p<0.05). The findings suggested a positive and significant relationship between sub-dimensions of emotional eating and sub-dimensions of mental toughness (p<0.05). It was concluded that national female wrestlers tended to eat more emotionally than non-national athletes and had more difficulty preventing the urge to eat. As female wrestlers' mental toughness levels increased, they tended to eat emotionally and felt guilty about eating.

Analysis of Relationship Between Selected Psychological Dimensions with Skill Performing Competencies of Table Tennis Players

Conference Paper

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Sep 2022

The goal of this research was to determine whether there was a connection between players mental toughness and playing ability among state level Table Tennis players. Methods: State-level male table tennis players (n=25) took the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (a measure of characteristics associated with mental toughness) and the Pushpendra Purashwani Table Tennis Skill Test (a test of table tennis skills; the Alternate Push Test and Alternate Counter Test were chosen). The data reveal a favourable relationship between mental toughness and overall athletic performance. Consistency and the Alternate Counter Test were positively correlated at 0.01 level of significance. The study's findings shows a link between measures of mental toughness and skill performing competency, suggesting that mentally strong athletes also enjoy greater physical and mental prowess.

Investigation of The Relationship Between Athletes’ Psychological Resilience, Emotional Reactivity, Psychological Maladjustment and Trait Anger Control

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The purpose of the research is to examine the relationship between athletes’ psychological resilience, emotional reactivity, psychological maladjustment and trait anger levels and the mediating role of psychological resilience in this relationship. The data were obtained from a total of 972 athletes, 298 women and 674 men, in different sports branches (boxing, wrestling, taekwondo, athletics, soccer, volleyball, handball, basketball). In the data collection process, the emotional reactivity scale adapted to Turkish culture, the depression, anxiety, stress scale, the anger and expression style scale and the short psychological resilience scale were used. In the analysis of the data, the structural equation model was used to determine the direct and indirect predictive effects between variables. In line with the findings, although emotional reactivity in athletes exerts pressure on psychological maladjustment (depression, anxiety, and stress), psychological resilience has a protective function. It can be said that athletes with high psychological resilience may be in a more positive position in terms of showing trait anger and psychological maladjustment, whereas athletes with low psychological resilience may be in a disadvantageous position. The results of the study revealed that emotional reactivity has a positive predictor of depression, anxiety, and trait anger. On the other hand, psychological resilience was evaluated to have a strong protective function on emotional reactivity, psychological maladjustment and trait anger among athletes, and this finding was discussed in the context of the literature.

Investigation of the Relationship between Mental Endurance and Psychological Well-Being of Male Chess Players

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Full-text available

Jul 2022

Background: The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between mental endurance and psychological well-being of male chess players. Methods: 87 male active licensed chess players participated in the study. Ethics committee approval was obtained for the research. Mental endurance scale, psychological well-being scale and personal information form were used to collect the research data. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed for the research scales. In addition to descriptive statistics, correlation and regression analyzes are included in the relational model. Results: Considering the average values obtained from the research scales, it was found that the mental endurance and psychological well-being levels of chess players were high, and there was a positive and high level relationship between mental endurance and psychological well-being within the scope of the relational model (r = 0.742; p < 0.001), and it has been found that mental endurance has a significantly high and positive contribution on psychological well-being in sports (β = 0.745; p < 0.001). Conclusions: It can be said that as the mental endurance of chess players improves, their psychological health will also be positively affected. It can also be stated that, especially by directing the young generation to chess, their mental endurance and psychological health will be improved in a positive way.

Profesyonel Kadın Hentbol Sporcularının Hedef Yönelimi ve Zihinsel Dayanıklılık Becerilerinin Bazı Değişkenlere Göre İncelenmesi Investigation of the Goal Orientation and Mental Toughness of the Women Superleague Handball Teams Athletes According to Their Position

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2022

In research, it was aimed to examinemental toughness and goal orientation’s parameters of handball players’ from Women Super League in 2020 – 2021 season.147 women handball players in the Super League who play for Anatolian University Youth Sport Club, Konyaaltı Municipality Sport Club, Sivas Municipality SC, Aksaray Municipality SC, Görele Municipality SC, Üsküdar Municipality SC, Yenimahalle Municipality SC, Muratpaşa Municipality SC, İzmir Metropolitan Municipality SC, Elazığ Social Welfare SC, Yalıkavak SC voluntarily attended to research. In the personal information form which was prepared in the scope of the study, information was collected related to participant’s gender, the situation of the league that they play in, their positions and their sport age. In the second part, “Mental Toughness Inventory In Sport” which was designed by Sheard and his friends (2009) and was adapted to Turkish population by Miçooğulları (2017) and “Task and Ego Orientation In Sport Scale” which was improved by Duda and Nicholls (1992) was used. SPSS 22.0 pocket programme was utilized for analysing of the data which was taken from surveys and comparisons among variables. In the statistic tests, firstly Arithmetic averages – Standard deviation which is one of the descriptive statistic techniques and Homogenity – One Way Variance Analysis (ANOVA) which is one of the interpreter statistic techniques were used. To identify the possible differences based on which processes, Scheffe and Tukey assessment tests were applied. As a consequence, handball players who have older sport ages and who can be thought as “experienced” was observed as more goal oriented than those with younger sport age. Moreover there was significant differences between young players (who has less sport ages) and experienced ones related with mental toughness.

MENTAL TOUGHNESS AND POSITIVITY AS PREDICTORS OF PERFORMANCE STRATEGIES USED AMONG COMPETING ATHLETES

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

In the recent past, sports scientists believe that both mental and physical skills are necessary to reach peak performance in sports. Since then several studies have been done to understand the various psychological attributes determining the athletes` success. This study focus on identifying different psychological strategies that the athletes use during both competition and practice and also to evaluate the effects of mental toughness and positivity in using these psychological strategies. There were 68 (33 males and 35 females, mean age = 18.8, SD= 2.07), after removing the outliers, who took part in this study and are currently completing at various levels from international to the collegiate level in either individual and team sports. The participants completed scales measuring sports mental toughness (SMTQ), positivity (P scale) and various performance strategies used during competition and practice (TOPS). Results were statistically analyzed using person correlation and linear regression, and it revealed that mental toughness and positivity correlates to 8 performance strategies including self-talk, goal setting, imagery, activation, negative thinking, relaxation, attention control and automaticity. And it was also found that athletes in individual sports scored high on mental toughness, positivity and are more likely to use automaticity and imagery to enhance their performance compared to athletes engaged in team sports. Practical implications of this study can include incorporating mental skills for sports performance such as mental toughness and orienting the athletes about various psychological strategies related to peak performance.

Boosting Student Wellbeing Despite a Pandemic: Positive Psychology Interventions and the Impact of Sleep in the United Arab Emirates

Article

Full-text available

May 2022

Positive psychology interventions hold great promise as schools around the world look to increase the wellbeing of young people. To reach this aim, a program was developed to generate positive emotions, as well as improve life satisfaction, mental toughness and perceptions of school kindness in 538 expatriate students in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Starting in September 2019, the program included a range of positive psychology interventions such as gratitude, acts of kindness and mental contrasting as examples. Life satisfaction and mental toughness at mid-year were sustained or grew by the end of the year. Positive affect, emotional wellbeing and social wellbeing increased at post-intervention 1, compared to baseline. However, this improvement reverted to baseline levels at post-intervention 2, when data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic. Only psychological wellbeing, negative affect, perceptions of control, and school kindness were increased at post-intervention 2. During the lockdown, students moved less, but slept and scrolled more. Those who extended their sleep duration reported greater wellbeing. Boosting wellbeing through the use of positive psychology interventions works – even in a pandemic – and extended sleep duration appears to be a driving factor for this observation.

Mental Toughness Characteristics of Male University Athletes in Relation To Contextual Factors

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022
J HUM KINET

Mental toughness is a psychological construct related to successful performance in academics, management, and sports among other sectors. However, studies on the determinants of mental toughness with respect to different human endeavours have remained inconclusive. This study explored mental toughness characteristics of male university athletes in selected sports in relation to contextual factors of athletes’ age, playing experience, year of study, and the type of sport. The Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ48) was used to collect data from male university athletes (n = 140). Results of this study showed significant difference in the following components of MT: lower scores in challenge (p = .015), emotional control (p = .005), and life control (p = .002) among athletes with shorter playing experience, and higher scores in life control (p < .001), emotional control (p = .021), and confidence in abilities (p = .009) in handball as compared to soccer players. Soccer players had significantly higher scores in the challenge component (p = .038) of mental toughness as compared to handball players. It was concluded that playing experience and the type of sport influenced characteristics of mental toughness among university athletes. Coaches, trainers, and sports psychologists need to consider these contextual factors to optimize mental toughness of athletes. Future studies should explore how specific contextual factors influence training environments and outcomes, as well as how stakeholders can leverage on the relationships between playing experience, the type of sport and mental toughness to augment athletes’ mental toughness and sports performance.

Talking about and coping with pain and suffering in ultrarunning as moral language

Article

Jan 2025

Spor Bilimleri Alanında Akademik Araştırma ve Değerlendirmeler IX

Book

Full-text available

Dec 2024

Spor Bilimleri Alanında Akademik Araştırma ve Değerlendirmeler IX başlıklı bu kitap, spor bilimleri alanındaki akademik çalışmaları kapsamlı ve disiplinlerarası bir yaklaşımla bir araya getiren bir koleksiyondur. Kitap, spor bilimlerinin çeşitli yönlerine dair en son araştırmaları ve güncel gelişmeleri içermektedir. Her bölüm, alanında uzman kişiler tarafından titizlikle hazırlanmış olup, spor fizyolojisi, biyomekanik, psikoloji ve spor yönetimi gibi çeşitli konulara dair derinlemesine bilgiler sunmaktadır. Dahil edilen çalışmalar, teori ve pratik arasındaki boşluğu doldurmayı hedefleyerek literatüre değerli katkılarda bulunmakta ve spor bilimleri anlayışımızı ileriye taşımaktadır. Bu kitap aracılığıyla, sadece son gelişmeleri vurgulamakla kalmayıp, aynı zamanda spor bilimleri alanındaki ortaya çıkan zorlukları da ele alan zengin bir bilgi mozaiği sunmayı amaçlıyoruz. Bu koleksiyon, spor bilimlerinin dinamik ve gelişen manzarasını keşfetmek isteyen akademisyenler, araştırmacılar, uygulayıcılar ve öğrenciler için hazırlanmıştır.

Trails, traits, and mental states: Psychological differences between competitive and recreational sub-ultra and ultramarathon runners

Article

Oct 2024
PSYCHOL SPORT EXERC

Relationships between mental toughness, eustress-distress, and mindfulness in adolescents: A network analysis and mediator model testing

Article

Sep 2024
STRESS HEALTH

Sema Yazıcı Kabadayı

The main aim of this study was to investigate adolescents' eustress–distress and mindfulness by examining mental toughness (MT) using network and mediator analyses. The study included 414 adolescents. The results showed that MT was positively related to eustress and mindfulness, but distress was negatively related to MT. Based on the network analysis findings, we tested mindfulness' mediating role in the relationship between eustress–distress and MT. The findings showed that mindfulness played a significant mediating role. However, the mediating role of mindfulness was negative for the relationship between distress and toughness and positive for eustress. These findings advance eustress, distress, and mindfulness as mechanisms for understanding the effects of MT. Considering current knowledge of MT, eustress, distress, and mindfulness, the results are discussed.

Ünilig Tenis Müsabakalarında Yaşam Bağlılığı İle Olumlu Düşünmenin Psikolojik Dayanıklılık Üzerine Olan Etkisinin Araştırılması

Book

Full-text available

Aug 2024

Bu araştırmanın amacı, üniversite takımlarında oynayan tenis oyuncularının yaşam bağlılığı ile olumlu düşünme becerilerinin, psikolojik dayanıklılık üzerine olan etkisini incelemek ve bazı demografik değişkenler ( yaş, cinsiyet, millilik, tenis oynadıkları süre, katıldığı turnuva kategorisi ve baskın el ) açısından ortaya koymaktır. Bu araştırmanın örneklem grubunu 2017 yılında Antalya da düzenlenen Türkiye Ünilig tenis maçlarına katılan 250 sporcudan, gönüllülük esası ile ankete katılan 108 erkek, 92 kadın olmak üzere 200 tenis oyuncusuna uygulanmıştır. Araştırmada veri toplama araçları olarak üç ölçek kullanılmıştır. Birinci ölçek; Scheier vd. tarafından geliştirilen, Uğur ve Akın tarafından Türkçeye uyarlanıp geçerlilik ve güvenirliği yapılan Yaşam Bağlılığı Ölçeği ikinci ölçek; Bekhet and Zauszniewski tarafından geliştirilen, Akın vd. tarafından Türkçeye uyarlanıp geçerlilik ve güvenirliği yapılan Olumlu Düşünme Becerileri Ölçeği. Üçüncü ölçek olarak da; Smith vd. tarafından geliştirilen, Akın vd. tarafından Türkçeye uyarlanıp geçerlilik ve güvenirliği yapılan Kısa Psikolojik Dayanıklılık Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Bu araştırmada kullanılan verilerin analizinde; t-testi, tek yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) ve korelasyon analizleri kullanılmıştır. Veriler normal dağılıma sahip olduğundan tek örneklem “Kolmogorov-Smirnov” testi ile homojenliğini belirlemek için “Anova-Homogenety of variance” testi uygulanmış ve parametrik verilerin homojen ve normal dağılıma sahip olduğu görülmüştür. Yapılan istatistiki değerlendirme sonrasında elde edilen bulgulara göre; araştırmaya katılan tenis oyuncularının psikolojik dayanıklılıkları ile olumlu düşünme ilişkisi arasında anlamlı orta düzeyde pozitif bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Yaşam bağlılıkları ve psikolojik dayanıklılıkları arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamsız ama pozitif ve küçük bir ilişki bulunmuştur. Yaşam bağlılığı ile olumlu düşünme arasında da anlamsız pozitif ve zayıf bir ilişki bulunmuştur. Psikolojik dayanıklılık ortalamaları ile cinsiyet, milli sporcu, yaş, tenis antrenman yaşı, baskın el ve katıldıkları turnuva kategorisi arasında anlamlı bir farklılık bulunamamıştır.

Establishing the characteristics of mental toughness among construction professionals

Article

Mar 2024

Purpose The construction industry is an industry which has gained notoriety when it comes to both physical and mental health problems. Compared to other industries, the construction sector has a higher prevalence of many stressors and mental health concerns. This calls for mechanisms to cope with these concerns. One coping mechanism propounded to help cope and adapt in the face of pressures and challenges is “Mental Toughness (MT)”. While mental toughness has been widely studied in various fields, there is a paucity of comprehensive research examining its significance among construction professionals. Thus, the motivation of this study is to establish the mental toughness characteristics among construction professionals in Ghana. Design/methodology/approach The construction industry is an industry which has gained notoriety when it comes to both physical and mental health problems. Compared to other industries, the construction sector has a higher prevalence of mental health concerns. One coping mechanism propounded to help cope and adapt in the face of pressures and challenges is “Mental Toughness (MT)”. While mental toughness has been widely studied in various fields, there is a paucity of comprehensive research examining its significance among construction professionals. Thus, the motivation of this study is to establish the mental toughness characteristics among construction professionals. Findings the study's findings revealed 13-factor model characteristics of mental toughness with 43 variables for mentally tough performers in the construction environment. These 13-factor models include Pressure Management (PM), Motivation (M), Emotional Intelligence (EI), Interpersonal self-belief (SB), Tough Attitude (TA), Job-related self-belief (SBB), Ethical Values (EV), Commitment (C), Focus (F), Optimism (OP), Expertise and Competence (EC), Imagery Control (IC) and Resilient (R). Practical implications The outcome of this study has significant practical implications for various stakeholders. For construction professionals the identified factors provide valuable insights into the psychological attributes and behaviours that contribute to mental toughness among construction professionals. Understanding these characteristics can empower professionals to develop strategies for coping with stress, maintaining focus, and fostering resilience in challenging construction environments to achieve optimum performance levels consistently. Originality/value The originality of this study's findings stems from the fact that it is among the first to provide greater insight into mental toughness characteristics considered by professionals (quantity surveyors, construction managers, engineers, project managers, architects, estate managers) in the construction industry.

بعض تطبيقات الذكاء الاصطناعي واتجاه الطلاب نحو استخدامها وعلاقتها بالمرونة المعرفية، التفكير الجانبي، والمتانة العقلية في ضوء نظرية التعلم المستند إلي الدماغ لدي طلاب الجامعة

Article

Dec 2023

Women in their mid-follicular phase outcompete hormonal contraceptive users, an effect partially explained by relatively greater progesterone and cortisol reactivity to competition

Article

Aug 2023
PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINO

Early evidence suggests that hormonal contraceptive (HC) use alters psychological functioning and competitive behavior. Yet, there is limited data on endocrine models for explaining how HC use affects these outcomes. In this pre-registered and open-data study, we test if HC users and naturally cycling (NC) females in their low (mid-follicular) and high (mid-luteal) progesterone phase differ in competitive persistence and whether progesterone and cortisol reactivity mediate of this effect. HC users (N = 73) in the active hormone-exposure phase and NC participants in the mid-follicular (N = 69) or mid-luteal (N = 72) phase completed two behavioral measures of competitive persistence, holding up a weight for time followed by attempting to solve an unsolvable anagram. Participants also completed measures of handgrip strength and self-reported competitiveness as well as gave saliva samples before and after the tasks for hormone assay. Results showed that NC-follicular group had greater competitive persistence in the weight-holding task compared to both NC-luteal (d = 0.38) and HC use (d = 0.43) groups independent of physical strength and self-reported competitiveness covariates. Although anagram task performance showed similar trends for group differences, analyses for this task were inconclusive. Baseline progesterone did not mediate the effect of cycle phase group on competitive persistence. HC users showed relatively blunted cortisol and progesterone reactivity, and this effect partially mediated the difference in competitive persistence between HC users and the NC-follicular group. In sum, results suggest that HC use could downregulate competitive behavior at least partly by dampening cortisol-progesterone reactivity. These findings offer a new endocrine model for understanding HC use and cycle phase effects on motivational and energetic outcomes required for optimal performance in competitive contexts.

Goal Orientation, Ketangguhan Mental, Dan Prestasi Akademik Student Athlete

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Husain Albaar Ahmad

Prestasi akademik merupakan komponen penting dalam pendidikan sebagai syarat untuk mengetahui seberapa kompeten seseorang. Sebagaimana student athlete yang sedang melaksanakan pendidikan di suatu universitas, mereka melakukan tugas latihan sebagai atlet dan belajar sebagai mahasiswa sehingga terdapat stereotip tentang keberhasilan dan kegagalan akademik. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh ketangguhan mental terhadap prestasi akademik student athlete, mengetahui pengaruh goal orientation terhadap prestasi akademik student athlete, dan juga mengetahui apakah terdapat interaksi antara ketangguhan mental dan goal orientation. Jumlah subjek dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 113 student athlete. Instrument yang digunakan adalah Mental Toughness Index dan Achievement Goal Scale. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa goal orientation berhubungan dengan prestasi akademik (β = 0.004; r = 0,043), ketangguhan mental tidak berpengaruh terhadap prestasi akademik (β = -0,005; r = 0,057), dan tidak ditemukan interaksi antara ketangguhan mental dan goal orientation dalam memprediksi prestasi akademik (β = 0,000; r = 0,061).

Exploring the Relationship Between Nutrition Knowledge and Mental Well-Being: Research on Master Athletes Participating in Recreational Marathons

Article

Full-text available

May 2023

The present descriptive correlational study attempted to unlock the relationship between nutrition knowledge and mental well-being among master athletes participating in the 44th Istanbul Marathon. Using the convenience sampling technique, we recruited 137 master athletes, 19 females (13.9%) and 118 males (86.1%), competing in the said marathon. Besides, we collected the data using a demographic information form, the Nutrition Knowledge Level Scale for Adults (basic nutrition and nutrition-health knowledge and dietary preferences preference), and the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale. Then, we utilized descriptive statistics, Pearson's correlation analysis, and stepwise regression analysis to analyze the data. All analyses were performed on the SPSS 24.0 program, and a p-value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The regression analysis revealed that the participants' nutrition knowledge and dietary preferences significantly predicted their mental well-being. The relationships between nutrition knowledge, dietary preferences, and mental well-being seem to be intricate and multifaceted. Yet, previous evidence supports the idea that proper nutrition and mental well-being are positively correlated in athletics. Similarly, our findings indicated that sustaining a healthy diet and dietary preferences can contribute to athletes' mental well-being, particularly in events demanding endurance (e.g., marathons). A well-balanced, nutrient-rich, and hydrating diet not only aids in training and recovery but also improves mental well-being. Therefore, athletes should implement a periodized, individualized plan prioritizing a variety of foods to satisfy their caloric needs.

Sports Psychology: Exploring the Origins, Development, and Increasing Demands in Sports and Exercise Sciences

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Today, psychology is widely recognised as a crucial element of gaining an advantage in sports. Sports psychology now offers a considerable competitive advantage. Furthermore, it offers insights into how to effectively function in aspects of our lives outside of athletics while nevertheless being vital for elite athletes to sustain high performance. the outcome Sport psychology aims to comprehend people's behaviour, mental processes, and welfare in sports environments while embracing psychological theory and practises. The responsibilities of sports psychologists and new advancements in psychology in the field of sports and exercise sciences remain the primary issues of current expert discussions, despite the reality that sports psychology has recently been the subject of productive study and practical application. The goals of the study were met by the researcher in the current article through examination of articles published in specialised scientific journals, as well as research into official documents and informational sources from professional associations of sports psychologists. Physical and psychological qualities are both important for sports performance. The essay offers a theoretical examination of the tactical and conceptual advancements made in the psychology of sports and exercise around the world in order to look into the recent and prospective trends in this field.

An Exploration of the Interaction Between Mental Toughness, Help-Seeking Self-Stigma and Attitude Towards Seeking Professional Psychological Help, in Recreational Athletes.

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2022

Dionysia Ioannou

Background: The psychological well-being of athletes and their unique personality traits have attracted a significant amount of research, the vast majority of which has been conducted with professional or college athletes. Past research has focused on exploring and understanding the mechanisms through which the mental toughness personality trait enhances performance in sports. Limited quantitative research exists investigating mental toughness among recreational distance runners. The aim of the current study was twofold: first, to examine whether mental toughness differs in distance runners compared to non-distance runners and non-runners; second, to investigate the association between mental toughness and professional psychological support seeking attitude, in a sample of recreational runners. Methods: The data collection is from an empirical study conducted in Greece, during July-August 2022, and is complete. The present study was conducted in a sample of 314 adult recreational athletes, with 84% having an active running status at a non-professional level. 64% of participants were males and 36% were females, and 186 respondents run at least 3 times per week for a distance of at least 5km each time. Participants answered to socio-demographic questions and completed self-report questionnaires, consisting of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire (MTQ10; Dagnall et al., 2019), Self-Stigma Of Seeking Help scale (SSOSH; Vogel, Wade, & Haake, 2006), and the Attitude Towards Seeking Professional Psychological Help – Short Form scale (ATSPPS-SF; Vogel et al., 2005). Results: Findings indicated that distance runners have higher levels of mental toughness in comparison to less committed runners as well as those who do not engage with running recreationally. In addition, there was no interaction effect of mental toughness and help-seeking self-stigma on help-seeking attitude, meaning that these individuals have the capacity to exert to professional help, if they are in need, without compromising their mental health. However, a strong effect of help-seeking stigma on help-seeking attitude was identified in the recreational athletes. Implications: This study contributes to the research body of positive psychology and sport psychology, by highlighting the mental aspect of running as recreational physical activity. Mental toughness is depicted as a positive personality trait, most profoundly found amongst recreational distance runners. Mental health professionals can resort to our findings, as complimentary resource for designing interventions and action plans, with the goal to improve their clients’ quality of life and wellbeing. Mental help seeking self-stigmatization may prevent recreational athletes from seeking professional psychological support, in fear of being perceived weak. This knowledge can provide useful insight for mental health professionals, to better understand resistance in therapy amongst their recreational athlete clients. Keywords: mental toughness, self-stigma, attitude towards seeking psychological help, distance running, sport, athletes.

Studi Deskriptif mengenai Mental Toughness pada Atlet Bola Basket Porda 2022

Article

Jan 2023

An athlete in achieving achievement cannot be separated from sports coaching. Porda is a benchmark for the results of regional athlete sports coaching. Although basketball is an underdog sport, basketball athletes from West Bandung Regency can prove that they are capable of achieving achievements on the group stage. It requires physical, technical, and mental abilities. Basketball athletes can control and direct actions to achieve achievement, and see obstacles as opportunities to develop themselves. Mental toughness is an individual's ability to handle stress, pressure, and challenges by displaying the best abilities they have in various situations they face. The purpose of this study was to obtain data regarding the mental toughness of basketball athletes in West Bandung Regency for 2022. The research method used was descriptive. This research was conducted on 24 basketball athletes in West Bandung Regency. The measuring instrument used is a mental toughness questionnaire (MTQ) modified by Faisal (2019) based on the concept of mental toughness theory from Peter Clough (2012). The results showed that 14 athletes had high mental toughness scores and 10 athletes had low mental toughness scores. Seorang atlet dalam mencapai prestasi tidak lepas dari pembinaan olahraga. Porda menjadi tolak ukur hasil pembinaan olahraga atlet daerah. Meskipun olahraga bola basket adalah cabang olahraga yang tidak diunggulkan, atlet bola basket Kabupaten Bandung Barat dapat membuktikan bahwa mereka mampu meraih prestasi pada babak penyisihan grup. Hal tersebut membutuhkan kemampuan fisik, teknik, dan mental. Para atlet bola basket mampu mengendalikan dan mengarahkan tindakan untuk meraih prestasi, serta memandang hambatan sebagai peluang untuk mengembangkan diri. Mental toughness adalah kemampuan individu dalam menangani stres, tekanan, dan tantangan dengan menampilkan kemampuan terbaik yang dimiliki dalam berbagai situasi yang dihadapi. Tujuan dalam penelitian ini adalah memperoleh data mengenai gambaran mental toughness pada atlet bola basket Kabupaten Bandung Barat porda 2022. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah deskriptif. Penelitian ini dilakukan terhadap 24 atlet Bola Basket di Kabupaten Bandung Barat. Alat ukur yang digunakan adalah mental toughness questioner (MTQ) yang dimodifikasi oleh Faisal (2019) berdasarkan konsep teori mental toughness dari Peter Clough (2012). Hasil penelitian diperoleh data sebanyak 14 orang atlet memiliki skor mental toughness yang tinggi dan terdapat 10 orang atlet yang memiliki skor mental tougness yang rendah.

Impact of Leadership Qualities on Sports Participation Among University Athletes of Lahore

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2023

The research intends to focus on players' perceptions regarding the impact of leadership qualities on sports participation among university athletes. The purpose of this research was to investigate how different dimensions of leadership behavior can help in increasing the sports participation of university athletes. By applying simple random sampling and using survey methodology, a total of 214 university athletes (male/female) were selected. These athletes belong to the sports sciences departments of different universities in Lahore. For this study, adapted questionnaires of the Leadership Scale for Sports Guidance Scale (LSS) developed by Chelladurai & Saleh (1990) and the Sports Participation questionnaire 'Ungt folk and Islandi (2010) have been used to get the opinion of the participants. The results of the study demonstrated a positive relationship between training and instruction, democratic behavior, and positive feedback with the sports participation of university athletes. On the basis of the results, it can be said that the designed hypotheses of this research have been proved. However, the regression analysis shows that the relationship between sports participation with the dependent variables is significantly positive. Overall this study can be concluded that leadership qualities promote all types of positive participation in sports persons and individuals.

الأنماط القيادية السائدة لدى مدربي اللياقة البدنية لحكام كرة القدم من وجهة نظر الحكام في الأردن

Article

Aug 2021

This study aimed at identifying was to the prevailing leadership styles of fitness trainers for football referees from the point of view of referees in Jordan. The researchers used a descriptive method, and a sample of (100) was chosen in a deliberate manner. The researchers used a questionnaire that measures the leadership style of the trainer. The leadership style questionnaire was applied to the study sample members of the football referees in Jordan. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences ), To extract the statistical treatments to answer the questions of the study of the arithmetic mean and standard deviation and Pearson correlation coefficient and T (T) analysis and analysis of mono and Tukey test, and the results indicated that the most commonly used style of the coach is the democratic pattern, Its second, then third place easygoing style, the researchers recommended by highlighting the democratic style because of its significant impact in dealing with the rulers. هدفت هذه الدراسه التعرف إلى الأنماط القيادية السائدة لدى مدربي اللياقه البدنيه لحكام كرة القدم من وجهة نظر الحكام في الأردن. استخدم الباحثون المنهج الوصفي، وتم اختيار عينه مكونه من (100) حكم من حكام كرة القدم في الأردن بالطريقه العمديه، واستخدم الباحثون إستبيان يقيس النمط القيادي للمدرب، وتم تطبيق استبانة النمط القيادي على أفراد عينة الدراسه من حكام كرة القدم في الأردن، وتم استخدام برنامج الرزمه الاحصائيه للعلوم الإجتماعيه (SPSS)،لإستخراج المعالجات الإحصائيه للإجابه على تساؤلات الدراسه من المتوسط الحسابي وانحراف معياري وتحليل التباين الأحادي واختبار Bonforonn، وأشارت النتائج إلى أن النمط الأكثر استخداماً لدى المدرب هو النمط الديموقراطي، ثم تلاه النمط التسلطي بالمرتبه الثانيه، ثم النمط المتساهل بالمرتبه الثالثه، وأوصى الباحثون بتسليط الضوء على النمط الديموقراطي لما له الأثر الكبير في التعامل مع الحكام.

Spor Bilimleri Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Anaerobik Dayanıklılık ve Zihinsel Dayanıklılık Düzeyleri Arasında İlişki Var mıdır?Is There a Relationship Between Anaerobic Endurance and Mental Toughness Levels of Faculty of Sport Sciences Students?

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Sporcularda performansı belirleyen fiziksel, fizyolojik, psikolojik ya da çevresel birçok faktör vardır. Günümüzde bu faktörlerin tek başına değil birbiriyle etkileşim halinde ve birbirini tamamlayarak kişinin performansını etkilediği bilinmektedir. Bu faktörlerden, aerobik-anaerobik dayanıklılık ve zihinsel dayanıklılık becerileri de kimi araştırmacılara göre birbiriyle ilişkili, kimilerine göre ise ilişkili değildir. Bu bağlamda çalışmamızın amacı, spor bilimleri fakültesi öğrencilerinin anaerobik dayanıklılık ile zihinsel dayanıklılık düzeyleri arasında ilişki olup olmadığının tespit edilmesidir. Araştırmamıza Gazi Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Fakültesi öğrencilerinden 18-29 yaş arası 68 erkek, 52 kadın olmak üzere 120 sporcu öğrenci katılmıştır. Demografik bilgi formunda cinsiyet ve spor yaşına ilişkin sorulara yer verilmiştir Sheard, Golby & Van Wersch (2009) tarafından geliştirilen, Türkçe uyarlaması Altıntaş & Koruç Bayar (2016) tarafından gerçekleştirilen Sporda Zihinsel Dayanıklılık Envanteri (SZDE) kullanılmıştır. Bisiklet ergometresinde 30 saniye süre ile vücut ağırlığına göre yüke karşı (%7,5) maksimum hızda pedal çevirmeye dayanan Wingate Anaerobik Güç testi uygulanmıştır. Veriler Spss 25 kullanılarak 0,05 düzeyinde anlamlılıkta analiz edilmiştir. Verilerin Shapiro-Wilk testi ile normal dağılım gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. Değişkenler arasındaki ilişkiyi belirlemek için pearson korelasyon analizi uygulanmıştır. Cinsiyete göre ve cinsiyet göz ardı edildiğinde tüm katılımcılarda zihinsel dayanıklılık ve anaerobik dayanıklılık verileri arasında farklılık görülmemiştir (p>.05). Zihinsel dayanıklılık ve anaerobik dayanıklılık verileri arasında ilişki tespit edilmemiştir (p>.05). Sporcularda zihinsel dayanıklılık ve fiziksel dayanıklılığı doğrudan ilişkili olduğunu ya da ilişkisiz olduğunu belirtmek çok mümkün değildir. Deneysel yöntemlerle yürütülen çalışmalarda ilişki tespit edilirken, betimsel yöntemlerle yürütülen çalışmalarda genelde ilişki tespit edilememektedir. Sonuçta betimsel tarama yöntemiyle yapılan çalışmamızda da ilişki olmadığı görülmüştür.

Comparing mental toughness: An investigation on elite Indian standing and seated para-thrower athletes

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2022

Having psychological advantage that enables athletes to perform at their best regardless of challenges and adversity is what is meant by having mental toughness (MT). In order to better understand the mental toughness of elite Indian standing and sitting para-thrower athletes, this study looked at a variety of mental sub - scales. Elite para-throwers who competed at the international level, consider making up the sample of the current study; which includes a total of nine elite para-throwers [5 Standing Para-throwers (StPT) and 4 Seated Para-throwers (SePT)]. The researcher used the Psychological Performance Inventory (PPI), designed by Loehr, and the Personal Demographic Information form to gather data in order to ascertain the participants’ attitudes of mental toughness. An independent T-test with 0.05 significance level was performed for the research’s findings, there are no statistical significant difference between the two groups’ levels of motivation, self-confidence, ability to control negative energy, attention, visualisation, ability to control positive energy, and attitude control factors of MT. Elite Indian para-thrower athletes’ mental toughness is similar in both groups, with no discernible differences.

The Effect of a Mindfulness-based Yoga Training Course on the Mental Toughness of Athletes With Different Skill Levels

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Background and Aims One of the critical variables affecting sports success is mental toughness, which is the ability to return from failure and imposed pressure. It seems that it is necessary to conduct interventional research on different sports communities and observe the effect of this intervention on different personality dimensions of athletes. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of a mindfulness-based yoga intervention on mental toughness in athletes with varying skill levels. Methods In the present study, 72 student-athletes who were members of sports teams (Mean±SD age: 20.67±1.44 years, Mean±SD sports: history 5.88±3.26 years) were selected based on inclusion criteria, and They were divided into three intervention groups (skilled, semi-skilled and less experienced) and three control groups (skilled, semi-skilled and less experienced). Also, the Persian version of the sports mental toughness questionnaire (SMTQ), Golby and Shird), and the demographic questionnaire was used. First, all pretest participants completed a sports mental toughness questionnaire; then, the intervention group participated in 12 90-minute mindfulness-based yoga training sessions. At the end of the course, all subjects were retested. Athletes’ participation was voluntary, and all subjects signed a consent form to participate in the study. Results The two-factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) (skill level×intervention) showed that the main effect of the intervention in the post-test was significant for the stubbornness variable and subscales of stability and control, but the effect of skill level and their interactive effect was not significant. Also, comparing the pretest and post-test pairs for each group, it was observed that the mental toughness of the inexperienced and semi-skilled in the post-test groups significantly improved over the pretest. Conclusion The effect of a mindfulness-based yoga intervention on athletes’ mental toughness and subscales of stability and control was positive. Considering the importance of the athlete’s mental toughness in achieving high levels of competition, it is suggested that coaches use mindfulness-based yoga intervention in athletes with different skill levels to promote this psychological factor.

Profesyonel basketbol oyuncularında zihinsel dayanıklılık ve duygusal zekânın çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi

Thesis

Jan 2016

Atakan Yazici

Strategies for Developing Mental Toughness in Higher Education and Measuring the Impact' in Innovations in Higher Education Teaching and Learning

Book

Full-text available

Mar 2022

There is an increasing awareness that higher education (HE) institutions face significant challenges in managing and supporting students as they transition into university life. If HE institutions struggle to achieve this important aim, this can lead to an increase in student drop-out. This can of course present significant financial implications and challenges and worse still, result in mental health challenges in students. The concept of Mental Toughness (MT) has been shown in a substantial number of investigations, to develop our understanding of why some people might be more vulnerable to these pressures than others. Importantly, it provides both a means of identifying those people and insights about ways they can be best supported. This chapter proposes a well-researched MT framework to facilitate and support universities with these challenges and highlights three key strategies for managing this successfully.

Arousal and Physiological Toughness: Implications for Mental and Physical Health

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1989

Richard A Dienstbier

From W. B. Cannon’s identification of adrenaline with “fight or flight” to modern views of stress, negative views of peripheral physiological arousal predominate. Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) arousal is associated with anxiety, neuroticism, the Type A personality, cardiovascular disease, and immune system suppression; illness susceptibility is associated with life events requiring adjustments. “Stress control” has become almost synonymous with arousal reduction. A contrary positive view of peripheral arousal follows from studies of subjects exposed to intermittent stressors. Such exposure leads to low SNS arousal base rates, but to strong and responsive challenge- or stress-induced SNS-adrenal-medullary arousal, with resistance to brain catecholamine depletion and with suppression of pituitary adrenal-cortical responses. That pattern of arousal defines physiological toughness and, in interaction with psychological coping, corresponds with positive performance in even complex tasks, with emotional stability, and with immune system enhancement. The toughness concept suggests an opposition between effective short- and long-term coping, with implications for effective therapies and stress-inoculating life-styles.

Optimism, Coping, and Health: Assessment and Implications of Generalized Outcome Expectancies

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1985

This article describes a scale measuring dispositional optimism, defined in terms of generalized outcome expectancies. Two preliminary studies assessed the scale’s psychometric properties and its relationships with several other instruments. The scale was then used in a longitudinal study of symptom reporting among a group of undergraduates. Specifically, respondents were asked to complete three questionnaires 4 weeks before the end of a semester. Included in the questionnaire battery was the measure of optimism, a measure of private self-consciousness, and a 39-item physical symptom checklist. Subjects completed the same set of questionnaires again on the last day of class. Consistent with predictions, subjects who initially reported being highly optimistic were subsequently less likely to report being bothered by symptoms (even after correcting for initial symptom-report levels) than were subjects who initially reported being less optimistic. This effect tended to be stronger among persons high in private self-consciousness than among those lower in private self-consciousness. Discussion centers on other health related applications of the optimism scale, and the relationships between our theoretical orientation and several related theories.

Stessful life events, personality, and hwalth: An inquiry into hardiness

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1979

Suzanne C. Kobasa

Studied personality as a conditioner of the effects of stressful life events on illness onset. Two groups of middle- and upper-level 40-49 yr old executives had comparably high degrees of stressful life events in the previous 3 yrs, as measured by the Schedule of Recent Events. One group of 86 Ss suffered high stress without falling ill, whereas the other group of 75 Ss reported becoming sick after their encounter with stressful life events. Illness was measured by the Seriousness of Illness Survey (A. R. Wyler et al 1970). Discriminant function analysis, run on half of the Ss in each group and cross-validated on the remaining cases, supported the prediction that high stress/low illness executives show, by comparison with high stress/high illness executives, more hardiness, that is, have a stronger commitment to self, an attitude of vigorousness toward the environment, a sense of meaningfulness, and an internal locus of control. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).

Moderating variables in the relationship between mental toughness and performance in basketball

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2013

Purpose This study explored the relationship between mental toughness and college basketball performance, specifically examining possible moderating variables (gender and starting status). Methods Male and female (n = 197) college basketball players completed the Psychological Performance Inventory-Alternative (PPI-A), a measure of characteristics and skills consistent with mental toughness, and the PERF, an objective measure of basketball performance. Results Findings suggest that basketball performance can be partially predicted by mental toughness and starting status. Males reported greater mental toughness than females. Starters and nonstarters did not differ in mental toughness. Moderated hierarchical regression analysis indicated that mental toughness was related to performance for male players as both a main effect and interaction with starter status. For female players, in contrast, starter status was the only significant predictor of performance. Practitioners are encouraged to foster the psychological skills associated with mental toughness in females and non-starters in basketball. Conclusion Discussion of the PPI-A as a measure of mental toughness and suggestions for its improvement are explored. A need exists for additional research on mental toughness and objective performance, as performance enhancement is a major impetus for research on mental toughness.

Development and validation of a trait measure of robustness of self-confidence

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2011
PSYCHOL SPORT EXERC

Objectives: Robust confidence beliefs (the ability to maintain confidence beliefs in the face of adversity) have been highlighted as an important characteristic that contributes to the make up of mentally tough athletes. The purpose of the present set of studies was to develop such a measure. Design: Three studies are reported that chart the development of a measure of Trait Robustness of Self-Confidence (i.e., the ability to maintain confidence in the face of disconfirming experiences). Method: Study 1 developed a 12-item inventory that was subjected to single-factor confirmatory factor analysis used in an exploratory fashion. Results: The factor structure of the resultant eight-item inventory (TROSCI) was consistent across both male and female athletes (S-B χ2 (20)=29.75; CFI=.98; RMSEA=.04; SRMR=.03). The single-factor structure of the eight-item inventory was confirmed in a second study that demonstrated structural (S-B χ2 (20)=29.36; CFI=.97; RMSEA=.05; SRMR=.04) and convergent validity (S-B χ2 (188)=244.83; CFI=.98; RMSEA=.05; SRMR=.06) with Vealey's TSCI. Finally, Study 3 demonstrated the predictive validity of TROSCI; high TROSC athletes were associated with more stable self-confidence levels prior to competition. Further, athletes with high TROSC levels managed to maintain higher state self-confidence levels than those with low TROSC levels. Conclusions: Results support the view of robust confidence beliefs and highlight other factors that may play a moderating role.

Comparing two measures of mental toughness

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2011
PERS INDIV DIFFER

This paper tested relations between two measures of mental toughness. A sample of 110 male athletes (M age=20.81years, SD=2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing two questionnaires to assess mental toughness. It was hypothesized that scales and subscales from the two different instruments, which purported to measure the same or substantially overlapping scales, would be strongly correlated. Predictions concerning the expected relations were made a priori. Pearson correlations revealed a significant and positive relationship between higher order mental toughness scores (r=.75; p

Hardiness and success in basketball

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1970
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

Hypothesized a moderate positive relationship between the general outlook factor, personality hardiness, and basketball performance. 37 male high school basketball players completed a hardiness test (S. R. Maddi, 1987) that yielded not only a total score, but also part scores for commitment, control, and challenge. Also, 8 indices of basketball performance showed sufficient intercorrelation to form a composite score. Hardiness scores obtained on Ss before the season began were correlated with a composite measure of basketball performance throughout the season, yielding results that support the hypothesis. (French, Spanish, German & Italian abstracts) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Hardiness and Health: A Prospective Study

Article

Full-text available

Jan 1982

Hypothesized that hardiness—commitment, control, and challenge—functions to decrease the effect of stressful life events to producing illness symptoms. 259 upper- and middle-level male managers (mean age 48 yrs) were administered a battery of tests (including Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, the Schedule of Life Events, and the Seriousness of Illness Survey) covering a 5-yr period. Results support the hypothesis by showing main effects on illness for both stressful life events and hardiness and an interaction effect for these independent variables. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Arousal and Physiological Toughness: Implications for Mental and Physical Health

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1989

Richard A. Dienstbier

From W.B. Cannon's identification of adrenaline with "fight or flight" to modern views of stress, negative views of peripheral physiological arousal predominate. Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) arousal is associated with anxiety, neuroticism, the Type A personality, cardiovascular disease, and immune system suppression; illness susceptibility is associated with life events requiring adjustments. "Stress control" has become almost synonymous with arousal reduction. A contrary positive view of peripheral arousal follows from studies of subjects exposed to intermittent stressors. Such exposure leads to low SNS arousal base rates, but to strong and responsive challenge- or stress-induced SNS-adrenal-medullary arousal, with resistance to brain catecholamine depletion and with suppression of pituitary adrenal-cortical responses. That pattern of arousal defines physiological toughness and, in interaction with psychological coping, corresponds with positive performance in even complex tasks, with emotional stability, and with immune system enhancement. The toughness concept suggests an opposition between effective short- and long-term coping, with implications for effective therapies and stress-inoculating life-styles.

The Satisfaction With Life Scale

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1985

This article reports the development and validation of a scale to measure global life satisfaction, the Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS). Among the various components of subjective well-being, the SWLS is narrowly focused to assess global life satisfaction and does not tap related constructs such as positive affect or loneliness. The SWLS is shown to have favorable psychometric properties, including high internal consistency and high temporal reliability. Scores on the SWLS correlate moderately to highly with other measures of subjective well-being, and correlate predictably with specific personality characteristics. It is noted that the SWLS is Suited for use with different age groups, and other potential uses of the scale are discussed.

Coping in sport: A systematic review

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2007

The aim of this paper was to systematically review the literature on coping in sport, examining evidence for both the trait and process perspectives, the types of coping strategies used by athletes, gender differences, age-related differences, and coping effectiveness. A comprehensive literature search of SPORTdiscus, PsychLIT, and PsychINFO in November 2004 yielded 64 studies spanning 16 years (1988 - 2004). The results indicated that athletes use a variety of coping strategies. Forty-six papers supported or adopted the process perspective (Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). There were also gender and age-related differences. Evidence was found to support three of the different models of coping effectiveness (goodness-of-fit approach, choice of coping strategy, and automacity). Based on this evidence, future research should address some of the methodological and measurement limitations of the sport psychology coping literature. In particular, prospective research designs that minimize the time delay between recall and the stressful experience are required to assess how coping changes over time. More attention to developmental issues to guide the formulation of sport-specific models to enhance our theoretical understanding is also required. Finally, coping effectiveness should be examined both in the short and long term, as a greater understanding of coping effectiveness has the potential to make a significant impact on applied practice.

Mental toughness: The concept and its measurement

Article

Jan 2002

The Rocky Road to the Top

Article

Nov 2012

Aine Macnamara

The increasingly well funded and high-tech world of talent development (TD) represents an important investment for most sports. Reflecting traditional concepts of challenge and focus, the vast majority of such systems expend a great deal of effort maximizing support to the young athletes and trying to counter the impact of naturally occurring life stressors. In this article, we suggest that much of this effort is misdirected; that, in fact, talented potential can often benefit from, or even need, a variety of challenges to facilitate eventual adult performance. Our argument is built on evidence that such challenges are more common in athletes who reach the top, together with a critical consideration of the modus operandi and impact of psychological/character-focused interventions such as mental toughness and resilience. In conclusion, we explore some implications for the design and conduct of optimum academies and TD environments.

Factorial validity of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48

Article

Apr 2013
PERS INDIV DIFFER

The purpose of this study was to assess the factorial validity of the Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002). In total, 8207 participants (male n = 4019, female n = 3922, unspecified = 266) aged between 16 and 68 years (M = 37.00, SD = 12.09) completed the MTQ48. Model fit was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and exploratory structural equation modeling, in addition to the robust maximum likelihood estimator. Overall, our results support the factorial validity of the MTQ48 and indicate that the MTQ48 is a robust psychometric measure of mental toughness. Along with previous data, which supports the internal validity of the MTQ48 in addition to results of this study, it would appear that the MTQ48 is an acceptable method of assessing mental toughness.

Identifying the cognitive basis of mental toughness: Evidence from the directed forgetting paradigm

Article

Oct 2012
PERS INDIV DIFFER

The concept of mental toughness has been found to be related to outcome performance measures in sport and other competitive situations. Despite this, little attention has been devoted to understanding the cognitive mechanisms that underlie mental toughness. The current study attempted to identify the cognitive underpinnings of mental toughness using the directed forgetting paradigm, in which participants are given a surprise memory test for material they were previously instructed to forget. Regression analyses showed that mental toughness, as measured by the MTQ48 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002), did not influence the recall of a to-be-forgotten list, but participants with high mental toughness showed better recall of a to-be-remembered list following instructions to forget the previous list. The superior recall of the to-be-remembered list suggests that mentally tough individuals have an enhanced ability to prevent unwanted information from interfering with current goals. These findings support the proposal that cognitive inhibition is one of the mechanisms underpinning mental toughness.

The relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity

Article

Dec 2009
PERS INDIV DIFFER

Lee Crust

Mentally tough athletes are conceptualized as being able to function effectively in stressful situations and recent research has found small to moderate correlations between mental toughness and coping. Despite this no research has thus far examined the possibility that mentally tough athletes experience less intense emotions. This paper tested the relationship between mental toughness and affect intensity to determine whether mentally tough athletes generally experienced more or less intense emotions. A sample of 112 sport performers (55 men and 57 women) aged between 18 and 51years (M=29.3, s=10.3) acted as participants, and ranged from recreational to national level in a variety of sports. Mental toughness and affect intensity were found to be unrelated. This is an important finding because it suggests participants with high or low levels of mental toughness do not characteristically experience more or less intense emotions. Thus there is no evidence to suggest the ability of mentally tough athletes to remain relatively unaffected by pressure or adversity is due to lower levels of affect intensity. More research is required to understand how mentally tough athletes (in comparison to less tough athletes) maintain control and high levels of performance in stressful circumstances.

Mental toughness in sport: A review and prospect

Article

Mar 2012

Numerous studies have indicated that mental toughness plays a significant role in successful sports performance. However, most early research into the effects of mental toughness was merely descriptive, and only recently were the theoretical and systematic bases of mental toughness structures and concepts significantly established. Additionally, previous studies were based on a variety of measurements and research designs focusing on mental toughness structures and concepts, resulting in a number of non-identical points of view. In order to further understand the development of contemporary mental tenacity research, the purpose of this manuscript is to review those studies examining the relationship between mental toughness and sports performance, as well as focusing on the following four specific sections including the early views on mental toughness, contemporary mental toughness research applying qualitative approaches, contemporary mental toughness research using quantitative approaches, and research on mental toughness and other mental variables. Conclusion and future research recommendations in these areas are also covered.

Mental toughness and attitudes to risk-taking

Article

Aug 2010
PERS INDIV DIFFER

This paper tested the relationship between mental toughness and attitudes towards risk-taking in undergraduate student athletes attending two Universities in the North of England. A sample of 69 men (M age=22.2years, s=5.28) and 36 women (M age=24.6years, s=7.67) participated and ranged from club to national level in a variety of sports. Participants gave informed consent before completing questionnaires to assess mental toughness and attitudes towards risk. Pearson Product Moment Correlations found significant and positive correlations between overall mental toughness and attitudes towards physical risks, but no relationship with psychological risk. Regression analysis found the mental toughness subscale of challenge to be the most significant predictor of attitudes towards physical risk. Interpersonal confidence was the only mental toughness subscale found to be significantly and positively related to attitudes towards psychological risk. Independent t-tests found men reported significantly higher overall mental toughness, confidence in abilities, and attitudes towards both physical and psychological risk, than women. These results are discussed with regard to previous research findings and future researchers are encouraged to consider employing experimental methodologies in order to manipulate contextual factors to more fully understand any individual differences.

Mental toughness: Managerial and age differences

Article

Jun 2009

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate whether employees at various levels of managerial positions (e.g. senior, middle, and junior) exhibit different levels of mental toughness. In addition, the study seeks to explore possible effects of age on mental toughness. Design/methodology/approach A total of 522 participants working in UK‐based organisations completed demographic information and the Mental Toughness Questionnaire. Findings Results revealed significant main effects for both managerial position and age. Follow‐up analysis revealed that mental toughness ratings were higher in more senior positions, and that mental toughness generally increased with age. Research limitations/implications The main limitation of the study is its cross‐sectional design. Longitudinal studies investigating the development of mental toughness over time or the effect of mental toughness training are needed. It appears, however, that age plays a role in an individual's mental toughness profile. This suggests that increased exposure to significant life events may have a positive developmental effect on mental toughness. Originality/value The results of the study would suggest that mental toughness can be developed through appropriate training programmes.

Coaches' views of mental toughness and how it is built

Article

Jun 2011

The purpose of the present study was to explore coaches' perceptions of mental toughness attributes as well as the strategies used to build mental toughness. Participants were 10 National Collegiate Athletic Association head coaches from a variety of sports. In-depth interviews were conducted using standard qualitative methodology and content analyzed by three researchers. Based on raw data responses, lower and then higher-order themes were developed to capture the main ideas of mental toughness discussed by coaches. Regarding mental toughness attributes, psychological skills, motivation to succeed, and resilience emerged as higher-order themes, indicating some overlapping themes with previous studies exploring attributes from athletes' perspectives. Creating a tough physical practice environment, a positive mental environment, and providing mental toughness learning opportunities were themes that emerged as strategies coaches used to build mentally tough athletes. Findings are discussed in reference to previous literature on mental toughness and the psychology of excellence.

State‐Trait Anxiety Inventory

Chapter

Jan 2010

Charles D. Spielberger

Anxiety was defined by Freud as “something felt,” an emotional state that included feelings of apprehension, tension, nervousness, and worry accompanied by physiological arousal. Consistent with Darwin's evolutionary perspective, Freud observed that anxiety was adaptive in motivating behavior that helped individuals cope with threatening situations and that intense anxiety was prevalent in most psychiatric disorders. In measuring anxiety, Cattell (1966) emphasized the importance of distinguishing between anxiety as an emotional state and individual differences in anxiety as a personality trait. Keywords: anxiety; STAI; emotion; personality; state anxiety; trait anxiety

A review and conceptual re-examination of mental toughness: Implications for future researchers

Article

Nov 2008
PERS INDIV DIFFER

Lee Crust

This paper provides a review of mental toughness research and examines the major conceptual concerns that are evident in current mental toughness literature. Despite more rigorous scientific approaches to the study of mental toughness, a number of limitations are apparent: these include the assumption that elite or super elite performers are mentally tough (failure to provide objective measures), focusing research solely on elite or super elite performers, appearing to conceptualise mental toughness in absolute rather than relative terms, and ignoring contextual differences. Comparisons are made with research developments in the related concept of hardiness. It is argued that more innovative approaches to research are required to further develop knowledge. This should include more experimental studies, longitudinal research, psychophysiological approaches, and testing the influence of mental toughness in contexts outside sport performance. Further efforts to understand how mental toughness develops are encouraged. With recent advances in instruments to measure mental toughness, further quantitative research is deemed appropriate. The efficacy of proposed methods of enhancing mental toughness such as environmental manipulations, and mental skills training approaches need to be evaluated if the gap between theoretical research and practice is to be bridged.

Leadership preferences of mentally tough athletes

Article

Sep 2009
PERS INDIV DIFFER

This study examined the leadership preferences of mentally tough athletes. A sample of 103 athletes (M age = 22.06 years, SD = 4.37) participated and ranged from club/university level to county standard in a variety of team sports. Participants completed the Leadership Scale for Sport – Preference Version (Chelladurai & Saleh, 1978) to measure preferred leadership, and the MTQ48 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002) to measure mental toughness. Mental toughness was predicted to be significantly and positively related to a preference for training and instructive behaviours, and negatively related to a preference for social support. Linear regression analysis and Pearson correlations were used to analyse the data. Consistent with theoretical predictions, mental toughness was found to be significantly related to a preference for training and instructive behaviours (r = 0.40, P < .01). Results of linear regression analysis revealed the MTQ48 subscales of commitment and challenge were significant predictors of preference for training and instructive behaviours. Total mental toughness was not found to be significantly related to preference for social support, democratic behaviours, autocratic behaviours or positive feedback (P > .05). This suggests that coaches working with mentally tough athletes should consider emphasising training and instructive behaviours if they wish to attain congruence between actual and preferred leadership behaviours. Greater research into the influence of personality upon athlete leadership preferences is encouraged.

Mental toughness, optimism, pessimism, and coping among athletes

Article

Apr 2008
PERS INDIV DIFFER

The concept of mental toughness is widely used, but empirical evidence is required to fully understand this construct and its related variables. The purpose of this paper was to explore the relationship between: (a) mental toughness and coping, (b) mental toughness and optimism, and (c) coping and optimism. Participants were 677 athletes (male 454; female 223) aged between 15 and 58 years (M age = 22.66 years, SD = 7.20). Mental toughness correlated significantly with 8 of the 10 coping subscales and optimism. In particular, higher levels of mental toughness were associated with more problem or approach coping strategies (mental imagery, effort expenditure, thought control, and logical analysis) but less use of avoidance coping strategies (distancing, mental distraction, and resignation). Eight coping subscales were significantly correlated with optimism and pessimism. In conclusion, the relationships observed in this study emphasize the need for the inclusion of coping and optimism training in mental toughness interventions.

Development and preliminary validation of the Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI)

Article

Oct 2009
J SPORT SCI

The purpose of this research project was to develop a psychometrically sound measure of mental toughness in cricket, using a multi-method research design. Two qualitative studies in which current and former cricketers' (n = 16) perceptions of the key components of mental toughness in cricket and the suitability of an item pool to target those key components (n = 9) were assessed. We then conducted two quantitative studies to examine both the within- and between-network properties of the Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI) using confirmatory factor analysis and correlations. Support for the existence of a five-factor, 15-item model was revealed with three independent samples of cricketers; two contained cricketers from several different countries (n = 285 and 285), whereas one contained Australian cricketers only (n = 433). Each of the five subscales (affective intelligence, attentional control, resilience, self-belief, and desire to achieve) were positively correlated with dispositional flow, hardiness, and resilience and negatively correlated with athlete burnout. Although requiring replication and extension, the results of the present study provide preliminary support for the factor structure, internal reliability, and construct validity of the CMTI.

Generalized self-efficacy scale Measurement of perceived self-eficacy: psychometric scales for cross-cul-tural research

Jan 1993

M Wegner
R Schwarzer
M &jerusalem

WEGNER, M., SCHWARZER, R., &JERUSALEM, M. (1993) Generalized self-efficacy scale. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Measurement of perceived self-eficacy: psychometric scales for cross-cul-tural research. Berlin, Ger.: Berlini Freie Universitat. Accepted December 31, 2004. This article has been cited by: