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Home blood glucose biosensors: A commercial perspective
Abstract
Twenty years on from a review in the first issue of this journal, this contribution revisits glucose sensing for diabetes with an emphasis on commercial developments in the home blood glucose testing market. Following a brief introduction to the needs of people with diabetes, the review considers defining technologies that have enabled the introduction of commercial products and then reviews the products themselves. Drawing heavily on the performance of actual instruments and publicly available information from the companies themselves, this work is designed to complement more conventional reviews based on papers published in scholarly journals. It focuses on the commercial reality today and the products that we are likely to see in the near future.
... Thereby, the pancreas underproduces or does not produce insulin, which is needed for the cells to absorb blood sugar (glucose). The cells of people with diabetes suffer from a shortage of glucose, while glucose levels build up in the blood [2]. The treatment of diabetes comprises invasive self-monitoring techniques to control blood glucose level, that is often carried out by finger stick. ...
... The treatment of diabetes comprises invasive self-monitoring techniques to control blood glucose level, that is often carried out by finger stick. Thereby, an increased frequency of blood glucose measurements coupled with intensive therapy leads to improved disease progression [2,3]. However, invasive self-monitoring is painful and inconvenient, which is why research suggests the correlation between blood and saliva [4] or sweat glucose level [5], so that non-invasive treatment measures are conceivable. ...
... When those biosensors are employed in a continuous monitoring system, the frequent measurements show a better representation of the glycemic history and status of the patient. Linked with an insulin pump, for example, it allows closer control of hypo-and hyperglycemia [2]. ...
The global rise in diabetes has highlighted the urgent need for continuous, non-invasive health monitoring solutions. Traditional glucose monitoring methods, which are invasive and often inconvenient, have created a demand for alternative technologies that can offer comfort, accuracy, and real-time data. In this study, the development of a textile-based organic electrochemical transistor (OECT) is presented, designed for non-invasive glucose sensing, aiming to integrate this technology seamlessly into everyday clothing. The document details the design, optimization, and testing of a one-component textile-based OECT, featuring a porous PEDOT:PSS structure and a glucose oxidase-modified electrolyte for effective glucose detection in sweat. The research demonstrates the feasibility of using this textile-based OECT for non-invasive glucose monitoring, with enhanced sensitivity and specificity achieved through the integration of glucose oxidase within the electrolyte and the innovative porous PEDOT:PSS design. These findings suggest a significant advancement in wearable health monitoring technologies, providing a promising pathway for the development of smart textiles capable of non-invasively tracking glucose levels. Future work should focus on refining this technology for clinical use, including individual calibration for accurate blood glucose correlation and its integration into commercially available smart textiles.
... Diabetes mellitus is a severe disease reaching about 422 million people in the world and is still a cause of death [9]. The commercial glucometer used to detect glucose levels in blood samples is an indispensable tool for diabetes management [1,10]. Currently, glucose biosensors are pursuing less invasive tests for clinical analyses using biological fluids including saliva [11], tears [12], urine [13], and sweat [14] samples and with different approaches in the sensing layer to improve analytical performance [1,10]. ...
... The commercial glucometer used to detect glucose levels in blood samples is an indispensable tool for diabetes management [1,10]. Currently, glucose biosensors are pursuing less invasive tests for clinical analyses using biological fluids including saliva [11], tears [12], urine [13], and sweat [14] samples and with different approaches in the sensing layer to improve analytical performance [1,10]. The electrochemical (bio)sensors existent has been made onto plastic support, e.g., polyimide, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane (PU), and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) [15,16]. ...
... Under resource-limited conditions, utilizing portable and rapid devices for real-time monitoring of biomarkers, bacteria [14][15][16], and other substances is crucial for early disease detection, daily health monitoring, and management [17][18][19][20]. Glucometers are ubiquitous POCT devices known for their small size, portability, simplicity of use, and relatively low cost, providing accurate quantitative results [21,22]. Recent studies have innovatively utilized single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) functionalized enzyme conjugates to modify the traditional use of glucometers, successfully establishing relationships between targets and glucose for quantitative detection of protein biomarkers and small molecule toxins [23,24]. ...
cTnI is considered the primary marker for the diagnosis of Acute myocardial infarction (AMI).. At present, cTnI relies on laboratory testing, which requires technical personnel and specialized equipment. This strategy proposes a dual-mode sensor based on a blood glucose meter and colorimetry to achieve portable, rapid, and accurate measurement of cTnI. The feasibility of this sensor was validated using UV spectrophotometry and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Under optimal conditions, the linear ranges for the glucometer and colorimetric modes were 0.01 ngmL ⁻¹ to 20.0 ngmL ⁻¹ and 0.03 ngmL ⁻¹ to 15.0 ngmL ⁻¹ , with detection limits of 0.001 ngmL ⁻¹ and 0.005 ngmL ⁻¹ , respectively. The dual-mode sensor exhibits high sensitivity and selectivity, enabling rapid portable dual-mode detection. This method has been successfully applied for detecting cTnI in human serum, indicating significant potential for clinical applications.
... Accurate and reliable detection of blood glucose concentration is significant to control diabetes mellitus. Moreover, glucose detection is also important for environmental applications and food industries [1][2][3][4]. Several methods have been developed for glucose sensing, like chromatography [5], photoacoustic resonance [6], optical methods [7], Raman spectroscopy [8,9] electro-chemiluminescence [10], calorimetric techniques [11], research interest has grown in developing an interference-free, sensitive and affordable nonenzymatic glucose sensor. ...
A highly sensitive and stable nonenzymatic glucose biosensor has been developed via composite materials composed of CuO and graphene oxide (GO)/carbon nanotube (CNT) nanohybrid (CuO/GO/CNTs). Copper oxide nanoparticle(NP)‐modified CNTs were stacked via graphene sheets and synthesized through hydrothermal method, providing a larger surface area with boosted catalytic activity for efficient mass and electron passage, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy‐dispersive x‐ray (EDX) spectroscopy have been used to investigate the morphology and composition of as‐prepared nanohybrids, whereas x‐ray diffraction (XRD) patterns provide information about the crystal structure and lattice parameters. Fabricated nanohybrid was used as electrode material to develop the nonenzymatic glucose biosensor, which exhibited better performance with a linear dynamic range from 0.06 to 0.74 mM, a high sensitivity of 328 mA mM⁻¹ cm⁻² and a low detection limit of up to 0.033 mM with a fast response time of 2 s. Although the stability and reusability of the fabricated electrode have been tested. The limit of detection was determined by using the traditional formula LOD = (SNR × σ)/Slope. The outcomes recommend the synthesized novel structured nanohybrid as a promising material possessing significant impact for flexible and wearable biosensing applications.
... This technology shows advantages in terms of mild operating conditions (temperature and pH) and potential applications as in vivo power sources [1][2][3][4][5]. The first commercial EFC based on glucose biosensor was manufactured by Kyoto Daiichi Kagagu in Japan in 1996 and marketed as the Glucocard [6,7]. Several works have been reported in the literature based on EFC sensors for glucose detection in biological samples [7][8][9][10][11][12]. ...
A cutting-edge biosensor has been developed to monitor blood glucose levels, which is particularly vital for people with diabetes. This advanced technology uses a miniaturized and membraneless enzymatic fuel cell (EFC) as a compact electrical reader for rapid on-site diabetes diagnosis. Using disposable screen-printed gold electrodes (Au-SPE) modified with the enzyme glucose oxidase (GOx), the biosensor enables the oxidation of glucose at both the anode (counter electrode) and cathode (working electrode) of the EFC. The cathode contains graphene oxide/Prussian blue nanocubes (GO/PBNCs), while the anode uses a biographene layer. Both electrodes were modified with GOx by electrostatic/hydrogen bonding the enzyme to the modified electrodes surface. Individual evaluations of each electrode system emphasized their effectiveness. The integration of both electrodes resulted in an EFC that can generate an output power of approximately 1.8 μW/cm² at a glucose concentration of 5 mmol/L, which is very close to physiological conditions (3.8 to 6.9 mmol/L). This technology represents a significant advance and promises fully autonomous diagnostic devices suitable for a wide range of analytes. It paves the way for diagnostics everywhere and marks a fundamental shift in point-of-care (PoC) diagnostics.
... The complex and costly design of calorimeters in early investigations suggested that their application in fundamental research and applied analysis was restricted. The Enzyme Thermistor (ET), a novel kind of calorimeter, was created in the 1970s by Danielsson and Mosbach [107,108]. The tool was straightforward and compact, yet it was incredibly effective in keeping track of an enzymatic process. ...
Biosensors have revolutionized healthcare, environmental monitoring, and food
safety by providing rapid, accurate, and sensitive detection of biomolecules. This
review article presents a comprehensive overview of biosensors, encompassing
their fundamental principles, types, and applications. We focus on five primary
biosensor categories: optical, electrochemical, piezoelectric, thermal, and magnetic
biosensors, highlighting their underlying principles, advantages, and limitations. In
addition to exploring these biosensor types, we also delve into enzyme-based
glucose biosensors, specifically examining four key enzymes: glucose
dehydrogenase pyrroloquinoline quinone (GDH-PQQ), glucose oxidase (GOx),
glucose dehydrogenase flavin adenine dinucleotide (GDH-FAD), and glucose
dehydrogenase nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (GDH-NAD). The applications
of these biosensors in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and food safety are
discussed, including disease diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment, pollutant
detection and tracking, and pathogen detection and quality control. The review
concludes by exploring future research directions, emphasizing the need for
improved sensitivity and selectivity, miniaturization and portability, and integration
with emerging technologies. By providing a thorough understanding of biosensor
technologies, this review aims to facilitate innovation and advancement in the field,
inspiring researchers to develop next-generation biosensors for enhanced detection,
diagnosis, and monitoring.
... 1975, the first commercially accessible glucose sensors were introduced, employing amperometric detection of H 2 O 2 derived from human blood samples. The Yellow Springs Instrument Company (YSI) made a groundbreaking contribution to glucose monitoring technology by developing a new sensor [25,26]. Recent developments in surface chemistry and the fabrication of devices have greatly enhanced the area of commercial electrochemical glucose sensors [27]. ...
This mini-review provides a comprehensive overview of platinum-based electrochemical sensors for glucose detection, focusing on recent advancements in material design, fabrication techniques, and the application of single-atom catalysts. Platinum's exceptional electrocatalytic properties and inherent stability have made it a cornerstone material for developing sensitive, selective, and stable glucose sensors. Performance evaluations from the literature reveal sensors with sensitivities exceeding 850 μA/mM cm² and detection limits as low as 3.6 μM. This review examines various approaches to enhancing sensor performance, including the use of different platinum nanostructures (e.g., nanoparticles, nanowires), the incorporation of conductive polymers or metal oxides, and the application of various electrochemical techniques (e.g., amperometry, cyclic voltammetry). Despite these advancements, challenges remain in achieving improved selectivity, stability, and cost-effectiveness. Future research directions include exploring novel platinum-based materials, developing advanced fabrication techniques such as 3D printing, integrating microfluidic platforms, and leveraging single-atom catalysis to enhance sensor performance further. Developing reliable and efficient platinum-based electrochemical glucose sensors is crucial for advancing diabetes management, biomedical research, and point-of-care diagnostics. This review aims to inspire continued research and innovation in this promising field.
... Technological advancements have led to the development of an application that classifies devices using data from medical supply wholesalers' sales to improve diabetes management for type 1 and type 2 diabetics [18]. This app, based on a database of measurement times, sample sizes, memory, device weights, and average measurement values, employs a custom classification method to match users with the best-fit BGMs. ...
In this cross-sectional study, we examined the abundance of blood glucose meter (BGM) models in the Polish and German medical device markets and their technical specifications. Information from a medical equipment wholesaler’s database was gathered for comparison of BGMs from five manufacturers: Roche Diabetes Care, LifeScan Inc, Abbott, Ascensia Diabetes Care, and Genexo, and for model Glucomaxx BT TaiDoc Technology Corporation. Key parameters such as blood sample size, measurement time, memory capacity, and measurement range were considered. An application was developed to aid in BGM selection for people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes. The results showed a high correlation with laboratory measurements and similarity in key functionalities between the models. The application, tested on 30 individuals aged 18 to 79 years, demonstrated stability, speed, and a user-friendly interface, facilitating efficient data processing and generating recommendations.
... Biosensors, with their biological sensing elements, are not just tools in the fight against M-pox; they are potent weapons. These analytical devices leverage biology's sensitivity, specificity, and physicochemical transducers to provide comprehensive bioanalytical measurements in simple, user-friendly formats [15,16]. They offer a sensitive and accurate alternative to traditional methods such as culturing cells, detecting antigens or antibodies, performing hemagglutination assays, detecting nucleic acids, and sequencing genes [17]. ...
Mpox, a zoonotic disease caused by the Mpox virus (MPXV), has re-emerged as a significant public health threat, particularly following the outbreak in 2022. Early and rapid detection of MPXV is crucial for controlling viral spread and preventing severe complications, particularly in vulnerable populations. While effective, traditional diagnostic methods like Polymerase Chain Reaction and genome sequencing are often costly and require complex equipment. Nanomaterial-based biosensors offer a promising alternative due to their unique physicochemical properties, high surface area, biocompatibility, and rapid response times. This review explores various nanomaterials—such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs), graphene, quantum dots (QDs), and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)—and their application in the development of biosensors for MPXV detection, focusing on research from 2008 to 2024. These materials enable sensitive, specific, and portable biosensors that detect MPXV in real time via electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and calorimetric mechanisms. Each detection method leverages the virus's interaction with nanomaterial-functionalized surfaces to generate measurable signals. The review also discusses the advantages of nanomaterial-based biosensors, including enhanced sensitivity, cost-effectiveness, and portability, alongside the current challenges and future directions in the field. Nanomaterial-based biosensors could play a vital role in public health efforts to manage Mpox outbreaks by enabling early detection in clinical and point-of-care settings.
... According to the World Health Organization (WHO), diabetes is one of the most frequently diagnosed diseases globally, with projections suggesting that by 2030, the number of individuals affected could reach 578 million [1,2]. As a result, there has been a growing interest in developing fast-responsive and convenient glucose biosensors to monitor blood glucose levels effectively and help manage the increasing burden of diabetes, with applications extending beyond medical science to include the food industry as well [3,4,5,6,7,8]. ...
Glucose monitoring plays a critical role in managing diabetes, one of the most prevalent diseases globally. The development of fast-responsive, cost-effective, and biocompatible glucose sensors is essential for improving patient care. In this study, a comparative analysis is conducted between pristine and Co-doped hematite samples, synthesized via the hydrothermal method, to evaluate their structural, morphological, and optical properties. The glucose sensing performance of both samples is assessed using a fiber-optic evanescent wave (FOEW) setup. While the sensitivity remains comparable for both pristine and Co-doped hematite, a reduction in the Limit of Detection (LoD) is observed in the Co-doped sample, suggesting enhanced interactions with glucose molecules at the surface. To gain further insights into the glucose adsorption mechanisms, Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations are performed, revealing key details regarding charge transfer, electronic delocalization, and glucose binding on the hematite surfaces. These findings highlight the potential of Co-doped hematite for advanced glucose sensing applications, offering a valuable synergy between experimental and theoretical approaches for further exploration in biosensing technologies.
... Conformable wearable devices that can record electrocardiograms, electromyograms 2 , arterial pulse 3 and finger motion 4 have been developed. Electrochemical wearable sensors, in particular, can offer non-invasive physiochemical monitoring, in contrast to the commonly used invasive method of measuring biomarkers in blood samples 5,6 . Wearable patch-based flexible devices can also provide non-invasive and reliable monitoring of metabolites 7,8 and disease biomarkers 9 in sweat. ...
Organic electrochemical transistors can be used in wearable sensors to amplify biological signals. Other wireless communication systems are required for applications in continuous health monitoring. However, conventional wireless communication circuits, which are based on inorganic integrated chips, face limitations in terms of conformability due to the thick and rigid integrated circuit chips. Here, we report an ultrathin organic–inorganic device for wireless optical monitoring of biomarkers, such as glucose in sweat and glucose, lactate and pH in phosphate-buffered saline. The conformable system integrates an organic electrochemical transistor and a near-infrared inorganic micro-light-emitting diode on a thin parylene substrate. The device has an overall thickness of 4 μm. The channel current of the transistor changes according to the biomarker concentration, which alters the irradiance from the light-emitting diode to enable biomarker monitoring. We combine the device with an elastomeric battery circuit to create a wearable patch. We also show that the system can be used for near-infrared image analysis.
... Maintaining blood glucose levels is critical in diabetic patients with Type I, II, and/ or gestational conditions and their associated complications [43]. As a result, blood glucose biosensors were introduced in the 1990s for follow-up or sustained level maintenance as prescribed by clinicians [20,44,45]. There are more huge revelations in this sector available on the market, with enormous facilities and a lower price. ...
Biosensor is a biorecognition element device that measures biological reactions via physical and chemical sensing. Enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, proteins, receptor molecules, or any other intercellular agent that acts as an input, recognizes, and transfers signals and outputs them as digitalization, color, absorbance, or odor could be the biorecognition element. Biosensors play an unquestionable role in clinical and biomedical settings because they reduce diagnostic time, produce rapid results, are portable to any location where there is an emergence or natural disaster, are small in size, economically affordable, and have high sensitivity, specificity with a low detection limit. According to forecasts, clinical biosensors will be worth more than $36.7 billion by 2036, even though the biosensor function is prominent and enormous during covid-19. This chapter will focus on biosensors and their clinical applications.
... Electrochemical Methods [11] Uses electrodes to measure glucose levels in a blood sample. Glucose reacts with an enzyme, producing an electrical signal proportional to glucose amount. ...
Estimating blood sugar levels is a critical task in effective diabetes management. This study focuses on leveraging the power of machine learning models such as CatBoost, XGBoost, and Extra Trees Regressor, along with explainable AI techniques like SHAP values and confusion matrices, to predict blood sugar levels using Photoplethysmography (PPG) signals. The dataset used in this research is carefully selected for glucose prediction from PPG signals and consists of data from 217 individuals. Information for each individual includes laboratory glucose measurements and approximately one minute of recorded finger PPG signals. Among the various machine learning models tested, CatBoost emerged as the best-performing model in predicting blood sugar levels. The CatBoost model demonstrated its efficiency and accuracy in glucose level predictions by achieving an impressive coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.7191 and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 25.21. Feature importance analysis highlighted the significance of specific features like median deviation and kurtosis in the predictive model built with CatBoost, emphasizing their critical role in determining blood sugar levels. The inclusion of explainable AI techniques enhanced the interpretability and transparency of predictive models. In conclusion, this research underscores the potential of machine learning-based approaches in predicting blood sugar levels from PPG signals. By leveraging advanced models like CatBoost and utilizing explainable AI methods, this study paves the way for improved diabetes management through accurate, non-invasive, and data-driven predictive methodologies.
... Numerous investigations have been conducted for the immobilization of glucose oxidase. This enzyme has been used in analytical and clinical laboratories commonly for the development of glucose sensors [50] and in the food industry dealing with the fermentation processes [51]. Glucose oxidase was immobilized on magnetic chitosan nanoparticles to recover and reuse, especially in meat and dairy food products [52]. ...
Nanotechnology has been evolving for many years and emerging in several scientific fields including electronic, material computer, textile and drug industries. The utilization of nanomaterials in food and agricultural applications is very limited and still innovative. Main implementations of nanotechnology in the food industry involve nanostructured food ingredients, packaging and sensing applications. On the other hand, sustainable manufacturing of nanostructured ingredients depends highly on the valorization of waste and by-products of the food industry. Waste management towards low carbon emission is indispensable as it might not only enrich soil and water with essential nutrients but also contribute to circular bio-economy. The vast production of fish and fisheries products, as well as the waste and by-products made from fish, are all results of the world population’s rapid growth and the industrialization that follows. Two-thirds of the entire fish production is estimated to be wasted, which raises concerns for the economy and environment. The use of fish waste and by-products in the manufacturing of nanostructures to obtain materials with high added value gains more interest day by day.
Diabetes mellitus has emerged as a globally prevalent chronic metabolic disorder, characterized by persistent hyperglycemia and associated complications. Continuous glucose monitoring is a technology that continuously monitors blood glucose by implanting microelectrodes under the skin, which is the most common method of diabetes treatment. Due to the discomfort caused by frequent blood collection through traditional blood glucose monitoring, continuous glucose monitoring has become a major research focus, mainly relying on blood glucose biosensors. In this paper, the progress of electrochemical biosensors in continuous glucose monitoring systems and the characteristics of electrochemical biosensors in different stages of development were mainly summarized. The commonly used enzyme immobilization technology aiming to solve the problems of enzyme leakage, activity decrease, and sensitivity decline caused by long-term subcutaneous implantation of blood glucose biosensors were discussed, meanwhile, the advantages and disadvantages of the different methodologies were also compared. These methodological advancements provide critical insights for optimizing biosensor stability and durability, establishing a theoretical foundation for developing next-generation implantable continuous glucose monitoring devices with enhanced clinical performance.
Electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors represent a promising platform for continuous monitoring of a wide range of biomarkers due to the unique properties of aptamers such as high affinity, target binding...
Bioelectrodes in cells can record and monitor monocellular or multicellular signals, contributing to early diagnosis, drug development and public health. To promote the cell analysis platform into integration, miniaturization and intellectualization, development of advanced bioelectrodes has attracted intense attention from both research and industrial communities. Here we present the research progress of bioelectrodes for cell analysis along four lines: materials, fabrications, principles and state-of-the-art applications. Covering from traditional noble metals to frontier conducting polymers, various conductive yet biocompatible materials have been used to develop bioelectrodes. Suitable materials are processed into micro/nano electrodes through electrochemical deposition, sol-gel processes, and self-assembly etc. The prepared bioelectrodes play roles in cellular analysis based on a biochemical process of direct electron transfer, mediator-assisted transfer or biocatalysis, which has been widely used in electrophysiological characterization, chemical analysis, metabolite detection and intercellular communication. To conclude this review, we summarize current challenges remained for cell electrodes in terms of foreign body response, biocompatibility, long-term stability, miniaturization, multifunctional integration, and intelligence, further suggesting possible solutions on performance optimization and material innovation. This review could provide guidance for understanding the working principles of bioelectrodes, designing a feasible cellular analysis platform, and building advanced cell analysis systems.
Minimally invasive drug delivery systems have revolutionized therapeutic approaches by enhancing patient compliance, reducing side effects, and improving drug efficacy. This chapter explores the role of biosensors in monitoring these systems, focusing on their ability to provide real-time, precise, and continuous feedback on drug levels and physiological responses. It discusses various biosensing technologies, including electrochemical, optical, and enzymatic biosensors, tailored for applications in minimally invasive platforms such as microneedles, implants, and wearable devices.
The rapid advances in biosensing technology over the past few decades have revolutionized the field of human health. From early disease detection to personalized medicine, these technologies offer unprecedented opportunities to improve patient outcomes and overall public health. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of biosensing technologies, their applications and future prospects.
Initially, the book explores the fundamental principles underlying biosensing technology then details various types of biosensors, including electrochemical sensors, discussing their mechanisms, advantages and limitations. The subsequent sections of the book are dedicated to the practical applications of biosensing technologies in human health including infectious disease diagnostics, environmental monitoring and the development of wearable biosensors for continuous health monitoring. These chapters highlight real-world examples and case studies, illustrating the impact of biosensing technology on healthcare practices. This book is a crucial resource for academics, researchers, and those who want to learn more about electrochemical phenomena, experiment with cutting-edge methods and use biosensors for a variety of purposes.
The rapid advances in biosensing technology over the past few decades have revolutionized the field of human health. From early disease detection to personalized medicine, these technologies offer unprecedented opportunities to improve patient outcomes and overall public health. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of biosensing technologies, their applications and future prospects.
Initially, the book explores the fundamental principles underlying biosensing technology then details various types of biosensors, including electrochemical sensors, discussing their mechanisms, advantages and limitations. The subsequent sections of the book are dedicated to the practical applications of biosensing technologies in human health including infectious disease diagnostics, environmental monitoring and the development of wearable biosensors for continuous health monitoring. These chapters highlight real-world examples and case studies, illustrating the impact of biosensing technology on healthcare practices. This book is a crucial resource for academics, researchers, and those who want to learn more about electrochemical phenomena, experiment with cutting-edge methods and use biosensors for a variety of purposes.
This chapter explores the crucial function of signal amplification in improving the accurate measurement of clinically significant analytes in actual samples. Signal amplification plays a vital role in biosensing technologies for enhancing sensitivity. This chapter elaborates on various signal amplification strategies, which include mechanism-based approaches (e.g., enzymatic amplification, DNA amplification, electrochemical signal transduction, and labeling techniques), design-based approaches (e.g., optimized electrode architecture, enhanced binding affinity, signal enhancement layers, multiplexing, microfluidics, smart materials, signal processing), and methods for increasing analyte availability (e.g., sample pre-concentration, surface functionalization, multiplexing, dynamic range extension, signal amplification cascades, improved sample processing, and target amplification methods). In addition, various challenges associated with biosensor signal amplification have also been discussed, which include background noise, cross-reactivity, signal stability, sensitivity, dynamic range, sample complexity, integration with sample handling, and cost-effectiveness. This chapter highlights the techniques for enhancing signal strength in biosensors to accurately identify trace amounts of substances from biological samples.
Since the introduction of the first enzyme electrode in 1962, the area of glucose biosensing has undergone substantial expansion and advancement. The ongoing development of sensing platforms has been achieved by extensive study on different immobilization methods and improvements in electron transfer efficiency between enzymes and electrodes. The advancement of nanostructures and their composites has further accelerated this process. Some noteworthy examples include carbon nanotubes, graphene/graphene oxide, and metal oxides. Nanomaterials are used in biosensors to optimize the immobilization process and enhance the electrocatalytic activity of glucose. This article provides a concise overview of the development of glucose biosensors, emphasizing several iterations and recent patterns in utilizing nanostructures for glucose detection, with or without using enzymes. A complete overview was created by collecting, evaluating, analyzing, and reviewing the most recent literature on electrochemical glucose biosensors, including enzymatic and non-enzymatic approaches. The paper comprehensively analyzes the evolution from the 1st to the 4th generation, focusing on the prospects for the most recent generation of glucose biosensors. In addition, this article examines the many mechanisms of glucose sensors using complex materials and methods for glucose detection technology. We specifically aim to comprehend the mechanisms revealed by different electrochemical techniques that enhance glucose oxidation and its interaction with the electrode. To heighten our comprehension of glucose oxidation, we examine the historical background of these biosensors, progress made in improving electron transfer, the creation of several sensing platforms that utilize nanomaterials, and their resulting performance.
The Open Journal of Nano -2024- Volume 9, Issue 1
This research focuses on investigating glucose meters utilizing metamaterial microwave sensors. The metamaterial microwave sensor is designed with a strip line loaded with a complementary split ring. The sensor is designed to conduct Ansys high‐frequency structure simulator and uses conductor material coated on a hydrocarbon ceramic laminate (Roger RO4232) substrate, with a sweep frequency range of 1–6 GHz. The signal of the metamaterial microwave sensor depends on the change in glucose permittivity and conductivity when the glucose concentration changes. The research involves designing a simulation model to explore the impact of complementary split ring size on the sensor's response to changes in glucose permittivity. Additionally, experiments are conducted using the proposed sensor to measure glucose concentration in solution, aiming to analyze trends in sensor response to varying concentrations of glucose and evaluate its sensitivity to changes in glucose concentration. The experimental results indicate that the metamaterial microwave sensor is able to respond to variations in glucose level, a sensitivity of the proposed sensor is 0.0345 dB (mg dL ⁻¹ ) ⁻¹ in range of 0–110 mg dL ⁻¹ with R ² 0.9628.
Electrochemical paper‐based microfluidics has attracted much attention due to the promise of transforming point‐of‐care diagnostics by facilitating quantitative analysis with low‐cost and portable analyzers. Such devices harness capillary flow to transport samples and reagents, enabling bioassays to be executed passively. Despite exciting demonstrations of capillary‐driven electrochemical tests, conventional methods for fabricating electrodes on paper impede capillary flow, limit fluidic pathways, and constrain accessible device architectures. This account reviews recent developments in paper‐based electroanalytical devices and offers perspective by revisiting key milestones in lateral flow tests and paper‐based microfluidics engineering. The study highlights the benefits associated with electrochemical sensing and discusses how the detection modality can be leveraged to unlock novel functionalities. Particular focus is given to electrofluidic platforms that embed electrodes into paper for enhanced biosensing applications. Together, these innovations pave the way for diagnostic technologies that offer portability, quantitative analysis, and seamless integration with digital healthcare, all without compromising the simplicity of commercially available rapid diagnostic tests.
Heavy metal ions (HMI) are believed to have primarily originated from both natural and anthropogenic agents. Due to their known accumulation and toxicity in environmental and biological media, it has risen to prominence as one of major problems of the world. Heavy metal (HM) pollution has worsened in recent years due to increased industrialization and resource exploitation. HMI pose a major risk to the well-being of humans as they accumulate in the body and are difficult to be biodegraded. Significant measures must be taken to diminish the dangers caused by metal pollution in the environment. Increasing efforts to detect HMI particularly via the use of electrochemical sensors provide a novel and viable approach to the adverse effects of toxic exposure of HM. If HMI exceed the admissible limit in aqua ecosystems, both flora and fauna are affected. These ions may prove fatal or may disrupt the metabolic process. The oxidative stress associated with metal ions is coupled with assortment of illnesses and damage. Keeping in view the toxic consequences of metals pollution and the importance of clear water for existence, researchers are prompted to implement all possible feasible steps to preserve water quality. As such, several methods have been devised for identifying metal ions and flushing them out from water supplies. Here, we have reviewed the techniques utilized for identification and removal of HMI from waste water systems.
Glucose determination, without pain and aches, is essential for biomedical applications. Minimally invasive (MI) and non-invasive (NI) are the approaches that could address these challenges. MI approaches are based on body fluids such as saliva, urine, tears, and interstitial fluid that are exploited to determine glucose levels. NI methods utilize radiation forms to determine glucose concentration without needing body fluids. In this review, MI and NI technologies and their application in glucose measurement, along with current and future devices that use these technologies, are described and discussed. Also, the principles and requirements and operational and analytical performance will be reviewed and discussed.
Currently, microstrip antennas and circuits acting as microwave sensors are used extensively in medical applications and systems that help people monitor their health constantly and easily in the comfort of their homes. This has resulted from the ongoing revolution in the process of wireless communications and the transfer of information. The patient can now be observed from home by the attending physician, wherever his/her home may be. Several medical applications using microwave sensors have been reported. These include the use of microstrip antenna and components to monitor human biofluids and tumors, specifically the breast in women. Microwave sensing is based on detecting differences in the electromagnetic properties––such as permittivity, reflection coefficient magnitude, and phase––of healthy tissues from those affected by tumors. Other applications for microstrip structures involve monitoring vital biofluids; for example, monitoring the glucose level in the blood for diabetics and NaCl level in sweat for hydration. Also, an important application for microstrip antennas involves antennas implanted in the human body for pacemakers and to make binoculars see inside the human body. While microwave sensing is harnessed in several medical applications, in this chapter the focus is on non-invasive breast, glucose, and sweat monitoring.
Herein we report the use of electrochemical faradaic spectroscopy in biosensors, with application on a commercially used first‐generation glucose biosensor manufactured by Zimmer and Peacock. The mechanism for the glucose sensor was explained and approximated as an EC’ mechanism, where E is for electron transfer step, whereas C’ signifies catalytical chemical step. Experimental chronoamperograms in electrochemical faradaic spectroscopy are compared to chronoamperometry, where it was found that the sum component in electrochemical faradaic spectroscopy gives higher response, resulting in better sensitivity of the sensor. Theoretical simulations give an insight of the response in electrochemical faradaic spectroscopy for an EC’ mechanism and its dependence on different parameters (dimensionless electrode kinetic parameter, mid potential, dimensionless chemical kinetic parameter). For some specific set of parameters (large electrode and catalytic reaction kinetics), theoretical chronoamperograms in electrochemical faradaic spectroscopy can become similar to the experimental. The property of the sum component to have higher response in EC’ mechanism for specific parameters is not limited only for electrochemical faradaic spectroscopy. Exemplified with square‐wave voltammetry, it is shown that other pulse techniques for an EC’ mechanism can also result with higher sum component. Hence, for better sensitivity in quantitative analysis in EC’ mechanism, one should quantify the sum component.
Novel heteroarene oligomers, consisting of two pyridinium groups, linked by thiophene units of variable length, “thienoviologens”, are described as promising candidates for molecular wires. Two representative thienoviologens were coated by adsorption from micromolar concentrations in ethanol onto octadecylmercaptan (ODM)-coated gold electrodes and induced a gradual restoration of the electrochemistry with hexacyanoferrate as a function of molecular wire concentration. Glucose oxidase and choline oxidase showed strong adsorption to these conductive layers, but showed striking differences in adsorption to the different thienoviologen layers. The measurements support the hypothesis that the molecules are incorporated in the ODM layer in a different fashion. Also the complex formation of an engineered azurin redox protein with water-soluble pyridyl ligands is presented in relation to a possible application of the thienoviologens as conductive spacers, in which the contact with the redox protein is achieved via complex formation with a free pyridine nitrogen.
A selection of recently available catalytic carbon powders were assessed and compared with the more conventionally used platinized material. Their suitability for incorporation in amperomctric biosensors is discussed. In conjunction with this study, methods of applying membranes to the surfaces of these devices were investigated. Advanced fabrication technologies, potentially suitable for scale-up of sensor production, such as screen printing and ink-jet printing, were used for manufacture of the complete sensor structure. Hydrogen peroxide-sensing electrodes and glucose biosensors were produced as model systems, demonstrating the advantages of these approaches. The commercially available rhodinized carbon MCA4 produced a high current density at low potentials over a plateau region (300-400 mV vs SCE). In addition, direct oxidation of glucose (seen with platinized carbon) was not observed at the chosen potential of +350 mV. Further interference studies using fermentation media highlighted its suitability as an electrode material for use in complex samples. Ink-jet printing proved to be a successful method for the deposition of Nafion membranes of defined and reproducible geometry.
Amperometric alcohol biosensors were constructed by co-immobilising commercially available alcohol oxidase (AOD, EC 1.1.3.13) from various sources (Candida boidinii, Pichia pastoris and Hansenula polymorpha) with the hydrogen peroxide reducing enzyme, horseradish peroxidase, in a carbon paste matrix. Biosensors were built based on two different approaches, i.e. direct and mediated electron transfer. Previously shown efficient activators/stabilisers, such as polyethylenimine and lactitol were added to the non-mediated systems. Electrode characteristics were compared with those obtained for similarly constructed biosensors, based on mediated reduction of hydrogen peroxide. An osmium containing three-dimensional redox hydrogel, (poly[l-vinyl imidazole osmium , was used to “wire” horseradish peroxidase. After preliminary screening, two compositions were found to yield the best characteristics (sensitivity, selectivity, operational and storage stability, ethanol conversion). These were AOD from Candida boidinii coupled with horseradish peroxidase and stabilised with polyethylenimine and AOD from Pichia pastoris coupled with “wired” horseradish peroxidase. The electrodes were operated in flow injection mode at a working potential of −0.05 V vs. (0.1 M KC1).
An amperometric enzyme electrode for the analytic of glucose to described. The electrode uses a substituted ferricinlum ion as a mediator of electron transfer between immobilized glucose oxidase and a graphite electrode. A linear current response, proportional to the glucose concentration over a range commonly found in diabetic blood samples (1-30 mM), is observed. Data are presented on the influence of oxygen, pH, and temperature upon the electrode. Results with clinical plasma and whole blood samples show good agreement with a standard method of analysis.
Miniaturisation of the bedside artificial endocrine pancreas in necessary to provide a means of restoring physiological glycaemic excursions in diabetic patients in the long term. One of the remaining problems in producing such a sophisticated device is the difficulty in developing a sufficiently small glucose-monitoring system. A needle-type glucose sensor has been developed which is suitable for use in a closed-loop glycaemic control system. The wearable artificial endocrine pancreas, incorporating the needle-type glucose sensor, a computer calculating infusion rates of insulin, glucagon, or both, and infusion pumps, was tested in pancreatectomised dogs: the device produced perfect control of blood glucose for up to 7 days.
Biosen-sors: A Clearer View Optical sensor for plasma constituents
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Biomolecular architecture: routes to biosensors, bioelectronics and biofuel cells
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