Article

Moderate Resistance Training Volume Produces More Favorable Strength Gains Than High or Low Volumes During a Short-Term Training Cycle

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of 3 resistance training volumes on maximal strength in the snatch (Sn), clean & jerk (C&J), and squat (Sq) exercises during a 10-week training period. Fifty-one experienced (>3 years), trained junior lifters were randomly assigned to one of 3 groups: a low-volume group (LVG, n = 16), a moderate-volume group (MVG, n = 17), and a high-volume group (HVG, n = 18). All subjects trained 4-5 days a week with a periodized routine using the same exercises and relative intensities but a different total number of sets and repetitions at each relative load: LVG (1,923 repetitions), MVG (2,481 repetitions), and HVG (3,030 repetitions). The training was periodized from moderate intensity (60- 80% of 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) and high number of repetitions per set (2-6) to high intensity (90-100% of 1RM) and low number of repetitions per set (1-3). During the training period, the MVG showed a significant increase for the Sn, C&J, and Sq exercises (6.1, 3.7, and 4.2%, respectively, p < 0.01), whereas in the LVG and HVG, the increase took place only with the C&J exercise (3.7 and 3%, respectively, p < 0.05) and the Sq exercise (4.6%, p < 0.05, and 4.8%, p < 0.01, respectively). The increase in the Sn exercise for the MVG was significantly higher than in the LVG (p = 0.015). Calculation of effect sizes showed higher strength gains in the MVG than in the HVG or LVG. There were no significant differences between the LVG and HVG training volume-induced strength gains. The present results indicate that junior experienced lifters can optimize performance by exercising with only 85% or less of the maximal volume that they can tolerate. These observations may have important practical relevance for the optimal design of strength training programs for resistance-trained athletes, since we have shown that performing at a moderate volume is more effective and efficient than performing at a higher volume.

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... development, most studies have not used training intensities tailored more specifically for strength development (e. g. > 80 %1-RM) in trained cohorts [4,6,[8][9][10]. However, two studies employed more specific training schemes to develop strength in trained individuals during their intervention [7,11]. Gonzalez-Badillo et al. [11] assigned trained junior lifters (1-RM squat:body mass ratio ~1.97) to different RT volume assignments. ...
... However, two studies employed more specific training schemes to develop strength in trained individuals during their intervention [7,11]. Gonzalez-Badillo et al. [11] assigned trained junior lifters (1-RM squat:body mass ratio ~1.97) to different RT volume assignments. The training program was periodized, ranging from moderate intensity (60-80 % 1-RM) to high intensity (90-100 % 1-RM). ...
... In our case, the highest RT volume was capped at nine weekly sets. Additionally, only a few studies have employed some high-intensity day loading schemes [7,11,33,34]. Other studies on this topic have used repetition zones ranging from ~6 to 15, which may not be the most specific loading schemes when the goal of the RT program is to enhance 1-RM performance [3,4,6,35]. ...
Article
This study investigated the effects of different resistance training (RT) volumes quantified by weekly sets at high intensity (load and effort) on dynamic strength adaptations and psychophysiological responses in trained individuals. Twenty-four athletes were randomly allocated to three groups that performed 3 (3S, n = 8), 6 (6S, n = 8), and 9 (9S, n = 8) weekly sets, respectively, three times a week on the barbell back squat and bench press during an 8-week period. While all groups showcased strength gains (p < 0.05), post hoc comparisons revealed that 6S and 9S elicited greater strength adaptations than 3S in barbell back squat (p = 0.027 and p = 0.004, respectively) and bench press (p = 0.001 and p = 0.044, respectively). There were no differences between 6S and 9S conditions for back squat (p = 0.999) and bench press (p = 0.378). Although a time effect was observed for Session-RPE (p = 0.014) and Total Quality Recovery scale (p = 0.020), psychophysiological responses were similar among groups. Our findings suggest that performing 6 and 9 weekly sets at high intensities led to greater strength gains compared to 3 weekly sets in strength-trained individuals, despite similar psychophysiological responses.
... Traditionally, it has been suggested that RT should be conducted to muscle failure to maximize strength and muscle mass gains (Ahtiainen et al. 2003;Kraemer and Ratamess 2004). However, an increasing number of investigations (Davies et al. 2016;Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005;Izquierdo et al. 2006;Pareja-Blanco et al. 2017c;Sampson and Groeller 2016) appear to indicate that completing the maximal number of repetitions in each set may not be a necessary stimulus to produce greater increments in muscle strength compared with lower training volumes. Indeed, training to muscle failure induces a high level of mechanical, metabolic, and hormonal stress (Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2016;Moran-Navarro et al. 2017;Pareja-Blanco et al. 2017b;Sanchez-Medina and Gonzalez-Badillo 2011), and it appears that the continuous use of this type of RT results in a significant decrement in the rate of force development (Andersen et al. 2010) and, consequently, a reduction in the ability to perform high-speed actions such as jumps and sprints (Pareja-Blanco et al. 2017c). ...
... Several authors have hypothesized that there may be a curvilinear relationship (an inverted "U"-shaped curve) between training volume and gains in muscle strength and physical performance (Busso 2003;Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005;Kuipers 1996). This relationship indicates that there is a minimum volume (volume threshold) for each load magnitude range to induce neuromuscular improvements. ...
... From that minimum volume threshold, a progressive increase in training volume will be accompanied by an increase in strength gains, up to a certain limit, beyond which an increase in training volume will not produce additional benefits in terms of muscle strength. Even if a certain training volume value is exceeded, it is likely that gains in strength and physical performance will decrease (Busso 2003;Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2005;Kuipers 1996). Thus, one of the main aims of coaches and sports scientists should be to look for the minimum and maximum volume thresholds (numbers of repetitions per set) that produce improvements in physical performance. ...
Article
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This study aimed to compare the effects of 2 resistance training (RT) programs with different velocity losses (VLs) allowed in each set: 10% (VL10%) versus 30% (VL30%) on neuromuscular performance and hormonal response. Twenty-five young healthy males were randomly assigned into 2 groups: VL10% (n = 12) or VL30% (n = 13). Subjects followed a velocity-based RT program for 8 weeks (2 sessions per week) using only the full-squat (SQ) exercise at 70%–85% 1-repetition maximum (1RM). Repetition velocity was recorded in all training sessions. A 20-m running sprint, countermovement jump (CMJ), 1RM, muscle endurance, and electromyogram (EMG) during SQ exercise and resting hormonal concentrations were assessed before and after the RT program. Both groups showed similar improvements in muscle strength and endurance variables (VL10%: 7.0%–74.8%; VL30%: 4.2%–73.2%). The VL10% resulted in greater percentage increments in CMJ (9.2% vs. 5.4%) and sprint performance (–1.5% vs. 0.4%) than VL30%, despite VL10% performing less than half of the repetitions than VL30% during RT. In addition, only VL10% showed slight increments in EMG variables, whereas no significant changes in resting hormonal concentrations were observed. Therefore, our results suggest that velocity losses in the set as low as 10% are enough to achieve significant improvements in neuromuscular performance, which means greater efficiency during RT. NoveltyThe VL10% group showed similar or even greater percentage of changes in physical performance compared with VL30%. No significant changes in resting hormonal concentrations were observed for any training group. Curvilinear relationships between percentage VL in the set and changes in strength and CMJ performance were observed.
... 4 In this regard, an inverted U-shaped relationship has been observed between training volume and performance adaptations. 5,6 According to this relationship, some minimum threshold of training volume is necessary to elicit strength gains, but once a certain amount of volume is achieved, performing additional repetitions does not appear to induce further strength gains and may even blunt the earlier strength-related adaptations induced by lower training volumes. 7,8 In recent years, the practicability of the velocity-based training approach for monitoring and real-time prescription of RT intensity and volume has been demonstrated. ...
... In agreement with these findings, other studies carried out using lower-limb exercises have shown that moderate volume induced further 1RM strength gains than higher or lower volumes. 6,[22][23][24] With specific regard to the BP exercise, Rodiles-Guerrero et al 8 reported an inverted U-shaped relationship between VL thresholds and performance increases after an 8-week training program using loads from 55% to 70% 1RM. In line with this, Pareja-Blanco et al 10 compared the effects of 4 VL thresholds (VL0, VL15, VL25, and VL50) in a BP training program for 8 weeks with similar intensities to those used in the present study, reporting that moderate VL thresholds (ie, VL25) produced the greatest strength benefits. ...
Article
Purpose: To investigate the effects of 3 training volumes in the bench-press exercise performed with interrepetition rest periods, matched for fatigue, on strength gains and neuromuscular adaptations. Methods: Forty-three resistance-trained men were randomized into 3 groups: low (LOW), moderate (MOD), and high (HIG) volume. The intensities increased from 70% to 85% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) over the 8-week training period. Each session consisted of only 1 set with short interrepetition rest periods. LOW performed only 3 repetitions per session (8-wk total: 48 repetitions); MOD completed 15, 12, 10, and 8 repetitions per session with 70%, 75%, 80%, and 85% 1RM, respectively (8-wk total: 180); and HIG performed 24, 21, 18, and 15 repetitions per session with 70%, 75%, 80%, and 85% 1RM, respectively (8-wk total: 312). Progressive loading and fatigue tests were conducted in the bench-press exercise before and after the training period. Electromyography (EMG) signals from the triceps brachii were registered during these tests. Results: HIG and MOD showed higher velocity loss than LOW (16% vs 12%). No significant group × time interaction was observed for any variable. All groups improved significantly in all strength-related variables, except for maximal unloaded velocity, where only MOD obtained significant gains. Only LOW and MOD induced significant improvements in EMG. MOD obtained the greatest effect sizes in almost all strength variables. Conclusions: No significant differences were found in the performance gains obtained by each group despite the wide differences in the total volume accumulated by each group.
... Relationships between resistance training metrics and speed were non-significant [44,91], or irregular [64]. Relationships with strength were positive between chin up 3 repetition maximum (RM) and upper body exercises, upper body volume (sets × reps × mass [kg]), and total (upper and lower body) volume [91], positive between bench press 3RM and upper body exercises and upper body volume [91], positive for snatch 1RM and total volume between medium and low volume groups [55], and positive for snatch and squat 1RM and number of lifts performed at 100% 1RM [56]. Relationships with power were observed to be non-significant for plyometrics volume measured via number of contacts [44], and positive for lower body exercises, lower body volume, and total volume [91]. ...
... One of the studies found that a medium-volume group had greater improvements in their snatch 1RM as compared with a low-volume group, but not compared with the high-volume group [55]. These results indicate that there may be an upper limit to the load-response relationship, but this has not been explored in detail in adolescent athletes. ...
Article
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Background With the increasing professionalisation of youth sports, training load monitoring is increasingly common in adolescent athletes. However, the research examining the relationship between training load and changes in physical qualities, injury, or illness in adolescent athletes is yet to be synthesised in a systematic review. Objective The aim of this review was to systematically examine the research assessing internal and external methods of monitoring training load and physical qualities, injury, or illness in adolescent athletes. Methods Systematic searches of SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, CINAHL and SCOPUS were undertaken from the earliest possible records to March 2022. Search terms included synonyms relevant to adolescents, athletes, physical qualities, injury, or illness. To be eligible for inclusion, articles were required to (1) be original research articles; (2) be published in a peer-reviewed journal; (3) include participants aged between 10 and 19 years and participating in competitive sport; (4) report a statistical relationship between a measure of internal and/or external load and physical qualities, injury or illness. Articles were screened and assessed for methodological quality. A best-evidence synthesis was conducted to identify trends in the relationships reported. Results The electronic search yielded 4125 articles. Following screening and a review of references, 59 articles were included. The most commonly reported load monitoring tools were session ratings of perceived exertion (n = 29) and training duration (n = 22). Results of the best-evidence synthesis identified moderate evidence of positive relationships between resistance training volume load and improvement in strength, and between throw count and injury. However, evidence for other relationships between training load and change in physical qualities, injury, or illness were limited or inconsistent. Conclusions Practitioners should consider monitoring resistance training volume load for strength training. Additionally, where appropriate, monitoring throw counts may be useful in identifying injury risk. However, given the lack of clear relationships between singular measures of training load with physical qualities, injury, or illness, researchers should consider multivariate methods of analysing training load, as well as factors that may mediate the load–response relationship, such as maturation.
... Similarly, another study compared the effect of RT programs that employed the same maximum and relative load (%1RM) in each session, but with different training volumes (low vs. high volume) in a group of experienced weightlifters [111]. Although the athletes in the low volume group only performed 65% of the total volume completed by those in the high volume group, no significant differences were observed between groups in strength gains (1RM) measured in the snatch, clean and jerk, and squat exercises [111]. ...
... Similarly, another study compared the effect of RT programs that employed the same maximum and relative load (%1RM) in each session, but with different training volumes (low vs. high volume) in a group of experienced weightlifters [111]. Although the athletes in the low volume group only performed 65% of the total volume completed by those in the high volume group, no significant differences were observed between groups in strength gains (1RM) measured in the snatch, clean and jerk, and squat exercises [111]. Moreover, several recent studies [23,24,32,48] have shown that, following squat training programs in which the same relative load (% 1RM) was used by all groups in each training session, reaching a velocity loss in each set ≤ 20% (which corresponds to completing less than half of the possible repetitions) tends to induce greater increments in strength, vertical jump and 20 m sprint performance than reaching higher velocity losses (30-45%). ...
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For more than a century, many concepts and several theories and principles pertaining to the goals, organization, methodology and evaluation of the effects of resistance training (RT) have been developed and discussed between coaches and scientists. This cumulative body of knowledge and practices has contributed substantially to the evolution of RT methodology. However, a detailed and rigorous examination of the existing literature reveals many inconsistencies that, unless resolved, could seriously hinder further progress in our field. The purpose of this review is to constructively expose, analyze and discuss a set of anomalies present in the current RT methodology, including: (a) the often inappropriate and misleading terminology used, (b) the need to clarify the aims of RT, (c) the very concept of maximal strength, (d) the control and monitoring of the resistance exercise dose, (e) the existing programming models and (f) the evaluation of training effects. A thorough and unbiased examination of these deficiencies could well lead to the adoption of a revised paradigm for RT. This new paradigm must guarantee a precise knowledge of the loads being applied, the effort they involve and their effects. To the best of our knowledge, currently this can only be achieved by monitoring repetition velocity during training. The main contribution of a velocity-based RT approach is that it provides the necessary information to know the actual training loads that induce a specific effect in each athlete. The correct adoption of this revised paradigm will provide coaches and strength and conditioning professionals with accurate and objective information concerning the applied load (relative load, level of effort and training effect). This knowledge is essential to make rational and informed decisions and to improve the training methodology itself.
... The present findings also support previous studies that suggested the existence of an inverted U-shaped relationship between training volume and performance increase (5,6,14). In this regard, Pareja-Blanco et al. (19) observed that 8 weeks of RT in squat exercise with a velocity loss of 20% (which corresponded to performing approximately 50% of MNR) resulted in similar gains in performance compared with a velocity loss of 40% (close to muscle failure in this exercise) and even greater gains in high velocity actions such as vertical jumps. ...
... It has been proposed that performing slow and fatiguing repetitions, as occurs in typical, tofailure training, may evoke a reduction in the IIX fiber type (19) and a physiological environment that does not provide optimal conditions for improving neuromuscular performance (17,18). Therefore, in accordance with previous studies suggesting that moderate volumes produce more favorable strength gains than high volumes during a training cycle (5,14), performing a training program based solely on performing repetitions to failure with one's own BM seems to be an inadequate stimulus to maximize strength performance in PU. ...
Article
Sánchez-Moreno, M, Cornejo-Daza, PJ, González-Badillo, JJ, and Pareja-Blanco, F. Effects of velocity loss during body mass prone-grip pull-up training on strength and endurance performance. J Strength Cond Res 34(4): 911-917, 2020-This study aimed to analyze the effects of 2 pull-up (PU) training programs that differed in the magnitude of repetition velocity loss allowed in each set (25% velocity loss "VL25" vs. 50% velocity loss "VL50") on PU performance. Twenty-nine strength-trained men (age = 26.1 ± 6.3 years, body mass [BM] = 74.2 ± 6.4 kg, and 15.9 ± 4.9 PU repetitions to failure) were randomly assigned to 2 groups: VL25 (n = 15) or VL50 (n = 14) and followed an 8-week (16 sessions) velocity-based BM prone-grip PU training program. Mean propulsive velocity (MPV) was monitored in all repetitions. Assessments performed at pre-training and post-training included estimated 1 repetition maximum; average MPV attained with all common external loads used during pre-training and post-training testing (AVinc); peak MPV lifting one's own BM (MPVbest); maximum number of repetitions to failure lifting one's own BM (MNR); and average MPV corresponding to the same number of repetitions lifting one's own BM performed during pre-training testing (AVMNR). VL25 attained significantly greater gains than VL50 in all analyzed variables except in MNR (P < 0.05). In addition, VL25 improved significantly (P < 0.001) in all the evaluated variables while VL50 remained unchanged. In conclusion, our results suggest that once a 25% velocity loss is achieved during PU training, further repetitions did not elicit additional gains and can even blunt the improvement in strength and endurance performance.
... Rhea Although there is some debate within the literature, there are several trends based on the training status of individuals. For trained individuals, multiple sets generally produce greater gains in strength when intensity is sufficient (57,101,131). While for untrained individuals in the initial stages of strength training, single sets may provide similar benefits to multiple set regimes (132,183). ...
... While for untrained individuals in the initial stages of strength training, single sets may provide similar benefits to multiple set regimes (132,183). However, performing too much volume can be less effective (57) or detrimental (51) to performance, so caution should be applied in prescribing large numbers of high intensity sets. A periodised approach may also provide additional benefits (57, 131) (see section 2.4). ...
Thesis
Maximal strength is a physical quality imperative to success in strength sports and can also play a role in enhancing performance within many other sports. Tapering is a reduction in training load frequently undertaken prior to competitions in order to minimise training related fatigue and thus improve athletic performance. There is currently limited research for athletes and coaches to utilise when planning tapering to maximise strength at key events. This thesis investigated how strength-trained men can best structure the taper period to improve strength performance and attempted to identify the mechanisms underlying any performance improvements. Two literature reviews (Chapters Two and Three) were performed to provide background information regarding training for maximal strength and summarise current knowledge on tapering for maximal strength. The literature revealed that maximal strength training should involve high intensity training (>80% one repetition maximum (1RM)), for multiple sets, with at least two sessions per week for each major muscle group. The current literature indicated that reductions in training volume (by 30-70%) with maintained, or slight increases, in intensity were most effective for improving maximal strength. However, optimal magnitudes of change during the taper were unclear. Short periods of training cessation (less than a week) were also found to be effective at enhancing, or maintaining, maximal strength. The first study (Chapter Four) used a qualitative approach to determine strategies currently utilised by 11 elite New Zealand powerlifters (age = 28.4 ± 7.0 years, best Wilks score = 431.9 ± 43.9 points). Athletes reduced training volume by 58.9 ± 8.4%, while maintaining (or slightly reducing) training intensity. The taper lasted 2.4 ± 0.9 weeks, with the final resistance training session 3.7 ± 1.6 days out from competition. Tapering was performed to achieve maximal recovery, and practices were largely informed through trial and error, with changes based upon ‘feel’. Athletes usually removed accessory exercises and focused primarily upon the competition lifts during the taper. The first training study (Chapter Five) involved a cross-over design to determine the effects of two durations, 3.5 or 5.5 days, of training cessation on performance following four-weeks of training. Eight resistance trained males (age = 23.8 ± 5.4 years, bodyweight (BW) = 79.6 ± 10.2 kg, relative deadlift 1RM = 1.90 ± 0.30 times BW) completed the study. Combined data showed significant performance improvements, compared to pre-training, for both countermovement jump (CMJ) height (P = 0.022) and isometric bench press (IBP) relative peak force (P = 0.011) following short term training cessation (both small effect size (ES) = 0.30). This significant improvement was not present on the final training day, showing that training cessation was an effective means of enhancing strength and power. No significant differences were observed between 3.5 and 5.5 days of training cessation for any measure. These results suggest that a short period of strength training cessation can have positive effects on maximal strength expression, perhaps due to decreased neuromuscular fatigue. The second training study (Chapter Six) also had a cross-over design to determine the effects of two variations in intensity (+5% or -10%) during a one week strength taper with volume reductions (-70%), following four-weeks of training. Eleven strength-trained males (age = 21.3 ± 3.3 years, BW = 92.3 ± 17.6 kg, relative 1RM deadlift = 1.90 ± 0.20 times BW) completed the study. Combined data for both groups showed significant improvements in CMJ height over time (P < 0.001), with significant improvements across all time points (pre- to post-training P = 0.010, ES = 0.23; pre-training to post-taper P = 0.001, ES = 0.37; and, post-training to post-taper P = 0.002, ES = 0.14). Combined data for CMJ flight time: contraction time also showed significant improvements over time (P = 0.004), with significant improvements from pre- to post-training (P = 0.012, ES = 0.27). Combined data for isometric mid-thigh pull (MTP) relative peak force showed significant improvements over time (P = 0.033), with significant increases found from pre- to post-training (P = 0.013, ES = 0.25). The higher intensity taper produced small ES improvements following the taper for CMJ height (ES = 0.43), CMJ flight time: contraction time (ES = 0.42) and MTP relative peak force (ES = 0.37). In contrast, the lower intensity taper only produced a small ES improvement for CMJ height (ES = 0.30). However, differences between groups were not significant. These results indicate that a strength taper with volume reductions can have positive effects on maximal strength and power performance, with a tendency for higher intensity tapering to be more effective. This thesis has documented current tapering practices of strength athletes and demonstrated both short term training cessation and volume reduced strength tapers as effective methods of improving maximal strength following training. When tapering, athletes should make substantial training volume reductions with little changes to training intensity. During a taper, training should focus on competition specific strength exercises, and strength training should cease a few days prior to important events.
... While the majority of the above cited studies [47,49,51] examined untrained children, Gonzalez-Badillo et al. looked at strength gains in 16-year-old well-trained weight lifters [52]. Comparative studies of resistance and plyometric training in youth These authors observed that a high volume protocol over ten weeks did not induce greater adaptations (e.g. ...
... The observed differences in findings between our results from comparative studies and the metaanalysis can most likely be explained by differences in the study duration (8.1±1.8 weeks in comparative studies versus >23 weeks in the meta-analysis), training volume (mostly 1 set in comparative studies versus 5 sets in the meta-analysis), and the examined cohorts (untrained subjects in comparative studies versus young athletes in the meta-analysis). Moreover, the work of Gonzalez-Badillo et al. in trained youth indicates that an often cited statement by coaches "more is better" might not hold true if the goal is to induce optimal performance gains [52,53]. However, further studies are needed to confirm these findings. ...
Article
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Introduction To date, several meta-analyses clearly demonstrated that resistance and plyometric training are effective to improve physical fitness in children and adolescents. However, a methodological limitation of meta-analyses is that they synthesize results from different studies and hence ignore important differences across studies (i.e., mixing apples and oranges). Therefore, we aimed at examining comparative intervention studies that assessed the effects of age, sex, maturation, and resistance or plyometric training descriptors (e.g., training intensity, volume etc.) on measures of physical fitness while holding other variables constant. Methods To identify relevant studies, we systematically searched multiple electronic databases (e.g., PubMed) from inception to March 2018. We included resistance and plyometric training studies in healthy young athletes and non-athletes aged 6 to 18 years that investigated the effects of moderator variables (e.g., age, maturity, sex, etc.) on components of physical fitness (i.e., muscle strength and power). Results Our systematic literature search revealed a total of 75 eligible resistance and plyometric training studies, including 5,138 participants. Mean duration of resistance and plyometric training programs amounted to 8.9 ± 3.6 weeks and 7.1±1.4 weeks, respectively. Our findings showed that maturation affects plyometric and resistance training outcomes differently, with the former eliciting greater adaptations pre-peak height velocity (PHV) and the latter around- and post-PHV. Sex has no major impact on resistance training related outcomes (e.g., maximal strength, 10 repetition maximum). In terms of plyometric training, around-PHV boys appear to respond with larger performance improvements (e.g., jump height, jump distance) compared with girls. Different types of resistance training (e.g., body weight, free weights) are effective in improving measures of muscle strength (e.g., maximum voluntary contraction) in untrained children and adolescents. Effects of plyometric training in untrained youth primarily follow the principle of training specificity. Despite the fact that only 6 out of 75 comparative studies investigated resistance or plyometric training in trained individuals, positive effects were reported in all 6 studies (e.g., maximum strength and vertical jump height, respectively). Conclusions The present review article identified research gaps (e.g., training descriptors, modern alternative training modalities) that should be addressed in future comparative studies.
... While the study explored the effects of gym training, it was important to acknowledge that training volume could have varied widely among the university student participants, depending on their individual preferences and goals. This diversity in training volume within the gym training group may have influenced the observed outcomes [19]. Furthermore, Smith, et al. (2023) explored how different sports impact deltoid muscle thickness in athletes, highlighting that specific sports demand different patterns of muscle development. ...
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Background and Aims: Gym training frequently targets the deltoid muscle to enhance shoulder strength and aesthetics, making it crucial to investigate its response to exercise. Although some studies have explored muscle adaptations to resistance training, few have focused specifically on the deltoid muscle’s response to gym training in university students. This study aims to determine the effect of gym training on deltoid muscle thickness in university students. Methods: A total of 100 participants were divided into gym-going and non-gym groups. Descriptive statistics were employed to characterize the participants’ age, weight, and height. Independent samples t-tests were performed to compare deltoid muscle thickness between the two groups. Additionally, an analysis of variance was conducted to explore variations in deltoid muscle thickness across different BMI categories. Results: The study found a significant difference in deltoid muscle thickness between the gym-going and non-gym groups (p<.001), with the gym group exhibiting greater thickness. Furthermore, ANOVA revealed significant differences in deltoid muscle thickness across various BMI categories (p=.002), suggesting a relationship between BMI and deltoid muscle thickness. Conclusion: The study demonstrate a clear association between gym training and increased deltoid muscle thickness in university students, emphasizing the positive impact of regular gym attendance on muscle development. The study underscore the potential benefits of gym training for muscle growth in this population and emphasize the importance of considering BMI as a factor in future research on muscle adaptation.
... Following recommendations from previous studies [23][24][25] on moderate training volumes for optimal strength gains (60% to 80% of 1RM), the initial load was set at 65% of 1RM, with progressive increases of 5% every two weeks, reaching 80% of 1RM in the last 2 weeks of the training period. ...
Article
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The aim of this study was to investigate the effects and potential mechanisms of 8-week transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) combined with resistance training (RT) on pull-up performance in male college students. Twenty-five male college students were randomly assigned to either RT combined with anodal tDCS stimulation (RT + tDCS) or RT alone (RT). Participants of both groups engaged in lat pull-down training programs for 8 weeks, with the RT + tDCS group receiving 20 min tDCS before each RT session. Pre- and post-intervention tests included pull-up endurance (number of repetitions), flexed arm circumference (FAC), and lat pull-down maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) peak force. During the pull-up endurance test, surface electromyography (sEMG) was recorded for the bicep brachii (BB), tricep brachii (TB), brachioradialis (BR), anterior deltoid (AD), middle deltoid (MD), posterior deltoid (PD), pectoralis major (PM), and latissimus dorsi (LD) muscles. Both groups demonstrated significant improvements in pull-up endurance and lat pull-down MVIC peak force after training, but no significant difference between the two groups was observed in the post-training test. Additionally, muscle activation of BR, PD, and PM decreased significantly in both groups, while the RT + tDCS group also demonstrated a significant reduction in TB coactivation after training. These findings suggest that eight weeks of tDCS combined with lat pull-down training and lat pull-down training alone can both significantly improve pull-up performance, which may be attributed to enhanced muscle contraction capacity. Although no significant training gains were found between the two training groups, the RT + tDCS group showed a significant decrease in TB coactivation and the enhancement of elbow flexion muscle contraction efficiency after training.
... A 3-min rest interval separated each set. In accordance with previous literature recommending moderate training volumes ranging from 60% to 80% of 1RM for optimal strength gains (González-Badillo et al., 2005, 2006Sánchez-Moreno et al., 2020), the training load was progressively increased by 5% of 1RM every 2 weeks, commencing at 65% of 1RM in the initial 2 weeks and concluding at 80% of 1RM in the final 2 weeks of the intervention period. ...
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This study aimed to investigate the effects of an 8‐week lat pull‐down resistance training program with joint instability on pull‐up performance in male college students. Thirty‐four healthy recreationally active male college students were randomly assigned to either the joint instability resistance training (IRT) or traditional resistance training (TRT) group. Participants of the TRT and IRT groups performed lat pull‐down training on stable and joint instability conditions for 8 weeks, respectively. Pull‐up endurance (number of repetitions), anthropometry, lat pull‐down maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) peak force, and movement stability of performing unstable lat pull‐down were tested before and after the 8‐week training. Surface electromyography of biceps brachii (BB), triceps brachii (TB), brachioradialis (BR), anterior deltoid (AD), middle deltoid (MD), posterior deltoid (PD), pectoralis major (PM), and latissimus dorsi (LD) muscles were recorded during the pull‐up endurance test. The level of significance is set at p ≤ 0.05. The results demonstrated that the pull‐up endurance and lat pull‐down MVIC peak force of both IRT and TRT groups were significantly enhanced after 8‐week training compared to the pre‐training test. Notably, the number of pull‐up repetitions of the IRT group was 45.5% higher than the TRT group. These findings suggest that lat pull‐down training performed with joint instability may lead to greater improvements in pull‐up endurance compared to the stable condition, possibly attributed to enhanced muscle contraction efficiency as indicated by decreased antagonist coactivation activity.
... After completion of the standardized 5min dynamic warm-up participants completed three additional warm-up sets of SQs, building from 50% to 70% of their 1RM with 3-min rest intervals between sets (Ribeiro et al., 2021). Following the warm-up, the load was set at 80% of 1 RM and the participant performed 5 sets of 3 repetitions with 3 min of rest between sets (Byrd et al., 2021;González-Badillo et al., 2005;Marques and González-Badillo, 2006). Participants were instructed to perform each repetition by lowering eccentrically for 2 s, taking a brief pause at the transition, and then completing the concentric phase as fast as possible. ...
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Slow breathing (SB) reduces sympathetic nervous system activity, the heart rate (HR), and blood pressure (BP) and increases parasympathetic nervous system activity, HR variability, and oxygen saturation which may lead to quicker recovery between bouts of exercise. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine whether a SB technique using the 4-7-8 method between sets of barbell back squats (SQs) would attenuate drops in power and bar velocity. In a randomized, crossover design, 18 healthy resistance-trained college-aged males (age: 20.7 ± 1.4 years, body height: 178.6 ± 6.4 cm, body mass: 82.2 ± 15.0 kg, 4.5 ± 2.4 years of experience) performed 5 sets of 3 repetitions of SQs with normal breathing (CON) or SB during the 3-min recovery between sets. Peak and average power and bar velocity were assessed using a linear positioning transducer. HR recovery (RHR), systolic BP recovery (RBP), the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the rating of perceived recovery score (RS) were assessed after each set. There were no significant differences between conditions for peak and average power and bar velocity, RBP, RPE, and RS (p > 0.211). SB led to a greater RHR after set 2 (SB: 51.0 ± 14.9 bpm vs. CON: 44.5 ± 11.5 bpm, p = 0.025) and 3 (SB: 48.3 ± 13.5 bpm vs. CON: 37.7 ± 11.7 bpm, p = 0.006) compared to the CON condition. SB was well tolerated, did not hinder nor improve training performance and improved RHR after the middle sets of SQs. Further investigations are warranted to examine the effects of other SB techniques and to determine SB’s effects on different training stimuli as well as its effects over an entire workout and post-workout recovery metrics.
... According to the results obtained in our study, a lower training volume is associated with adaptations to strength training. Some research already suggests that to enhance performance in strength sports, it is not necessary to train at a higher volume [40]. The previous literature and studies confirm our results [41][42][43]; athletes who train at a lower intensity spend less time on their training sessions. ...
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This study investigated the intricate relationship between strength training and its effects on body image, psychological health, and nutritional habits. By examining 605 participants, divided into two groups based on training frequency, the research aimed to discern how varying intensities of training influenced different wellness facets. The investigation employed a comprehensive survey, gathering demographic data, training specifics, dietary patterns, and psychological characteristics, utilizing statistical tools for analysis. Results unveiled significant differences in dietary habits and psychological profiles between groups with higher and lower training frequencies. The group with more frequent training displayed less favourable health outcomes and suboptimal dietary habits, challenging the prevailing notion that increased training frequency leads to better health. The study emphasized the necessity of a balanced approach to physical training, highlighting the need for personalized strategies that encompass both physical and mental health considerations. The findings exposed the complexities of training regimens and their broader implications on individual health, suggesting that enhanced training frequency alone does not assure improved health outcomes. This research significantly contributed to the domain by providing insights into how the frequency of strength training could differentially affect health and well-being, offering valuable guidelines for fitness professionals and healthcare providers.
... These findings are consistent with recommendations developed for children with little or no training experience [20,51]. Furthermore, some studies showed that a higher training volume (moderate or high) did not produce significant improvements in muscle strength in trained subjects because it could generate an excessive endocrine response, leading to high fatigue levels [83,84]. Therefore, at the beginning of an STP, it would be recommended that children perform a low number of repetitions (1-6) and sets (1)(2), and they should receive constant feedback (internal and external cues) after each repetition in order to develop a proper execution technique [20,21,51]. ...
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Strength training in prepubertal children is one of the topics that has aroused the most interest and controversy among training professionals in recent years. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyze the available scientific evidence on the influence of strength training variables on morphological and/or neuromuscular adaptations in healthy prepubertal populations with no previous experience in this type of training according to the descriptive sample characteristics. According to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis, 22 studies were selected after a systematic search and selection process using four electronic databases: Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and SPORT Discus. Furthermore, the internal validity of the studies included was assessed using the modified PEDro scale. The sample consisted of 604 prepubertal children (age, 10.02 ± 0.75 years), of whom 473 were boys and 131 were girls, with 104 strength training programs recorded. Strength training resulted in a significant increase in jumping (n = 29) and sprinting (n = 13) abilities. Moreover, muscle strength was increased in 100% of the cases. Morphologically, strength training resulted in a decrease in body fat percentage (n = 19) and an increase in lean body mass (n = 17). With regard to gender, increases in general sport skills and basic physical abilities were significant in males but not in females. Thus, the results are more heterogeneous in girls due to the small number of studies carried out. Therefore, this research provides practical applications for coaches to design and implement more effective training programs to maximize adaptations, enhance physical performance, and reduce injury risk.
... Se analizó un estudio en el que compararon tres programas de entrenamiento, uno con volumen bajo (63% del volumen máximo), otro con volumen medio (85% del volumen máximo) y un último con volumen alto (>85% del volumen máximo). Después de 10 semanas entrenando el volumen medio fue el que mayor incremento obtuvo en el rendimiento (González- Badillo et al., 2005). Cuando se entrena en base a la velocidad de ejecución hay que tener muy en cuenta la pérdida de velocidad de la serie, y así conocer el grado de esfuerzo que ha generado la sesión. ...
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El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar el efecto que tiene el entrenamiento de fuerza basado en la velocidad sobre el rendimiento en jugadores de pelotaris. Los participantes del estudio fueron cinco varones sub 23. Los sujetos realizaron el entrenamiento de fuerza dos veces a la semana durante 8 semanas. Las variables de rendimiento que se evaluaron fueron el salto con contramovimiento (CMJ), sentadilla y press banca a partir de un test de carga-velocidad. El efecto que tuvo el programa de entrenamiento fue calculado en base a la media de los resultados obtenidos en el pre-test y post-test, en base a la prueba t-student, al tamaño del efecto y a la correlación entre las variables analizadas. Como resultado, hubo mejoras significativas tanto en la variable press banca (p=.03; tamaño de efecto (TE=3.03) como en el CMJ (p=.03; TE=1.30) y en la sentadilla (p=.05; TE=1.07). Finalmente, parece ser que el programa de entrenamiento basado en la velocidad de ejecución mejora el rendimiento físico en pelotaris sub23.
... In agreement with the present findings, previous studies using traditional RT (ie, non-VBT approach) have observed that moderate training volumes produced similar or even greater strength gains than training to failure routines. [24][25][26][27] Likewise, previous VBT research has also shown that using heavier loads (70%-85% 1RM), too low or too high degrees of fatigue within the set do not maximize strength gains in the BP 6 or in the squat exercise. 3 The changes reported in the present study occurred despite the fact that the VL0, VL15, and VL25 groups completed, on average, 9.8%, 38.6%, and 63.2%, respectively, of the total repetitions completed by VL50. ...
Article
Purpose: To compare the effect of 4 velocity-loss (VL) thresholds-0% (VL0), 15% (VL15), 25% (VL25), and 50% (VL50)-on strength gains, neuromuscular adaptations, and muscle hypertrophy during the bench press (BP) exercise using intensities ranging from 55% to 70% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM). Methods: Fifty resistance-trained men were randomly assigned to 4 groups that followed an 8-week (16 sessions) BP training program at 55% to 70% 1RM but differed in the VL allowed in each set (VL0, VL15, VL25, and VL50). Assessments performed before (pre) and after (post) the training program included (1) cross-sectional area of pectoralis major muscle, (2) maximal isometric test, (3) progressive loading test, and (4) fatigue test in the BP exercise. Results: A significant group × time interaction was found for 1RM (P = .01), where all groups except VL0 showed significant gains in 1RM strength (P < .001). The VL25 group attained the greatest gains in 1RM strength and most load-velocity relationship parameters analyzed. A significant group × time interaction was observed for EMG root mean square in pectoralis major (P = .03) where only the VL25 group showed significant increases (P = .02). VL50 showed decreased EMG root mean square in triceps brachii (P = .006). Only the VL50 group showed significant increases in cross-sectional area (P < .001). Conclusions: These findings indicate that a VL threshold of about 25% with intensities from 55% to 70% 1RM in BP provides an optimal training stimulus to maximize dynamic strength performance and neuromuscular adaptations, while higher VL thresholds promote higher muscle hypertrophy.
... In agreement with the present findings, previous studies using traditional RT (ie, non-VBT approach) have observed that moderate training volumes produced similar or even greater strength gains than training to failure routines. [24][25][26][27] Likewise, previous VBT research has also shown that using heavier loads (70%-85% 1RM), too low or too high degrees of fatigue within the set do not maximize strength gains in the BP 6 or in the squat exercise. 3 The changes reported in the present study occurred despite the fact that the VL0, VL15, and VL25 groups completed, on average, 9.8%, 38.6%, and 63.2%, respectively, of the total repetitions completed by VL50. ...
Article
Purpose: To compare the effect of 4 velocity loss (VL) thresholds—0%, 15%, 25% (VL25), and 50% (VL50)—on strength gains, neuromuscular adaptations, and muscle hypertrophy during the bench press (BP) exercise using intensities ranging from 55% to 70%, 1-repetition maximum (1RM). Methods: Fifty resistance-trained men were randomly assigned to 4 groups that followed an 8-week (16 sessions) BP training program at 55% to 70% 1RM but differed in the VL allowed in each set (VL 0%, VL 15%, VL25, and VL50). Assessments performed before (pre) and after (post) the training program included: (1) crosssectional area of pectoralis major muscle; (2) maximal isometric test; (3) progressive loading test; and (4) fatigue test, in the BP exercise. Results: A significant group × time interaction was found for 1RM (P = .01), where all groups except VL 0% showed significant gains in 1RM strength (P < .001). The VL25 group attained the greatest gains in 1RM strength and most load–velocity relationship parameters analyzed. A significant group × time interaction was observed for EMG root mean square in pectoralis major (P = .03) where only the VL25 group showed significant increases (P = .02). VL50 showed decreased EMG root mean square in triceps brachii (P = .006). Only the VL50 group showed significant increases in cross-sectional area (P < .001). Conclusions: These findings indicate that a VL threshold of about 25% with intensities from 55% to 70% 1RM in BP provides an optimal training stimulus to maximize dynamic strength performance and neuromuscular adaptations, while higher VL thresholds promote higher muscle hypertrophy.
... 125 A study conducted on athletes showed that moderate volume exercise contributes more to strength gains in high intensity exercise than low volume and high volume, but this result needed to be verified if it can be applied to old people with sarcopenia. 126 Nevertheless, higher volume was more effective than lower volume training on inducing muscle hypertrophy. 125,127 Meta-analysis depicted the dose-response relationship between training volume and muscle hypertrophy, as a higher increase in muscle mass was induced by higher weekly training volumes. ...
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Sarcopenia, an age-related disease characterized by loss of muscle strength and muscle mass, has attracted the attention of medical experts due to its severe morbidity, low living quality, high expenditure of health care, and mortality. Traditionally, persistent aerobic exercise (PAE) is considered as a valid way to attenuate muscular atrophy. However, nowadays, high intensity interval training (HIIT) has emerged as a more effective and time-efficient method to replace traditional exercise modes. HIIT displays comprehensive effects on exercise capacity and skeletal muscle metabolism, and it provides a time-out for the recovery of cardiopulmonary and muscular functions without causing severe adverse effects. Studies demonstrated that compared with PAE, HIIT showed similar or even higher effects in improving muscle strength, enhancing physical performances and increasing muscle mass of elder people. Therefore, HIIT might become a promising way to cope with the age-related loss of muscle mass and muscle function. However, it is worth mentioning that no study of HIIT was conducted directly on sarcopenia patients, which is attributed to the suspicious of safety and validity. In this review, we will assess the effects of different training parameters on muscle and sarcopenia, summarize previous papers which compared the effects of HIIT and PAE in improving muscle quality and function, and evaluate the potential of HIIT to replace the status of PAE in treating old people with muscle atrophy and low modality; and point out drawbacks of temporary experiments. Our aim is to discuss the feasibility of HIIT to treat sarcopenia and provide a reference for clinical scientists who want to utilize HIIT as a new way to cope with sarcopenia.
... Many published resistance exercise programs in trained individuals use consecutive days of training for the same body part (Mangine et al. 2015;Gonzalez-Badillo et al. 2006;González-Badillo et al. 2005;Melville et al. 2017;Siegler et al. 2018). These studies often use moderate-tohigh relative intensities (i.e., 70-100% maximal strength) on the consecutive days, with variations in both volume and loading from session to session. ...
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PurposeThis study measured the self-reported level of fatigue, pain, and neuromuscular function of the knee extensor muscles over a three-day period that included two consecutive days of full-body resistance exercises.Methods10 resistance-trained men performed two consecutive days of full-body resistance exercise. Muscle activation (electromyography and voluntary activation), contractility, and presynaptic inhibition of Ia afferents (homosynaptic and GABA mediated presynaptic inhibition) for the quadriceps were examined from femoral and posterior tibial nerve stimulation.ResultsFatigue and pain were elevated after Day 1, and were not reduced to pre-exercise levels at the start of Day 2 (p < 0.05). Maximal voluntary torque (− 51.4 Nm, 95% CI = 12.4–90.4 Nm, p = 0.005) and rate of torque development (− 469 Nm.s−1, 95% CI = 109–829 Nm.s−1, p = 0.006) were reduced after Day 1, had recovered by Day 2, and did not change after the second training session. The maximal amplitude and rate of rise for the quadriceps twitch were reduced after both training sessions (p < 0.01), with recovery 24 h each session. The maximal amplitude and rate of early muscle activation were reduced after Day 1 (p < 0.01), but no changes were observed for voluntary activation, H-reflex size and shape, or measures of Ia presynaptic inhibition.Conclusion Resistance exercise in the presence of elevated fatigue and pain from a previous training session does not worsen recovery, or lead to significant alterations in quadriceps neuromuscular function. Reduction in muscle contractility, in the absence of declines in muscle activation, does not lead to decreased voluntary torque.
... (Ahead of Print) several factors that can influence the changes generated by training. These factors include the initial training status of the subjects (19); the exercise mode; and the volume, intensity, and frequency of training (16). ...
Article
Marta, C, Alves, AR, Casanova, N, Neiva, HP, Marinho, D, Izquierdo, M, Nunes, C, and Marques, MC. Suspension vs. plyometric training in children's explosive strength. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2021-The aim of this study was to compare the effects of different training programs, that is, 8 weeks of suspension training (ST) or plyometric training (PT), on measures of strength and power in untrained healthy children. One hundred eighteen children (57 boys and 61 girls) aged 10-11 years (mean ± SD: 10.84 ± 0.46 years) were randomly assigned into PT (19 boys and 22 girls), ST (20 boys and 18 girls), and control (CT) (18 boys and 21 girls; no training program) group. Experimental groups were trained twice a week for 8 weeks. Countermovement jump, standing long jump, medicine ball throw, and 20-m sprint were measured at baseline and after intervention. The results showed a significant group effect on training-induced responses (F = 10.26; p < 0.01; ηp2 = 0.33), with clear improvements from pre- to posttraining in PT and ST. Regardless of training group, no differences were found in boys and girls (F = 0.70; p = 0.62; ηp2 = 0.03). After 8 weeks of training, PT and ST showed increased performances in 1-kg (mean ± CI 95%; 0.18 ± 0.05 and 0.19 ± 0.05 m) and 3-kg (0.12 ± 0.08 and 0.12 ± 0.09 m) medicine ball throws and 20-m sprints (-0.08 ± 0.03 s and -0.04 ± 0.04 s) compared with CT (p < 0.05; d > 0.60). Standing long jump was significantly increased after ST when compared with CT (0.07 ± 0.04 m; p < 0.01; d = 0.88). Plyometric training showed higher improvements than ST in sprint (0.04 ± 0.03; p = 0.01; d = 0.71). It is suggested that 8 weeks of ST or PT seems to be effective to improve strength- and power-related variables in healthy untrained children. These could be considered as alternatives to traditional resistance training and be applied in school-based programs.
... Training volume is another training variable that has been shown to impact maximal strength adaptations due to continuous resistance training (Robbins, Marshall & McEwen, 2012). Gonzalez-Badillo et al. (2005) investigated the effect of three resistance training volumes on maximal strength in the snatch, clean and jerk and squat, during a 10-week training intervention on 51 trained junior lifters. The investigators found that moderate volume (2,481 repetitions) produced a superior increase in strength compared to the training group that trained with low volume (1,923 repetitions) and high volume (3,030 repetitions). ...
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Background Maximal strength is a critical determinant of performance in numerous sports. Autoregulation is a resistance training prescription approach to adjust training variables based on the individuals’ daily fluctuations in performance, which are a result of training-induced fitness and fatigue, together with readiness from daily non-training stressors. Objective This review aimed to summarise the effects of different subjective and objective autoregulation methods for intensity and volume on enhancing maximal strength. Materials and Methods A comprehensive literature search was conducted through SPORTDiscus, PubMed and Google Scholar. Studies had to meet the following criteria to be included in the review: (1) estimation of 1-RM or a 1-RM test for both pre-test and post-test to measure progression in strength assessment during the training intervention, (2) a training comparison group, (3) participants were healthy, (4) the article had a detailed description of training intensity, training volume, and training frequency during the training intervention, (5) the training intervention lasted for more than four weeks, (6) studies with objective autoregulation methods utilised a validated measuring tool to monitor velocity, (7) English-language studies. Results Fourteen studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising 30 training groups and 356 participants. Effect size and percentage differences were calculated for 13 out of 14 studies to compare the effects of different training interventions. All autoregulation training protocols resulted in an increase in 1-RM, from small ES to large ES. Conclusion Overall, our findings suggest that using both subjective autoregulation methods for intensity, such as repetitions in reserve rating of perceived exertion and flexible daily undulation periodisation, together with objective autoregulation methods for autoregulation intensity and volume, such as velocity targets and velocity loss, could be effective methods for enhancing maximal strength. It is speculated that this is because the implementation of autoregulation into a periodised plan may take into account the athletes’ daily fluctuations, such as fluctuations in fitness, fatigue, and readiness to train. When training with a validated measuring tool to monitor velocity, this may provide objective augmented intra- and interset feedback during the resistance exercise who could be beneficial for increasing maximal strength. Coaches, practitioners, and athletes are encouraged to implement such autoregulation methods into a periodised plan when the goal is to enhance maximal strength.
... The effectiveness of a strength training program depends on the application of appropriate training loads, which is related to the proper handling of training variables such as intensity, volume, and frequency, among others [7]. Coaches and sport scientists in the field of strength training have attempted to identify proper handling of training variables to determine the training stimulus that maximizes performance enhancement, although the optimal combination of such training variables is still under debate [8,9]. ...
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The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of ballistic and power training on the skills, physical fitness and body composition adaptations of élite table tennis players. Thirty male table tennis players (age: 24 ± 7 years, stature: 175 ± 6 cm, body mass 74 ± 16 kg, percentage of fat mass (%FM) 12 ± 7%, mean ± SD), who were able to perform top spin strike properly, were randomly assigned to three groups: power training (PT), ballistic training (BT) and no training (Control, CON). PT and BT trained 3 times per week for 8 weeks. PT consisted of three sets for six different stations, 60–80% of one repetition maximum (1RM). BT consisted of three sets for five different throwing exercises. Pre- and post-intervention group comparisons were analyzed using a two-way ANOVA with repeated measurements of two factors (group × time). After training, significant interactions were observed in increasing muscle strength, muscle endurance, explosive power, anaerobic power, agility and grip strength regardless of the exercise methods (p < 0.05). Moreover, both training regimens were not effective in changing body composition, reaction time and skills (p > 0.05). In conclusion, the results of the present study suggest that physical fitness adaptations can be increased similarly after 8 weeks of power and ballistic training, in table tennis players. So coaches and elite table tennis players can use ballistic and power training to improve their performance without having to worry about the negative impact of their training on their skill and explosive power performance.
... It should be noted that these changes occurred despite the fact that the VL10 group performed, on ave rage, 53.5 and 47.5 % of the total repetitions performed by VL30 and VL50, respectively. In agreement with the present findings, it has been shown that performing more repetitions in each training set is not the optimal stimulus to obtain the greatest strength gains [26][27][28][29]. Coinciding with our results, similar gains in 1RM and AV have been observed for 20 % (which corresponded to performing approximately 50 % of MNR) and 40 % (i.e. ...
Article
This study aimed to analyze the effects of three different velocity loss thresholds (10%: VL10, 30%: VL30 and 50%: VL50) on maximal strength and velocity at different intensities during bench press using a weight stack machine (WSM-BP). Forty-five men were randomly assigned to three groups: VL10 (n=15), VL30 (n=15) and VL50 (n=15), which followed a 5-week (15 sessions) velocity-based WSM-BP program. Assessments performed Pre- and Post-training included: a) estimated one-repetition maximum (1RM) in WSM-BP; b) average velocity attained against all absolute loads common to Pre- and Post-training tests in WSM-BP; c) average velocity attained against all absolute loads that were lifted equal to or faster than 0.8 m·s−1 at Pre-training (light loads); and d) average velocity attained against all absolute loads that were lifted slower than 0.8 m·s−1 at Pre-training (heavy loads). All groups showed significant improvements in 1RM, velocity against all loads, and velocity against heavy loads (P<0.001–0.01). However, only the VL10 group showed significant enhancements in velocity against light loads (P=0.05). Therefore, the VL10 group showed a higher training efficiency compared to VL30 and VL50 interventions, since it obtained similar benefits by performing fewer repetitions.
... The moderate RE is performed at any intensity between 60% and 80% of the maximum weight workload carried out by an individual 15 , however, it is not clear in which percentage of the maximum intensity, lower or higher, the moderate RE would provide a better acute physiological response when performed by hypertensive T2D individuals. The confirmation of changes in physiological results after different moderate intensities of RE to this population can lead to advances in the prescription and evaluation of physical exercise training. ...
Article
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Type 2 diabetes (T2D) main feature is insulin resistance. Hypertension is a comorbidity linked to T2D. Resistance exercise (RE) is an important non-pharmacological tool to contribute to managing blood glucose and blood pressure (BP), but there is not a common sense about acute effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the acute physiological effects after two different RE sessions using different intensities at middle-aged hypertensive T2D subjects. There were 40 middle-aged men (20 nondiabetics; 20 diabetics), who underwent an exercise protocol with the same volume at 60% or 75% of the one maximum repetition test (1RM), consisting in: bench press, triceps pulley, rowing machine, barbell curl, lateral raise with dumbbells and barbell squat. Physiological changes were evaluated through BP, glycemia, creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, C reactive protein (C-RP), testosterone and cortisol. For non-diabetics, both intensities promoted blood glucose uptake (8.2% to 11.1%, p<0.05), and only the 75%1RM session induced blood glucose uptake in 5.7% in the diabetics. Post-exercise hypotension was significant after RE at 75%1RM for systolic BP (SBP) and after both intensities for diastolic BP (DBP) in non-diabetics, while the SBP and DPB reduced after both intensities for diabetics. RE at 75%1RM resulted in better blood glucose uptake, and both intensities reduced the BP in diabetic subjects. After 75%1RM there was a higher indirect muscle damage result. The alterations in hormones, C-RP, and indirect muscle damage markers indicated an adequate acute anabolic recovery with no significant inflammation in both intensities. Acute RE at 60%1RM or 75%1RM can used as an extra tool to manage both pathologic conditions.
... • When the "optimal" volume has been reached, an additional increase may not produce higher gains and may even reduce performance (González-Badillo et al., 2005). ...
... In this regard, the manipulation of training variables such as relative intensity (%1RM), volume, exercise type and order, rest duration and repetition velocity is a critical factor in order to induce neural and morphological adaptations (2,3). Notably, the dose-response relationship between training volume and athletic performance adaptations has been suggested to exhibit an inverted Ushaped curve (4)(5)(6). A recent study by Barbalho et al. (7) reported the existence of a plateau in strength gains and muscle hypertrophy after a threshold volume was reached (5-10 sets per muscle group per session). ...
Article
Purpose: This study aimed to compare the effects of four resistance training (RT) programs with different velocity loss (VL) thresholds: 0% (VL0), 10% (VL10), 20% (VL20) and 40% (VL40) on sprint and jump performance, muscle strength, neuromuscular, muscle hypertrophy and architectural adaptations. Methods: Sixty-four young resistance-trained men were randomly assigned into four groups (VL0, VL10, VL20, and VL40) that differed in the VL allowed in each set. Subjects followed an RT program for 8 weeks (2 sessions per week) using the full-squat (SQ) exercise, with similar relative intensity (70-85% 1RM), number of sets (3) and inter-set recovery period (4-min). Before and after the RT program the following tests were performed: 1) muscle hypertrophy and architecture of the vastus lateralis (VLA); 2) tensiomyography; 3) 20-m running sprint; 4) vertical jump; 5) maximal voluntary isometric contraction in SQ; 6) progressive loading test in SQ; and 7) fatigue test. Results: No between-group differences existed for RT-induced gains in sprint, jump and strength performance despite the differences in the total volume performed by each group. VL20 and VL40 showed significant increases (P < 0.001) in muscle hypertrophy (group × time interaction, P = 0.06). However, only VL40 exhibited a significant slowing (P < 0.001) of the delay time in the VLA muscle (group × time interaction: P = 0.05). Moreover, VL40 showed a significant decrease in the early rate of force development (P = 0.04). Conclusions: Higher VL thresholds (i.e. VL20 and VL40) maximized hypertrophic adaptations, although an excessive VL during the set (i.e. VL40) may also induce negative neuromuscular adaptations. Therefore, moderate VL thresholds should be chosen to maximize strength adaptations and to prevent negative neuromuscular adaptations.
... strength gains, at least with this intensity (50% 1RM). These findings seem to be in line with other authors who suggest the existence of an inverted U-shaped relationship between training volume and performance increase (7,8,18). Therefore, a certain minimal training volume seems to be necessary to elicit strength gains. ...
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Galiano, C, Pareja-Blanco, F, Hidalgo de Mora, J, and Sáez de Villarreal, E. Low-velocity loss induces similar strength gains to moderate-velocity loss during resistance training. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2019-This study aimed to analyze the effects of 2 velocity-based resistance training (VBT) programs that used the same relative loading but differed in the velocity loss (VL) throughout the set: 5% (VL5) vs. 20% (VL20). Twenty-eight physically active men (age: 23.0 ± 3.2 years; height: 175.8 ± 4.7 cm; body mass: 73.8 ± 10.8 kg) were randomly assigned to 2 groups: VL5 (n = 15) or VL20 (n = 13). Subjects followed a 7-week (14 sessions) VBT program using the squat exercise while repetition velocity was monitored. The following variables were assessed at pretest and posttest: estimated 1-repetition maximum (1RM); average velocity attained for all absolute loads common to pretest and posttest (AV); average velocity for those loads that were moved faster than 1 m·s (AV > 1); average velocity for those loads that were moved slower than 1 m·s (AV < 1); countermovement jump (CMJ); and 20-m running sprint time (T20). T20 and CMJ height were assessed before each training session to analyze their evolution during the training program. The VL5 group executed only 32.6% of the total repetitions performed by the VL20 group (156.9 ± 25.0 vs. 480.5 ± 162.0 rep). Both groups improved significantly (p < 0.01) in all variables analyzed (1RM, AV, AV > 1, AV < 1, CMJ, and T20) from pretest to posttest, with no significant differences between them. Therefore, a low VL (5%) induced similar gains in strength, jump, and sprint performance to a moderate VL of 20%, despite VL5 performing only 32.6% of the repetitions achieved by the VL20 group.
... Authors such as Sáez De Villarreal et al. have shown that plyometric training produces increases over physical performance [26] To this Gonzalez-Badillo et al, adds that it always occur when the optimal volume and frequency of training are the most appropriate [27] In this sense, Behringeret al. states that the average frequency of training is 2.7 ± 0.8 sessions a week on alternate days [28] In addition, García and Peña add that this frequency must guarantee the optimal natural physical development, taking into account, in addition, that the rest of the session includes training in other work directions [1] Regarding the volume of exercises per training session, Faigenbaum et al. considers that there should be a balance for the whole body, which allows training all the large muscle groups in the same session [29] It is recommended to do 3 to 8 exercises per session according to their characteristics, the objective of training and to the level of experience accumulated in their practice. It is important to comply with the condition of maintaining a correct technical competence, during each and every one of the series and repetitions carried out, before increasing this component [30]. ...
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In the last seasons the junior baseball teams of Matanzas have shown poor effectiveness in the run of the bases, having speed a determining factor in the game and therefore essential to achieve success in a baseball game. The objective of this research is to design a combined plyometric-speed training to enhance the run to first base home in baseball junior category players. To do this, a training program is applied based on the combination of plyometric and speed exercises dosed in three stages: first, general strength and low intense plyometric exercises, then, the introduction of moderate intensity plyometrics, and finally, the combined work of plyometrics of moderate-high and high intensity with speed exercises. The sample studied was composed of ten junior players, who participated in the XLVI Cuban Baseball National Championship. Three measurements were taken: first, at the end of the anatomical adaptation phase, then at the end of the muscular hypertrophy phase and the beginning of the intramuscular coordination-maximal strength combined with explosive strength and finally in the special preparation stage. To analyze the effectiveness of the exercises proposed in the time of the first home base race and in the reaction time, analysis of variance is applied, with a level of significance equal to 0.05. It is shown that there are significant differences in the time taken in the test that included the home first base racing, between each of the moments of preparation that were made, with a decrease of 4.40%. Meanwhile, in the first base home test hitting the hand with which the player batted and the moments in which controls were made influenced in the home first base time, showing a decrease of 3.38% in the effectiveness of the first base home race between the controls and a 3, 31% in the left-handed players in relation to the right-handers. On the other hand, in the test with a medical ball of 3kg with rotational movement and homefirst base race, a decrease in the time of effectiveness of 6.33% is reflected In the study, it is confirmed that there is a decrease in times with medical ball throwing (3kg) with rotational movement and home first base with a decrease in the effectiveness of 3.19% between the initial and final control.
... sin embargo, de forma cualitativa comparando nuestros propios resultados de potencia, el porcentaje de mejora es muy similar en potencia media y máxima para los cuatro deportes, incluso algo superior en potencia media. sobre la base de la especificidad del desarrollo de potencia muscular, se recomienda el entrenamiento con una carga que eleve al máximo la producción de potencia mecánica para mejorar la potencia muscular máxima [45,46]. Conclusión sobre la base de los resultados del presente estudio, se podría concluir que con 6 semanas de entrenamiento complejo puede mejorar la fuerza máxima y explosiva de los jugadores jóvenes de fútbol, baloncesto, balonmano y voleibol. ...
Article
Se ha valorado los efectos de dos tipos de entrenamiento complejo de 6 semanas sobre diferentes factores de fuerza máxima y potencia, en diferentes atletas (edad =1 6,86 ± 0,74 años), un método de desarrollo de la fuerza (especialmente de la fuerza explosiva y potencia) cuya característica es la alternancia de cargas de trabajo de distinta intensidad. Eran jugadores de fútbol, baloncesto, balonmano y voleibol, divididos en tres grupos con jugadores de los 4 deportes. El grupo TG1 (n = 50) trabajó con series de cargas altas y a continuación con series de pliometría. TG2 (n = 50) trabajó con cargas altas y pliometría en las mismas series. Además, el grupo control (CG) (n = 48). TG1 y TG2 demostraron un aumento significativo (p < 0.05) en fuerza máxima y explosiva, así como en la capacidad de salto después de 6 semanas de entrenamiento. Se puede concluir que con el entrenamiento complejo con sobrecargas y pliometría hubo mejora en la fuerza máxima y explosiva en jugadores jóvenes de fútbol, baloncesto, balonmano y voleibol. Además, puede mantener las mejoras de fuerza máxima y explosiva por varias semanas.Palabras-clave: educación y entrenamiento físico, potencia, atletas, deportes.
... The first 8 weeks of training were part of a hypertrophy phase that included a lot of volume in the weight room. As such, some decline in performance should probably be expected in this phase and that is noticeable in Fig. 3 [22]. The next phase focuses on strength and intensity has increased. ...
Article
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Athlete monitoring utilizing strength and conditioning as well as other sport performance data is increasing in practice and in research. While the usage of this data for purposes of creating more informed training programs and producing potential performance prediction models may be promising, there are some statistical considerations that should be addressed by those who hope to use this data. The purpose of this review is to discuss many of the statistical issues faced by practitioners as well as provide best practices recommendations. Single-subject designs (SSD) appear to be more appropriate for monitoring and statistically evaluating athletic performance than traditional group statistical methods. This paper discusses several SSD options available that produce measures of both statistical and practical significance. Additionally, this paper discusses issues related to heteroscedasticity, reliability, validity and provides recommendations for each. Finally, if data are incorporated into the decision-making process, it should be returned and utilized quickly. Data visualizations are often incorporated into this process and this review discusses issues and recommendations related to their clarity, simplicity, and distortion. Awareness of these issues and utilization of some best practice methods will likely result in an enhanced and more efficient decision-making process with more informed athlete development programs.
... (Ahead of Print) several factors that can influence the changes generated by training. These factors include the initial training status of the subjects (19); the exercise mode; and the volume, intensity, and frequency of training (16). ...
Article
Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine the effects of an 8-week program of resistance training (RT) or suspension training (ST) on explosive strength in prepubescent boys. Methods: Fifty-seven boys aged 10-11 years were assigned to 2 training groups, RT or ST or a control group (no training program). Boys trained twice weekly for 8 weeks. Results: A significant interaction was reported with a large (P < .001, ηp2=.463), medium (P < .001, ηp2=.395), and small effect sized (P ≤ .001, ηp2=.218) in the 1-kg ball throw, 3-kg ball throw, and time-at-20-m test, respectively. There was no significant interaction in the countermovement vertical jump or the standing long jump. Changes from preintervention to postintervention for the 1-kg ball throw were 5.94% and 5.82% for the ST and RT, respectively, and 8.82% and 8.14% in the 3-kg ball throw for the ST and RT, respectively. The improvement in the 20-m sprint was 1.19% for the ST and 2.33% for the RT. Conclusion: Traditional RT and ST seem to be effective methods for improving explosive strength in prepubescent boys. ST could be considered as an alternative modality to optimize explosive strength training in school-based programs.
... It has been reported that neural adaptations play the most important role in strength gains in the early stages of a resistance training program (12). This evidence is pertinent to analyse the obtained results, if it is considered that in prepubescent children without adequate levels of circulating testosterone to stimulate increases in muscle size, the neural adaptations (i.e.: changes in motor unit coordination, recruitment, and firing) are primarily responsible for training-induced strength gains (14). ...
Chapter
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The effectiveness of suspension training (ST) on strength has not been investigated in prepubescent children yet. Thirty-eight boys (10.87±0.50 years) were randomly assigned into an experimental group (ST: n=20) to train twice a week for 8 weeks, and a control group (C: n=18; no training program). In the post-training, it was observed a significant difference and large effect size of group on training-induced explosive strength (F(1,36)=15.30, p<0.001, =0.74). Explosive strength measures significantly increased only on the ST group. Differences were observed in the 1 and 3 kg medicine ball throws (5.8 and 8.8%, respectively, p<0.001), in the counter movement vertical jump (7.2%, p<0.001), in the standing long jump (7.4%, p<0.001) and in the time-at-20m (1.2%, p<0.001). This could be considered an alternative methodology to optimize explosive strength training in school-based programs.
... It is difficult to determine the "optimal" resistance-training dose to maximise strength and power development since there are so many factors that influence adaptation. However, research investigating this phenomenon in the back squat and weightlifting exercises have established that performing a moderate volume of repetitions could be more beneficial than performing an unnecessarily high number of repetitions (high volume).24,25 For example, Pareja-Blanco et al.10 had 16 resistance trained professional male soccer players perform six weeks (18 sessions, ranging from ~50 to ~70%1RM) of back squat training and were evenly assigned into two groups, which differed by a 15% or 30% velocity loss threshold in each training set. ...
Article
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Purpose: This study compared kinetic and kinematic data from three different velocity-based training (VBT) sessions and a 1-repetition maximum (1RM) percent-based training (PBT) session using full-depth, free-weight back squats with maximal concentric effort. Methods: Fifteen strength-trained men performed four randomized resistance-training sessions 96-hours apart: PBT session involved five sets of five repetitions using 80%1RM; load-velocity profile (LVP) session contained five sets of five repetitions with a load that could be adjusted to achieve a target velocity established from an individualized LVP equation at 80%1RM; fixed sets 20% velocity loss threshold (FSVL20) session that consisted of five sets at 80%1RM but sets were terminated once the mean velocity (MV) dropped below 20% of the threshold velocity or when five repetitions were completed per set; variable sets 20% velocity loss threshold (VSVL20) session comprised 25-repetitions in total, but participants performed as many repetitions in a set as possible until the 20% velocity loss threshold was exceeded. Results: When averaged across all repetitions, MV and peak velocity (PV) were significantly (p<0.05) faster during the LVP (MV: ES=1.05; PV: ES=1.12) and FSVL20 (MV: ES=0.81; PV: ES=0.98) sessions compared to PBT. Mean time under tension (TUT) and concentric TUT were significantly less during the LVP session compared to PBT. FSVL20 session had significantly less repetitions, total TUT and concentric TUT than PBT. No significant differences were found for all other measurements between any of the sessions. Conclusions: VBT permits faster velocities, avoids additional unnecessary mechanical stress but maintains similar measures of force and power output compared to strength-oriented PBT.
... Research related to weightlifting also found that weightlifting training (traditional resistance training) in moderate volume of high relative training produced greater strength gains compared with low and high volume (Gonzalez-Badillo, Izquierdo, & Gorostiaga, 2006). A similar study by Gonzalez-Badillo, Izquierdo, and Gorostiaga (2005) found that weightlifting training (traditional resistance training) in moderate resistance training volume produced more favourable strength gains than high or low volume during a short term training cycle. Otto, Coburn, Brown, and Spiering (2012) in their study of 6 weeks intervention found that weightlifting training induced significantly greater improvement in strength compared with Kettlebell training. ...
Article
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Weightlifting is a sport that requires both dynamic strength and power. Until today, weightlifting coaches are still exploring different training modes in an attempt to enhance both muscular strength and power of the competitive weightlifters. Research has shown that the use of the “right” training method could further provide knowledge on such effect for competitive weightlifters (Storey & Smith, 2012). Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of using the complex training method (applicable to weightlifting) compared to traditional resistance training on muscular strength among male competitive (state level) weightlifters. Seventeen male competitive weightlifters were randomly assigned into 2 groups: experimental group (Complex Training; n = 9), and control group (Traditional Resistance Training; n = 8). All participants trained for 6 weeks (2 sessions per week) with the total training volume equated between both groups. Participants underwent pre-test and post- test including the anthropometric measurements (height, body weight, and body fat) and lower body strength (isokinetic strength test) parameters. The results showed that there was a significant increase from pre- to post-test in knee extension peak torque t(8) = -4.22; p = .003 and t(7) = -5.37; p = .001, and knee flexion peak torque t(8) = -5.98; p = .001 and t(7) = -4.20; p = .004 in experimental and control groups respectively. No significant difference (p > .05) was observed in knee extension peak torque (22.9 ± 16.3 versus 13.9 ± 7.3) and knee flexion peak torque (11.4 ± 5.7 versus 10.1 ± 6.8) improvements between the complex training group and control group respectively at post-test. In conclusion, the use of complex training method showed similar effects in enhancing muscular strength with traditional resistance training after 6 weeks of intervention.
... However, the total repetitions and volume load (or total load) are simple estimations for training volume used rather more frequently as follows: (a) total repetitions = sets × repetitions; (b) volume load = sets × repetitions × weight used (Tan, 1999). The most favorable design of strength training programs for resistance-trained athletes is quite important due to the proven fact that performing at a higher volume is rather less effective and efficient than performing at a higher volume (González-Badillo, Gorostiaga, Arellano & Izquierdo, 2005). The set can be defined as the number of repetitions performed consecutively without any rest, and the number of sets selected per exercise should vary depending on the training goals, (Kraemer & Ratamess, 2004;Schoenfeld, 2010). ...
Article
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During the past two decades, sports scientists, coaches, therapeutic specialists, and other professionals are using the Smith Machine exercise (SME) to improve lower limb muscle strength. By overviewing the literature, the position of the bar, load, training volume (repetitions and sets), recovery (resting time), power, muscular work, and one repetition maximum (1-RM) are characteristics describing the SME and presented as variables on which the resistance training (RT) program periodization is focused. Therefore, the aim of the present brief review is to clarify this crucial point and to simplify the SME approach for the strength and condition trainers as well as for all other scientist involved in sports or therapeutic work. This brief review offers an insight into several recommendations on the key points, firmly based on relevant literature.
... Furthermore, when intensity progression is autoregulated week-to-week, strength progress has been greater versus a fixed progression (14). In addition, volume autoregulation seems necessary as moderate volume was demonstrated to produce superior strength increases compared with both low and high volumes after 10 weeks (5). Consequently, although volume is related to strength performance, a point of diminishing returns seems to exist as high volume may hinder session-to-session recovery in the short term. ...
Article
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The purpose of this investigation was to observe how a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) based autoregulation strategy impacted volume performed by powerlifters. Twelve (26+/-7yrs, n=9 male, n=3 female) nationally qualified powerlifters performed the back squat, bench press and deadlift 3x/wk. on non-consecutive days in a session order of hypertrophy, power and then strength; for three weeks. Each session subjects performed an initial top set for a prescribed number of repetitions at a target RPE. A second top set was performed if the RPE score was too low, then subsequent back off sets at a reduced load were performed for the same number of repetitions. When the prescribed RPE was reached or exceeded, sets stopped; known as an 'RPE stop'. The percentage load reduction for back off sets changed weekly: there were 2, 4, or 6% RPE stop reductions from the top set. The order in which RPE stop weeks were performed was counterbalanced among subjects. Weekly combined relative volume load (squat + bench press + deadlift), expressed as sets x repetitions x percentage one-repetition maximum was different between weeks (p<0.001): 2%=74.6+/-22.3; 4%=88.4+/-23.8; 6%=114.4+/-33.4. Combined weekly bench press volume (hypertrophy + power + strength) was significantly higher in accordance with load reduction magnitude (2%>4%>6%; p<0.05), combined squat volume was greater in 6% vs. 2% (p<0.05), and combined deadlift volume was greater in 6% vs 2% and 4% (p<0.05). Therefore, it does seem that volume can be effectively autoregulated using RPE stops as a method to dictate number of sets performed.
... Actualmente, se conoce y como bien hemos señalado antes, que un programa de entrenamiento abusivo, con grandes volúmenes puede interferir en el rendimiento, así Juan J. González- Badillo, Gorostiaga, Arellano, & Izquierdo (2005) compararon tres programas de entrenamiento con diferentes volúmenes (bajo, medio y alto), obteniendo mayores ganancias de fuerza para diferentes ejercicios (sentadilla, arrancada, cargada), en el planteamiento con un volumen medio. ...
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La fuerza, es una de los método más reconocidos y utilizados en la actualidad por muchos de los beneficios que este acarrea en todas las poblaciones debido a distintas necesidades en el medio, esto ha conllevado a que existan infinidades de centros de entrenamiento dotados de máquinas que brindan herramientas suficientes para su excelente desarrollo en los sujetos participantes, gran parte de los seres humanos actualmente asisten en busca de mejorar su condición física, mantener un hábito, entrenamiento, rendimiento deportivo, salud entre otros. Por otra parte, la dificultad que padecen los sujetos se encuentra centrada en localizar personal capacitado que logre brindar un conocimiento optimo con resultados significantes en estas poblaciones, evitando así que los asistentes resulten desertando de los entrenamientos. Ciertamente gran parte de la población busca lograr el aumento de la fuerza máxima, por lo que se ha constituido en un reto complejo para todo el medio investigativo, hoy en día muchos utilizan el método excéntrica con el fin de lograr una obtención de la fuerza máxima a corto plazo en todas las poblaciones ya sean entrenadas no entrenadas o como medio de rehabilitación en algún tipo de lesiones osteo –articulares, ésta se encuentra rompiendo los paradigmas del entrenamiento, donde anteriormente este método no se utilizaba porque se creía que acarreaba lesiones en todos los participantes, las evidencias científicas que se presentan hoy demuestran que al existir un cuidado permanente y una adecuada adaptación anatómica no se obtienen lesiones de ningún tipo en los participantes, brindando una confianza optima en la aplicación constante de este método. Debido a la complejidad del método excéntrico y en busca de los resultados idóneos antes mencionados es fundamental que en el contexto del entrenamiento se estructure la planificación del entrenamiento utilizando como medio la periodización de la fuerza máxima como punto eje en la organización de la estructura de toda planificación debido a los resultados y beneficios que este viene visualizando en cada investigación y que se puede corroborar por medio de (Fleck 2003yArroyo et al.,2014;). Quienes manifiestan que los programas periodizados son eficientes debido a la individualización sistemática que se ejecuta en las sesiones del entrenamiento, respetando los tiempos, intensidades y cargas de trabajos por individuos lo que genera una organización coherente estructurada encargada de lograr resultados significativos en todo el ámbito del entrenamiento.
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La fuerza es un método reconocido y utilizado en la actualidad por muchos de los beneficios que aporta en todas las poblaciones. Objetivo: analizar los efectos de las manifestaciones de la fuerza en las variables de velocidad, potencia y aceleración. Metodología. Se desarrolló un estudio de enfoque cuantitativo y un diseño cuasi-experimental no probabilístico, con una muestra escogida de forma aleatoria compuesta por 75 mujeres (edad 18,5 ± 25,5 años), asignadas aleatoriamente en tres grupos: Grupo lineal (GL = 25), ondulado (GO = 25) y grupo control (GC = 25); se aplicó un programa de entrenamiento de fuerza excéntrica durante 12 semanas, utilizando una (frecuencia 3). La evaluación se realizó en tren inferior y superior, con el instrumento encoder lineal (T-Forcé). El análisis estadístico fue empleado el IBM SPSS V.25 (Demo) con un nivel de significancia de 0,05. Resultados: la MANOVA del tren superior indico una interacción entre los factores momento y grupo (Lambda de Wilks=0,52; F2,72 = 6,50; p <0,05; η2 = 0,27). El tren inferior efectos principales de momento la MANOVA indico una interacción entre los factores momento y grupo (Lambda de Wilks=0,54; F2,72 = 6,17; p <0,05; η2 = 0,26). Conclusión: el plan de entrenamiento de fuerza excéntrica obtuvo efecto en la obtención de la fuerza máxima en mujeres no entrenadas.
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The subject of study on which this work focuses is related to high-performance track and field, specifically sprinting. The aim is to analyse a weakness in the entity where the university internships have been carried out in order to be able to implement proposals for improvement that optimise, in this case, sport performance. To do this, a group of sprint training belonging to the Club Escuela Atletismo Majadahonda were analysed, using various techniques such as direct observation, monitoring of training sessions or informal conversations with the coach and athletes. The main weakness observed was a high training load in the form of plyometric and strength work, of which the magnitude of metabolic and mechanical stress they can cause is unknown. These aspects are of great interest, as the existence of a relationship between jumping capacity, strength production and performance in high-intensity sprints is being considered. In order to establish a proposal for improvement, a broad theoretical framework will be described in which the determining aspects of the training process on sprinting performance will be presented. Finally, a series of practical tests with their respective technological tools are presented. In addition, recommendations are established in terms of the periodisation of the tests, the programming of the protocol and of these tests throughout the season. Once the effects of the training load are known with greater accuracy, a strength training programming proposal is described, prioritising certain exercises with a greater transfer to sprint performance. By way of conclusion, we reflect on the traditional training programmes with high fatiguing volumes, dismantling this old conception through evidence of the same effects with a reduction in training.
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Tato monografie se věnuje problematice funkčního tréninku a zaměřuje se především na cílovou skupinu dětí a mládeže. Školní tělesná výchova nabízí široké možnosti výběru aktivit pro kondiční cvičení a používání komplexních cviků s účelem funkčního využití se zdá být vhodnou alternativou. Kro- mě teoretických informací přináší publikace také praktické části, které lze použít ve školní výuce nebo v obecné praxi. Oblast funkčního tréninku je v první kapitole logicky vymezena a jsou tu podrobně popsány základní cviky včetně metodických řad. Druhá kapitola se zabývá silovým tréninkem dětí, u nějž panují časté obavy z jeho používání. Třetí kapitola je věnována CrossFitu jako jedné z variant funkčního tréninku, zmiňuje jeho hlavní pilíře a popisuje jeho využití ve školní tělesné výchově. Ve čtvrté kapitole je popsán výzkum, který se týká zapojení crossfitových prvků do výuky tělesné výchovy a jeho vlivu na rozvoj tělesné zdatnosti. V následující, páté kapitole jsou uvedeny přípravy do hodin tělesné výchovy zahrnující CrossFit.
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This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess the effect of using weightlifting movement and their derivatives in training on vertical jump, sprint times, and maximal strength performance. Thirty-four studies were used for meta-analysis with a moderate quality on the PEDro scale. Meta-analysis showed positive effects of weightlifting training, especially when combined with traditional resistance training on countermovement jump performance, sprint times, and one-repetition maximum squat (ES = 0.41, ES = −0.44, and ES = 0.81, respectively). In conclusion, results revealed the usefulness of weightlifting combined with traditional resistance training in improving sprint, countermovement jump and maximal strength performance.
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The present study is designed to evaluate time of day effects on fitness repeated sprints by a terrain test and a laboratory test. During the first phase, we analyzed the relative and absolute reproducibility of RSA (terrain) and RSA (labo) on 42 male subjects. The cycle of the test is to run 6 times a distance of 15m × 2, every 20s (±14s of passive recovery). The RSA (lobo) was performed in the same way on a Cycle-ergometer. The relative reproducibility was analyzed by the intra-class correlation coefficient. The absolute reproducibility was however analyzed by the Standard Error Measurement (SEM) and the Smallest Worthwhile Change (SWC). During the second phase, we studied the effect of time of day on performance indexes in RSA tests on 20 subjects. At this point, RSA tests were performed at two different times of the day, morning (8a.m – 9a.m) and evening (18p.m – 19p.m) at a randomized order and on two successive days. The results showed that in the first phase, Wt and Wi were the most reproducible with CCI > 0, 90. In the second phase, the power output increased in the evening (3451,25 ≠ 740,38 vs 3214,11 ± 689,53) but this difference was no longer significant in the next sprints. Taken together, these results suggest that the effect of time of day seems to concern only the performance in the first sprint of RSA regardless of the effort’s nature.
Chapter
This chapter introduces the importance to study movement in the sports context, where human performance focuses on the continuous optimization of the physical condition of athletes in specific situations, which often require to be performed at high intensities. To optimize these actions, it is necessary to prioritize strength training, focused on improving useful strength, understood as the application of strength under specific time and velocity conditions per training to competitive exercise (issues reflected in force–velocity and force–time curves). To carry out from practice, it is necessary to monitor, quantify, adapt and prescribe strength training to understand the existing relationship between the external load proposed for the subject and its organic consequences to achieve the adaptations sought and thus optimize performance. To achieve this, it is important to measure and control movement from a mechanical perspective. In this sense, in this chapter, an initial analysis of different methods of strength training through kinetics and kinematics will be proposed.
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El objetivo de este trabajo es profundizar en una línea de investigación emergente en el contexto de la psicología del deporte como es el optimismo. A través de la teoría de los estilos explicativos y las dimensiones de permanencia, amplitud y personalización, se llega a dos trabajos específicos que relacionan por un lado el optimismo con el rendimiento y por otro la posible influencia de los estilos explicativos del entrenador en el análisis de la competición sobre los jugadores de un equipo. A partir de los resultados de ambos trabajos se establece la reflexión sobre la importancia del constructo optimismo en todos los aspectos de la competición deportiva así las posibilidades de modificar los estilos explicativos y trabajar en este sentido desde la disciplina de la psicología del deporte.
Article
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Weightlifting is a sport that requires both dynamic strength and power. Until today, weightlifting coaches are still exploring different training modes in an attempt to enhance both muscular strength and power of the competitive weightlifters. Research has shown that the use of the “right” training method could further provide knowledge on such effect for competitive weightlifters (Storey & Smith, 2012). Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of using the complex training method (applicable to weightlifting) compared to traditional resistance training on muscular strength among male competitive (state level) weightlifters. Seventeen male competitive weightlifters were randomly assigned into 2 groups: experimental group (Complex Training; n = 9), and control group (Traditional Resistance Training; n = 8). All participants trained for 6 weeks (2 sessions per week) with the total training volume equated between both groups. Participants underwent pre-test and post-test including the anthropometric measurements (height, body weight, and body fat) and lower body strength (CMVJ test) and overall body power (medicine ball throw test) parameters. The results showed that there was a significant increase from pre- to post-test in CMVJ average power t(8) = -4.98; p = .001 and t(7) = -3.99; p = .005), CMVJ height t(8) = - 3.17; p = .01 and t(7) = -3.95; p = .006) and medicine ball throw distance t(8) = -12.26; p = .001 and t(7) = -6.13; p = .001) in experimental and control groups respectively. Significant difference (p < .05) was observed in CMVJ average power (5.04 ± 2.61 versus 1.64 ± 1.16), CMVJ height (13.23 ± 7.29 versus 6.70 ± 4.80) and medicine ball throw distance improvements (0.87 ± 0.21 versus 0.46 ± 0.21) between the complex training group and control group respectively at post-test. In conclusion, the use of complex training method showed more superior in enhancing muscular power compared to traditional resistance training after 6 weeks of intervention.
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Neuromuscular training in young athletes improves performance and decreases the risk of injuries during sports activities. These effects are primarily ascribed to the enhancement of muscle strength and power but also balance, speed and agility. However, most studies have failed to demonstrate significant improvement in these abilities. This is probably due to the fact that traditional tests do not reflect training methods (e.g., plyometric training vs. isometric or isokinetic strength testing, dynamic balance training vs. static balance testing). The protocols utilized in laboratories only partially fulfill the current needs for testing under sport-specific conditions. Moreover, laboratory testing usually requires skilled staff and a well equipped and costly infrastructure. Nevertheless, experience demonstrates that high-technology and expensive testing is not the only way to proceed. A number of physical fitness field tests are available today. However, the low reliability and limited number of parameters retrieved from simple equipment used also limit their application in competitive sports. Thus, there is a need to develop and validate a functional assessment platform based on portable computerized systems. Variables obtained should be directly linked to specific features of particular sports and capture their complexity. This is essential for revealing weak and strong components of athlete performance and design of individually-tailored exercise programs. Therefore, identifying the drawbacks associated with the assessment of athlete performance under sport-specific conditions would provide a basis for the formation of an innovative approach to their long-term systematic testing. This study aims (i) to review the testing methods used for the evaluation of the effect of neuromuscular training on sport-specific performance in young athletes, (ii) to introduce stages within the Sport Longlife Diagnostic Model, and (iii) to propose future research in this topic. Analysis of the literature identified gaps in the current standard testing methods in terms of their low sensitivity in discriminating between athletes of varied ages and performance levels, insufficent tailoring to athlete performance level and individual needs, a lack of specificity to the requirements of particular sports and also in revealing the effect of training. In order to partly fill in these gaps, the Sport Longlife Diagnostic Model was proposed.
Conference Paper
Usually, functional exercise protocols have been used to evaluate the athlete performance and its changes after the training programs. However, this classical laboratory testing, with subjects exercising continuously on the treadmill or cycle ergometer, in many ways represent artificial situations. Nevertheless, these procedures provide standardized conditions and permit comparisons to be made on repeated measurements. They can also simulate the demands placed on the body in many sport events. Despite the many advantages of laboratory diagnostics, such testing does not reflect specific changes in cardiorespiratory, neuromuscular or sensorimotor system induced by particular sports. Therefore, from both a practical and a theoretical point of view, it is equally important to evaluate these aspects of performance under sport-specific conditions in the sporting field. The workshop will focus on our experience with assessment of sport-specific performance. In addition to traditional tests, sport-specific methods used for evaluation of aerobic and anaerobic capabilities, speed and agility, muscle strength and power under stable and unstable conditions, core stability and strength, static and dynamic balance, and so forth will be presented.
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OvERvIEw As discussed in the last issue, attempting to train strength-and endurance-related qualities concurrently within the same programme appears to produce an interference effect which compromises gains in muscular strength. This article aims to provide recommendations for the strength and conditioning (S&C) coach to minimise the negative effects associated with concurrent training, based on an understanding of the mechanisms (presented in Part I) which are likely to be responsible.
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This study examined the effects of different volumes of resistance training on muscle size and function over a 10-wk period. Low volume = 3 sets per muscle group per week; moderate = 6 sets; high = 12 sets. Twenty-seven men with 1-4 yrs weight training experience were randomly assigned to the different training volumes and trained 4 days a week. A periodized routine was used; exercises, training intensity, and number of training days were the same for each group. The only variation between conditions was the number of sets per exercise. Pre and post measurements assessed muscular size via ultrasound; strength via maximum squat and bench press; and power via vertical jump and bench press throw. Urinary concentrations of test-osterone and cortisol were also analyzed to assess the responses to training conditions. All 3 training volumes significantly (p < 0.05) increased muscle size, strength, and upper body power, with no significant between-group differences. There were no significant changes in hormonal concentrations. The results support the use of low volume training for muscular development over a 10-wk period. (C) 1997 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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The purpose of this investigation was to study a high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining protocol resulting in muscular strength decrements. Seventeen weight-trained males were divided into an overtraining group (OT; N = 11; mean +/- SE, age = 22.0 +/- 0.9 yr,) that exercised on a squat machine daily for 2 wk with 100% of 1 repetition maximum (RM) relative intensity, and a control group (CON; N = 6; age = 23.7 +/- 2.4 yr) that exercised 1 d.wk-1 with low intensity (50% 1 RM). Test batteries were conducted at the beginning (test 1), after 1 wk (test 2), and after 2 wk (test 3) of the study. One RM performance significantly decreased from test 1 to test 3 (P < 0.05) for the OT group (mean = -12.2 +/- 3.8 kg), but not the CON group (mean = -1.1 +/- 0.8 kg). Isokinetic and stimulated isometric muscle force significantly decreased for the OT group compared with the CON group by test 3. The primary site of maladaptation appeared to be in the periphery as indicated by changes in stimulated force, circulating CK activity, and exercise-induced lactate responses. This protocol produced a significant decrease in 1 RM performance, thus providing a model for the study of short-term, high-intensity resistance exercise overtraining.
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Perhaps the most controversial element of any strength training programme is the number of sets required to increase muscular strength and hypertrophy. There is a prevalent belief that at least 3 sets of each exercise are required to elicit optimal increases in strength and hypertrophy. However, most of the studies that reported the results of training with single versus multiple sets do not substantiate this tenet. In fact, the preponderance of evidence suggests that for training durations of 4 to 25 weeks there is no significant difference in the increase in strength or hypertrophy as a result of training with single versus multiple sets. Because of the design limitations of these studies, conclusions concerning the efficacy of multiple sets should be tentative. However, there is little scientific evidence, and no theoretical physiological basis, to suggest that a greater volume of exercise elicits greater increases in strength or hypertrophy. This information may represent an important practical application of time-efficient, low-volume exercise.
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Few data exist on the long-term adaptations to heavy resistance training in women. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effect of volume of resistance exercise on the development of physical performance abilities in competitive, collegiate women tennis players. Twenty-four tennis players were matched for tennis ability and randomly placed into one of three groups: a no resistance exercise control group, a periodized multiple-set resistance training group, or a single-set circuit resistance training group. No significant changes in body mass were observed in any of the groups throughout the entire training period. However, significant increases in fat-free mass and decreases in percent body fat were observed in the periodized training group after 4, 6, and 9 months of training. A significant increase in power output was observed after 9 months of training in the periodized training group only. One-repetition maximum strength for the bench press, free-weight shoulder press, and leg press increased significantly after 4, 6, and 9 months of training in the periodized training group, whereas the single-set circuit group increased only after 4 months of training. Significant increases in serve velocity were observed after 4 and 9 months of training in the periodized training group, whereas no significant changes were observed in the single-set circuit group. These data demonstrate that sport-specific resistance training using a periodized multiple-set training method is superior to low-volume single-set resistance exercise protocols in the development of physical abilities in competitive, collegiate women tennis players.
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Public health guidelines primarily focus on the promotion of physical activity and steady-state aerobic exercise, which enhances cardiorespiratory fitness and has some impact on body composition. However, research demonstrates that resistance exercise training has profound effects on the musculoskeletal system, contributes to the maintenance of functional abilities, and prevents osteoporosis, sarcopenia, lower-back pain, and other disabilities. More recent seminal research demonstrates that resistance training may positively affect risk factors such as insulin resistance, resting metabolic rate, glucose metabolism, blood pressure, body fat, and gastrointestinal transit time, which are associated with diabetes, heart disease, and cancer. Research also indicates that virtually all the benefits of resistance training are likely to be obtained in two 15- to 20-min training sessions a week. Sensible resistance training involves precise controlled movements for each major muscle group and does not require the use of very heavy resistance. Along with brief prescriptive steady-state aerobic exercise, resistance training should be a central component of public health promotion programs.
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A threshold model postulates that prescriptively applying the appropriate cardiorespiratory and strength stimulus at a designated threshold of intensity for a brief time results in the targeted adaptations. A randomized control group design was used with 17 unfit males and females (mean age = 37.1 +/- 6.5 year) assigned to an exercise group (n = 9) who performed a progressive cardiovascular graded exercise protocol and resistance training twice a week for 12 weeks or a nonexercising control group (n = 8). The intervention included a graded exercise protocol involving a 3-min warm-up, exercising 3-4 min at 70-80% of maximum heart rate, and a 3-min cooldown. Progressive resistance exercise consisted of one set of six repetitions on each of six resistance machines. Results showed that the exercise group increased predicted aerobic capacity by 13.4% (p < 0.05), decreased submaximal rate pressure product by 17.2% (p < 0.05), and increased strength by 34% (p < 0.01). The results support a threshold model and show that time for effective exercise can be substantially reduced.
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This study examined the effects of manipulating volume and intensity on strength and power in experienced male athletes. Subjects (N = 22) were tested for maximum strength in the squat and bench press lifts, vertical jump (VJ), lean body mass (LBM), and neural activation levels (IEMG). They trained 3 days a week for 12 weeks according to a linear periodization model (n = 8), an undulating periodization model (n = 5), or a nonperiodized control model (n = 9). Training volume and relative intensity were equated for all groups. Maximal squat, bench press, and LBM all improved significantly in each group, and changes in maximal strength correlated significantly with changes in LBM. IEMG levels were generally unchanged and did not correlate with changes in strength. The VJ increased significantly through training, but there were no differences between groups. Changes in VJ were not significantly correlated with changes in squat, LBM, or IEMG levels. The results indicate that in short-term training using previously trained subjects, no differences in maximal strength are seen when training volume and relative intensity are equated. (C) 1994 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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Variation or periodization of training is an important concept in designing weight-training programs. To date, the majority of studies examining periodization of weight training have used a traditional strength/power training model of decreasing training volume and increasing training intensity as the program progresses. The majority of these studies have used males as subjects and do support the contention that periodized programs can result in greater changes in strength, motor performance, total body weight, lean body mass, and percent body fat than nonperiodized programs. However, studies are needed examining why periodized training is more beneficial than nonperiodized training. Studies are also needed examining the response of females, children, and seniors to periodized weight-training programs and the response to periodized models other than the traditional strength/power training model. (C) 1999 National Strength and Conditioning Association
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The effects of a 1 year training period on 13 elite weight-lifters were investigated by periodical tests of electromyographic, muscle fibre and force production characteristics. A statistically non-significant increase of 3.5% in maximal isometric strength of the leg extensors, from 48411104 to 50101012 N, occured over the year. Individual changes in the high force portions of the force-velocity curve correlated (p<0.05–0.01) with changes in weight-lifting performance. Training months 5–8 were characterized by the lowest average training intensity (77.1+2.0%), and this resulted in a significant (p<0.05) decrease in maximal neural activation (IEMG) of the muscles, while the last four month period, with only a slightly higher average training intensity (79.13.0%), led to a significant (p<0.01) increase in maximum IEMG. Individual increases in training intensity between these two training periods correlated with individual increases both in muscular strength (p<0.05) and in the weight lifted in the clean & jerk (p<0.05). A non-significant increase of 3.9% in total mean muscle fibre area occurred over the year. The present findings demonstrate the limited potential for strength development in elite strength athletes, and suggest that the magnitudes and time courses of neural and hypertrophic adaptations in the neuromuscular system during their training may differ from those reported for previously untrained subjects. The findings additionally indicate the importance of training intensity for modifying training responses in elite strength athletes.
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Increases in muscular strength among initially untrained subjects are relatively easily attained taking place during the earlier weeks of strength training mainly due to neural adaptations with a gradually increasing contribution of hypertrophic factors as the training proceeds. Muscular strength development in strength athletes is much more limited and special attention should be given to high training loading intensity and to individual training programming. The magnitudes and the time courses of the neuromuscular adaptations in strength athletes may therefore differ from those among initially untrained subjects but the actual mechanisms of strength increase may be basically the same. The initial status of the athletes makes the process more complicated to follow and more difficult to substantiate. In strength athletes with a long training background and with a high training volume, the role of endogenous hormone balance may have increasing importance for strength development. During the most stressful training weeks of prolonged strength training the level of biologically active unbound testosterone as well as the balance between the androgenic-anabolic activity and the catabolizing effect of glucocorticoids may be of great importance for the trainability of muscular strength. These observations together with the findings about the specific effects of heavy resistance strength and power training on the neuromuscular performance may also have some implications for the more accurate determination of the trainability status of an individual athlete at a given time in order to optimize the training process.
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The muscle enzymatic changes subsequent to 6 months of strength training followed by 3 months of detraining were examined in 21 physically active men. They were assigned either to a heavy-resistance (HR) or an explosive strength (EX) training program. Muscle biopsies were obtained from m. vastus lateralis for the assessment of activities of the enzymes hexokinase (HK), myofibrillar ATPase (ATPase), citrate synthase (CS), phosphofructokinase (PFK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), myokinase (MK) and creatine kinase (CK). The activities were measured on freeze-dried tissue samples using fluorometrical assays. Both groups displayed increased (P less than 0.01-0.001) fast-twitch (FT) fiber area consequent to training with no concomitant hypertrophy of slow-twitch (ST) fiber area. Mean fiber area increased by 16% (P less than 0.001) in HR and 9% (NS) in EX. Following detraining, mean fiber area returned to pretraining value only in EX. HK decreased in both groups (P less than 0.01-0.001) and CK decreased in HR (P less than 0.05). When the two groups were treated together, all enzymes, except for LDH, decreased their activity (P less than 0.05-0.001). It is concluded that 6 months of strength training performed either as heavy-resistance or explosive training is not associated with any increased activities of enzymes reflecting phosphagen, glycolytic, or oxidative metabolism. Instead, the present results suggest that exercise-induced hypertrophy is accompanied by attenuation of certain enzyme activities of importance for ATP regeneration.
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The purpose of this brief review is to examine resistance training responses of selected hormones related to acute stress and growth promoting actions. Hormonal mechanisms appear to be involved with both short-term homeostatic control and long-term cellular adaptations. Few studies have modeled the exercise stimulus in resistance training to determine the role of different exercise variables to the hormonal response. A variety of resistance exercise protocols result in increases in peripheral hormonal concentrations. It appears that single factor variables such as the intensity (% of RM) of exercise and amount of muscle mass utilized in the exercise protocol are important determinants of hormonal responses. The volume (sets x repetitions x intensity) of exercise also appears to be an important determinant of hormonal response. Still, little is known with regard to other single and multiple factor variables (e.g., rest period length) and their relationships to peripheral hormonal alterations. Collectively, such information will allow greater understanding concerning the nature of the exercise stimulus and its relationship to training adaptations resulting from heavy resistance exercise.
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A follow-up study of 1 year was performed on 11 male elite weight lifters. Several parameters including training volume, weight lifting performance, and serum hormone concentrations were measured during seven test occasions. In addition, the same measurements were repeated three times during a 6-week period preceding the primary competition, which took place about 5 months after beginning of the follow-up. The primary findings were observed during the 6-week period from which the first 2 weeks of stressful training was associated with significant decreases (P less than 0.01-0.001) in serum testosterone concentration, in testosterone/cortisol and in testosterone/SHBG ratios, and with a significant (P less than 0.001) increase in serum LH concentration. The individual changes during the stressful training in serum testosterone/SHBG ratio were related (r = .63; P less than 0.05) to the individual changes in the weight lifting result in the clean and jerk lift. During the following "normal" 2-week and reduced 2-week training periods, the concentration of serum testosterone remained unaltered, but serum cortisol and serum LH decreased significantly (P less than 0.05-0.01). During these periods, the serum testosterone/SHBG ratio increased (P less than 0.01). The individual changes during this preparatory 4-week training before the primary competition in serum testosterone/SHBG ratio and the individual changes in the weight lifting result in the clean and jerk lift correlated significantly with each other (r = .68; P less than 0.05).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Article
Neuromuscular and hormonal adaptations to prolonged strength training were investigated in nine elite weight lifters. The average increases occurred over the 2-yr follow-up period in the maximal neural activation (integrated electromyogram, IEMG; 4.2%, P = NS), maximal isometric leg-extension force (4.9%, P = NS), averaged concentric power index (4.1%, P = NS), total weight-lifting result (2.8%, P less than 0.05), and total mean fiber area (5.9%, P = NS) of the vastus lateralis muscle, respectively. The training period resulted in increases in the concentrations of serum testosterone from 19.8 +/- 5.3 to 25.1 +/- 5.2 nmol/l (P less than 0.05), luteinizing hormone (LH) from 8.6 +/- 0.8 to 9.1 +/- 0.8 U/l (P less than 0.05), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from 4.2 +/- 2.0 to 5.3 +/- 2.3 U/l (P less than 0.01), and testosterone-to-serum sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) ratio (P less than 0.05). The annual mean value of the second follow-up year for the serum testosterone-to-SHBG ratio correlated significantly (r = 0.84, P less than 0.01) with the individual changes during the 2nd yr in the averaged concentric power. The present results suggest that prolonged intensive strength training in elite athletes may influence the pituitary and possibly hypothalamic levels, leading to increased serum levels of testosterone. This may create more optimal conditions to utilize more intensive training leading to increased strength development.
Article
Nine elite male junior weightlifters (mean age 17.6 +/- 0.3 yrs) performed weightlifting tests before (Test 1) and after (Test 2) 1 week of increased training volume (overreaching) and repeated the protocol after 1 year of their training program. Strength increased by Year 2 (p < 0.05) but did not change during either week of increased training volume. The 1-week overreaching stimulus resulted in attenuated exercise-induced testosterone concentrations during Year 1, but augmented exercise-induced testosterone concentrations during Year 2. Testosterone concentrations at 7 a.m. decreased for only Year 1. For both years, the 1-week overreaching stimulus increased cortisol at 7 a.m, indicative of the increased training volumes. Testosterone/cortisol was not affected by increased training volume for either year. One year of chronic weightlifting and prior exposure to the overreaching stimulus appears to decrease the detrimental effects of stressful training on the endocrine system.
Article
Neuromuscular adaptations were investigated in ten female athletes during a "normal" intensive strength training period for 3-weeks (I) as well as during a separate second 3-week training period (II), when the same total training volume was distributed into two daily sessions. No systematic changes took place in the maximal voluntary neural activation (averaged integrated EMG) of the leg extensor muscles, in the cross-sectional area (CSA) of the quadriceps femoris muscle or in maximal voluntary isometric strength of the leg extensor muscles over training period I with one daily sessions. However, a significant increase was observed in maximal strength from 2493 +/- 553 to 2620 +/- 598 N (p < 0.05) during period II accompanied also by a significant (p < 0.05) enlargement in the cross-sectional area of the muscle and by slight (ns.) increases in the maximum IEMGs of the trained muscles. The individual changes in the maximum IEMGs of the trained muscles during period II correlated significantly (p < 0.01) with the individual changes in maximal strength. The present results with female athletes suggest that the distribution of the volume of intensive strength training into smaller units, such as two daily sessions, may create more optimal conditions not only for muscular hypertrophy but by producing effective training stimuli especially for the nervous system. These kinds of training conditions may lead to further strength development in athletes being greater than obtained during "normal" strength training of the same duration.
Article
Overtraining is defined as an increase in training volume and/or intensity of exercise resulting in performance decrements. Recovery from this condition often requires many weeks or months. A shorter or less severe variation of overtraining is referred to as overreaching, which is easily recovered from in just a few days. Many structured training programmes utilise phases of overreaching to provide variety of the training stimulus. Much of the scientific literature on overtraining is based on aerobic activities, despite the fact that resistance exercise is a large component of many exercise programmes. Chronic resistance exercise can result in differential responses to overtraining depending on whether either training volume or training intensity is excessive. The neuroendocrine system is a complex physiological entity that can influence many other systems. Neuroendocrine responses to high volume resistance exercise overtraining appear to be somewhat similar to overtraining for aerobic activities. On the other hand, excessive resistance training intensity produces a distinctly different neuroendocrine profile. As a result, some of the neuroendocrine characteristics often suggested as markers of overtraining may not be applicable to some overtraining scenarios. Further research will permit elucidation of the interactions between the neuroendocrine system and other physiological systems in the aetiology of performance decrements from overtraining.
Article
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of increasing training volume from one set to three sets on muscular strength, muscular endurance, and body composition in adult recreational weight lifters. Forty-two adults (age 39.7 +/- 6.2 yr; 6.2 +/- 4.6 yr weight training experience) who had been performing one set using a nine-exercise resistance training circuit (RTC) for a minimum of 1 yr participated in this study. Subjects continued to perform one set (EX-1; N = 21) or performed three sets (EX-3; N = 21) of 8-12 repetitions to muscular failure 3 d x wk(-1) for 13 wk using RTC. One repetition maximums (1-RM) were measured for leg extension (LE), leg curl (LC), chest press (CP), overhead press (OP), and biceps curl (BC). Muscular endurance was evaluated for the CP and LE as the number of repetitions to failure using 75% of pretraining 1-RM. Body composition was estimated using the sum of seven skinfold measures. Both groups significantly improved muscular endurance and 1 RM strength (EX-1 by: 13.6% LE; 9.2% LC; 11.9% CP; 8.7% OP; 8.3% BC; and EX-3 by: 12.8% LE; 12.0% LC; 13.5% CP; 12.4% OP; 10.3% BC) (P < 0.05). Both groups significantly improved lean body mass (P < 0.05). No significant differences between groups were found for any of the test variables (P > 0.05). Both groups significantly improved muscular fitness and body composition as a result of the 13 wk of training. The results show that one-set programs are still effective even after a year of training and that increasing training volume over 13 wk does not lead to significantly greater improvements in fitness for adult recreational weight lifters.
Article
The identification of a quantifiable dose-response relationship for strength training is important to the prescription of proper training programs. Although much research has been performed examining strength increases with training, taken individually, they provide little insight into the magnitude of strength gains along the continuum of training intensities, frequencies, and volumes. A meta-analysis of 140 studies with a total of 1433 effect sizes (ES) was carried out to identify the dose-response relationship. Studies employing a strength-training intervention and containing data necessary to calculate ES were included in the analysis. ES demonstrated different responses based on the training status of the participants. Training with a mean intensity of 60% of one repetition maximum elicits maximal gains in untrained individuals, whereas 80% is most effective in those who are trained. Untrained participants experience maximal gains by training each muscle group 3 d.wk and trained individuals 2 d.wk. Four sets per muscle group elicited maximal gains in both trained and untrained individuals. The dose-response trends identified in this analysis support the theory of progression in resistance program design and can be useful in the development of training programs designed to optimize the effort to benefit ratio.
The effect of different load intensities on the development of maximal strength and strength endurance In: A Collection of European Sports Science Translations (part II)
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PAMPUS, B., K. LEHNERTZ, AND D. MARTIN. The effect of different load intensities on the development of maximal strength and strength endurance. In: A Collection of European Sports Science Translations (part II). J. Jarver, ed. Adelaide, Australia: South Australian Sports Institute, 1990. pp. 20–25.
About training loads
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VIRU, A. About training loads. Modern Athlete Coach 31:32-36. 1993.
The metabolic effects of three different free weight parallel squatting intensities
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WILLOUGHBY, D.S., D.R. CHILEK, D.A. SCHILLER, AND J.R. COAST. The metabolic effects of three different free weight parallel squatting intensities. J. Hum. Movement Stud. 21:53-67. 1991.
Resistance exercise overtrain-ing and overreaching: Neuroendocrine responses
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FRY, A.C., AND W.J. KRAEMER. Resistance exercise overtrain-ing and overreaching: Neuroendocrine responses. Sports Med
The effect of different load intensities on the development of maximal strength and strength endurance
  • B Pampus
  • K Lehnertz
PAMPUS, B., K. LEHNERTZ, AND D. MARTIN. The effect of different load intensities on the development of maximal strength and strength endurance. In: A Collection of European Sports Science Translations (part II). J. Jarver, ed. Adelaide, Australia: South Australian Sports Institute, 1990. pp. 20-25.