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Benefits of Breastfeeding

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Debra J Hector
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Abstract

Summary of 60 surveys carried out in the last 15 years, showing the benefits of breastfeeding for the child's health (less otitis, pneumonia, diarrhea, meningitis, allergies, etc.) and for the mother's health (lesser risk of breast can- cer, ovarian cancer, osteoporosis, fractured hips), as well as psycochosocial and money saving aspects.
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46
VENTAJAS DE LA LACTANCIA
MATERNA PARA EL BEBÉ
Nutrición óptima
La leche materna proporciona nutrientes de alta cali-
dad que el bebé absorbe fácilmente y utiliza con efica-
cia. La leche también contiene todo el agua que el bebé
necesita. No requiere ningún otro líquido.
La leche materna es un fluido cambiante, que se
adapta a las necesidades del bebé.
La composición de la leche depende de la edad
gestacional (la leche prematura es diferente de la leche
a término), de la fase de la lactancia (el calostro es dis-
tinto de la leche de transición o de la madura, que sigue
cambiando con el tiempo), y del momento de la mama-
da (la leche inicial es distinta de la leche final, que tiene
una concentración mayor de lípidos).
El calostro tiene cualidades especiales, y es muy
importante para el lactante, por su efecto en el desarro-
llo, la digestión y la inmunidad
48
.
Normalmente, la leche materna sigue siendo una
fuente importante de energía y nutrientes de gran cali-
dad durante el segundo año de edad y después.
La leche materna puede proporcionar hasta un ter-
cio de la energía y proteínas que necesita un niño duran-
te el segundo año.
Inmunidad
La leche materna es un líquido vivo, que protege al
lactante contra las infecciones por su contenido en célu-
las, factores antiinflamatorios, factores específicos, anti-
bacterianos, antivíricos y antiprotozoarios y por la natu-
raleza interactiva de las inmunoglobulinas IgA.
La leche materna es potenciadora de la inmuni-
dad
49
.
Durante el primer año, el lactante depende de su
madre para luchar contra las infecciones porque su pro-
pio sistema inmunitario no está completamente desarro-
llado.
La OMS recomienda dar el pecho dos años o más,
y los primeros 6 meses de forma exclusiva.
Los efectos de la lactancia materna para la salud se
prolongan años después del destete
62
.
Reunidos en 1998 expertos de la OMS para estudiar
los efectos de las dioxinas en la leche humana, su con-
clusión fue que los datos disponibles no dan motivos para
Ventajas de la lactancia materna
María Jesús Blázquez García
Bióloga, Catedrática del I.E.S. «Félix de Azara» de Zaragoza
Socia fundadora de la Asociación de Madres «Vía Láctea»
RESUMEN:
De más de 60 estudios realizados en los últimos años, que demuestran las ventajas de la lactancia materna para la salud
del lactante (menos otitis, neumonías, diarreas, meningitis, alergias, etc.) y para la salud de la madre (reducción del ries-
go de cáncer de mama, de ovario, osteoporosis, fractura de cadera...). Así como los aspectos psicosociales y de ahorro
económico asociados a la lactancia materna.
Palabras clave: Inmunidad-lactancia materna, salud de la madre, salud del lactante.
The benefits of breastfeeding
ABSTRACT:
Summary of 60 surveys carried out in the last 15 years, showing the benefits of breastfeeding for the child’s health
(less otitis, pneumonia, diarrhea, meningitis, allergies, etc.) and for the mother’s health (lesser risk of breast can-
cer, ovarian cancer, osteoporosis, fractured hips), as well as psycochosocial and money saving aspects.
Key words: Immunity, breastfeeding, mother’s health, child’s health.
44
MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
I.S.S.N.: 1576-3080
MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
45
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
47
modificar las recomendaciones de la OMS que protegen
y apoyan la lactancia materna. Más información en la
página de la OMS, en internet: sum/exe-sum-final.html
En las últimas décadas se ha demostrado, en paí-
ses desarrollados, que los niños de pecho tienen menos
otitis, neumonías, diarreas, meningitis, alergias... etc.
Todos estos niños ya estaban tomando leche conta-
minada con dioxinas, lo que demuestra que las ventajas
de la lactancia materna superan ampliamente a los posi-
bles riesgos de las dioxinas
26, 27, 4, 37
.
Menor riesgo de diarrea
Un estudio en Filipinas mostró que la lactancia arti-
ficial se asociaba a un riesgo hasta 17 veces mayor de
diarrea que la lactancia materna exclusiva.
Los que recibían lactancia mixta tenían un riesgo de
sufrir diarrea superior a los que tomaban sólo el pecho,
pero inferior al de los que no recibían leche materna
55
.
Un estudio en Dundee, Escocia, encontró que los
niños amamantados tenían muchas menos diarreas.
Por ejemplo, entre 0 y 13 semanas de edad casi el
20% de los niños con lactancia artificial tuvieron diarrea,
frente a sólo el 3,6% de los que tomaban el pecho
24
.
Menor riesgo de infección respiratoria
Los bebés con lactancia artificial tienen un riesgo
hasta 3 ó 4 veces mayor de morir por pulmonía que los
que sólo tomaban el pecho.
Un estudio en Brasil encontró que los niños con lac-
tancia artificial tenían un riesgo cuatro veces de morir de
pulmonía que los que tomaban el pecho
61
.
Menor riesgo de otitis y meningitis
En Suecia, se encontró que los niños tenían menos
otitis con lactancia materna que con lactancia artificial. Por
ejemplo, entre 1 y 3 meses de edad, el 6% de los niños
que ya habían sido destetados, tenían otitis media frente
a sólo un 1% de los amamantados
1, 13, 14
.
Menos enfermedad atópica (cuando
hay antecedentes familiares de atopía)
Menos eccema
41, 59
.
Menor riesgo de dificultades respiratorias
(asma)
7, 59, 65
Menor riesgo de enfermedades autoinmunes. Dia-
betes
29, 44, 50
.
Menor riesgo de infecciones del tracto urinario
43, 51
.
Menor riesgo de infecciones gastrointestinales
23
.
Menor riesgo de mortalidad infantil por enterocolitis
necrosante en prematuros. La incidencia fue de 6 a 10
veces más alta entre los que recibieron sólo leche artifi-
cial que entre los que tomaban lactancia materna exclu-
siva. Según un estudio multicéntrico realizado con 926
lactantes
35, 39
.
Menor riesgo de muerte súbita infantil
16
.
Menor riesgo de padecer:
— Maoclusión dentaria
34
.
— Linfoma
12, 19
.
— Enfermedad inflamatoria intestinal
9
.
— Enfermedad cardiaca coronaria
3
.
— Enfermedad tiroidea autoinmune
17
.
— Enfermedad de Crohn
31
.
— Celiaquía (retraso en la aparición)
30
.
— Tetania neonatal
60
.
— Esclerosis múltiple
52
.
— Apendicitis
53
.
VENTAJAS DE LA LACTANCIA
MATERNA PARA EL HOSPITAL
La lactancia materna crea un clima de calma y calor
emocional. Los lactantes lloran menos y están más tran-
quilos y las madres pueden responder más fácilmente a
sus necesidades.
Cuando hay alojamiento conjunto, disminuyen las
infecciones neonatales.
La lactancia materna previene la tristeza de la soledad.
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
46 MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
48
En Suecia el 98% de los hospitales ofrece aloja-
miento conjunto de la madre y su bebé.
La necesidad de medicamentos para la madre no
interfiere necesariamente con la lactancia materna
28
.
ASPECTOS PSICOSOCIALES
La lactancia materna favorece el vínculo madre-hijo,
hija.
El estrecho contacto inmediatamente después del
parto, fomenta el desarrollo del amor mutuo.
Los bebés lloran menos y las madres responden
mejor a las necesidades de sus hijos.
La leche materna favorece el desarrollo mental e
intelectual.
Los prematuros que han tomado leche materna en
las primeras semanas, obtienen años más tarde mejo-
res puntuaciones en pruebas de inteligencia que los que
recibieron leche artificial
40, 41, 42
.
En niños a término, mayor inteligencia (desarrollo
cognitivo), si han sido amamantados
54, 56, 57
.
La lactancia materna favorece el desarrollo visual
5
.
VENTAJAS DE LA LACTANCIA
MATERNA PARA LA MADRE
Pérdida de peso de la madre y reducción en la cir-
cunferencia de cadera
32
.
Reduce la hemorragia postparto y acelera la recu-
peración del útero debido a la liberación de oxitocina
durante la lactancia.
Dar el pecho reduce el riesgo de cáncer de
mama
38
.
Un estudio multicéntrico en Estados Unidos, en
cuatro estados del Este, encontró que el riesgo relati-
vo de cáncer de mama en mujeres premenopáusicas
era inversamente proporcional a la duración de la lac-
tancia
45, 46
.
Dar el pecho reduce el riesgo de cáncer de ova-
rio
22, 58
.
Un estudio multinacional en Australia, Chile, China,
Israel, Méjico, Filipinas y Tailandia encontró que el ries-
go relativo de cáncer de ovario era menor cuando la
duración de la lactancia era mayor
22
.
La lactancia materna protege a la madre contra la
osteoporosis y la fractura de cadera en edad avanza-
da
11, 15, 18, 33
.
La lactancia materna disminuye el riesgo de artritis
reumatoide
8
.
AHORRO ECONÓMICO ASOCIADO
A LA LACTANCIA MATERNA
Ahorro para la familia
El porcentaje del salario medio o mínimo necesario
para suplementar la dieta de la madre lactante, es muy
inferior al que se necesita para adquirir sucedáneos de
la leche materna
6, 47, 63
.
DIEZ PASOS HACIA UNA LACTANCIA NATURAL
Todos los servicios de maternidad y atención a los recién nacidos deberán:
1. Disponer de una política por escrito relativa a la lactancia natural, conocida por todo el personal del Centro.
2. Capacitar a todo el personal para llevar a cabo esa política.
3. Informar a las embarazadas de los beneficios de la lactancia materna y cómo realizarla.
4. Ayudar a las madres a iniciar la lactancia en la media hora siguiente al parto.
5. Mostrar a la madre cómo se debe dar de mamar al niño-a y cómo mantener la lactación incluso si se ha de
separar del niño-a.
6. No dar a los recién nacidos más que leche materna.
7. Facilitar la cohabitación de la madre y el bebé 24 horas al día.
8. Fomentar la lactancia a demanda.
9. No dar a los niños-as alimentados a pecho chupetes.
10. Fomentar el establecimiento de grupos de apoyo a la lactancia materna y procurar que las madres se pongan
en contacto con ellos.
Declaración conjunta OMS-UNICEF año 1989
MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
47
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
49
“Dar el pecho es una parte íntegra en el proceso de la reproducción,
la manera idónea de alimentar al recién nacido y una base biológica
y emocional única para el desarrollo del niño y de la niña.”
OMS
La gama amplia
de vitaminas y minerales,
fórmulas compuestas.
One a day. 1 comp. al día.
Liberación sostenida.
(de 6 a 8 h. de liberación).
Altas concentraciones
Sin colorantes artificiales ni conservantes
LIVE A HEALTHIER LIFE
Distribuidor de Vitalife
Fórmulas libres de Gluten, Trigo, Levaduras,
Lactosa, etc. Tolerados por vegetarianos
y algunos por vegetalianos
(Ver etiqueta identificativa)
Productos elaborados y envasados
en el Reino Unido bajo extrictas
normas Oficiales G.M.P.
La morbilidad en hijos de madres que trabajan es la
mitad en los que reciben lactancia materna que en los
que reciben artificial
10
.
Ahorro para el sistema de salud
Se reduce a la mitad el costo comparado del trata-
miento durante el primer año de niños con lactancia
materna con respecto a la lactancia artificial, debido al
menor número de hospitalizaciones
23, 25
.
La lactancia materna ayuda a la contención del
gasto a nivel nacional
21, 63
.
Basándose en los datos de estudios ya publicados
sobre la lactancia materna exclusiva hasta los tres
meses y la menor incidencia de enfermedades respi-
ratorias de vías bajas, gastroenteritis y otitis durante el
primer año, calcularon teóricamente lo que cuesta la
asistencia sanitaria en USA según el tipo de lactancia.
Entre 1.000 niños que no toman el pecho y otros 1.000
que toman lactancia materna exclusiva durante 3
meses, la diferencia sería de 60 episodios de enfer-
medad respiratoria, 580 de otitis media y 1.053 de
gastroenteritis durante el primer año, que generarían
2.033 visitas al médico, 212 días de hospitalización,
609 recetas y 51 radiografías, por un precio total para
el prestador de servicios de más de 51 millones de
ptas. Sólo con tres meses de lactancia, sólo en tres
enfermedades y sólo en costos médicos directos
2
.
Hazle caso, sólo él sabe cuándo tiene bastante.
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
48 MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
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... However, in developed countries EBF despite its proven benefits, is influenced by the ready availability of breastmilk substitutes Table 1. 2 The benefits of breastfeeding for both mother and infant are well documented and extend beyond the initial protection against infectious diseases as breastmilk has both immunological and antibacterial properties. 3 When compared with formula fed infants, it protects against gastrointestinal illnesses, otitis media and respiratory tract infections, in addition to reducing the incidence of necrotising enterocolitis in neonates. 3 Breastmilk has been associated with lower blood pressure readings in adolescents, and a reduced risk of obesity and hypercholesterolaemia in adults. ...
... 3 When compared with formula fed infants, it protects against gastrointestinal illnesses, otitis media and respiratory tract infections, in addition to reducing the incidence of necrotising enterocolitis in neonates. 3 Breastmilk has been associated with lower blood pressure readings in adolescents, and a reduced risk of obesity and hypercholesterolaemia in adults. 3,4 There is also compelling evidence that breastfeeding enhances mothers' post-partum recovery through accelerated uterine contraction. ...
... 3 Breastmilk has been associated with lower blood pressure readings in adolescents, and a reduced risk of obesity and hypercholesterolaemia in adults. 3,4 There is also compelling evidence that breastfeeding enhances mothers' post-partum recovery through accelerated uterine contraction. In addition, it provides some protection against ovarian cancer and pre-menopausal breast cancer. ...
Educational and supportive interventions to prolong breastfeeding in Australia: a scoping review
Article
  • May 2024
Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) i.e. feeding infants breastmilk and no other foods or liquids for the first 6 months of life. In Australia, the initiation rate of breastfeeding is high (90.4%). Yet, breastfeeding duration and exclusivity is well below the WHO recommendation. This scoping review examines the efficacy and characteristics of interventions aimed to improve the duration of breastfeeding whether exclusive or in combination up to 6 months of age in Australia. Methods: Online databases Medline and Embase were searched for relevant studies. Studies were included if they were undertaken in Australia during the last 10 years, and included educational, support-based or in-hospital breastfeeding interventions and documented duration of breastfeeding. Results: 11 studies met the imposed criteria. Most interventions improved breastfeeding rates, for example from 6.5% to 19% for EBF when assessed at 6 months, from 75% to 82% for breastfeeding at 6 weeks. The interventions included: accreditation for breastfeeding friendly hospitals, breastfeeding classes, nurse home visits and drop-in clinics, breastfeeding support in primary care, telephone support, breastfeeding smartphone applications, relevant websites and text-messaging services. Interventions that were successful, provided support for mothers beyond their postnatal period. Most common enablers reported were program facilitators that were volunteers who were peers with similar experiences, rather than breastfeeding professionals, in addition to interventions that focussed on psychological factors that influenced breastfeeding outcomes. Conclusions: While the interventions to date were promising, further prospective randomised controlled trials are needed to determine which interventions would be best in prolonging breastfeeding. The findings would help support the commendable intentions to breastfeed expressed by most Australian mothers shortly after the birth of their infant.
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... With respect to the child's long-term outcomes, breastfeeding improves cognitive function and performance on intelligence tests [32], and it protects against type 2 diabetes [29,33]. For mothers, breastfeeding is associated with decreased risk of maternal depression, breast and ovarian cancer [29], endometrial cancer, osteoporosis [34], and strokes amongst postmenopausal women [35]. Additionally, there is strong evidence of positive maternal-infant bonding associated with breastfeeding [34]. ...
... For mothers, breastfeeding is associated with decreased risk of maternal depression, breast and ovarian cancer [29], endometrial cancer, osteoporosis [34], and strokes amongst postmenopausal women [35]. Additionally, there is strong evidence of positive maternal-infant bonding associated with breastfeeding [34]. The current evidence shows that while breastfeeding ...
Determinants of Antenatal Education and Breastfeeding Uptake in Refugee-Background and Australian-Born Women
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2023
Despite the well-established benefits of antenatal education (ANE) and breastfeeding for mothers, there is a paucity of evidence about the uptake of ANE and breastfeeding amongst women from refugee backgrounds or its associations with sociodemographic factors. The current study is a cross-sectional survey at two time points examining the prevalence of ANE attendance, breastfeeding, and intimate partner violence (IPV) amongst 583 women refugees resettled in Australia and a control group of 528 Australian-born women. Multi-logistic regression was used to explore bivariate associations between ANE attendance, breastfeeding, IPV, and sociodemographic characteristics (parity, maternal employment, and education). Refugee-background women compared to Australian-born women have lower ANE utilization (20.4% vs. 24.1%), higher rates of breastfeeding on hospital discharge (89.3% vs. 81.7%), and more IPV reports (43.4% vs. 25.9%). Factors such as nulliparity, higher level of education, and employment predict higher rates of ANE and breastfeeding adoption. In contrast, IPV is a risk factor for ANE underutilization. Further, of the women from refugee backgrounds who accessed ANE services, 70% attended clinics designed for women from non-English-speaking backgrounds. These findings support the need to ensure effective screening and interventions for IPV during antenatal care and to better understand the role of culture as a protective or risk factor for breastfeeding initiation.
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... Poor nutrition influences the secretion of hormones that promote bone growth to decrease while those that inhibit growth increase (Campisi et al., 2018). Breastfeeding provides infants with essential nutrients to support not only rapid growth, but also their immune system, providing protection against infectious diseases during infancy and chronic diseases in childhood and later life (Allen & Hector, 2005). ...
The impact of urbanization on growth patterns of non-adults in medieval England
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
  • INT J OSTEOARCHAEOL
Increasing urbanization seen during the medieval period (7th to 16th centuries) is associated with adverse living conditions that may have negatively impacted childhood growth via the influence of infectious diseases and nutritional deficiencies due to increasing population density and periodic food shortages. This study aims to compare the growth of non-adults (less than 12 years of age) from urban, proto-urban, and rural environments from medieval England to determine whether settlement type influenced child health, and by proxy overall population health, during this period. Tibial and femoral maximum diaphyseal lengths and dental age of non-adults (0-12 years) from urban St. Gregory's Priory (n = 60), urban York Barbican (n = 16), proto-urban Black Gate (n = 38), and rural Raunds (n = 30) were examined using z-scores. The results reveal that non-adults < 2 years from St. Gregory's Priory had the lowest growth values followed by Raunds, Black Gate, and York Barbican with the highest growth values. Further, non-adults 2-12 years from York Barbican had the lowest growth values followed by Raunds, Black Gate, and St. Gregory's Priory with the higher growth values. The femoral and tibial diaphyseal growth values are explored within the context of breastfeeding and weaning practices, stability of economies , and environmental conditions. K E Y W O R D S bioarchaeology, child health, femora diaphyseal length, growth, tibial diaphyseal length, urbanization
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... Breastfeeding is a matter of nutritional concern for infants and has many advantages for both mother and infant. For the infant, it has a protective effect against infections such as upper respiratory tract infections and gastrointestinal diseases after infancy [1], and for the mother, the delay in the resumption of menstruation due to breastfeeding reduces the risk of breast and ovarian cancer [2]. On the other hand, there are also drawbacks to breastfeeding. ...
Breast milk concentrations of acetaminophen and diclofenac - unexpectedly high mammary transfer of the general-purpose drug acetaminophen
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Background Breastfeeding is considered to be the most effective way of ensuring the health and survival of newborns. However, mammary transfer of drugs administered to mothers to breastfeeding infants remains a pressing concern. Acetaminophen and diclofenac sodium are widely prescribed analgesics for postpartum pain relief, but there have been few recent reports on the mammary transfer of these drugs, despite advances in analytic techniques. Methods We conducted a study on 20 postpartum mothers from August 2019–March 2020. Blood and milk samples from participants were analyzed using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry within 24 hours after oral administration of acetaminophen and diclofenac sodium. The area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) was calculated from the concentration curve obtained by a naive pooled-data approach. Results For acetaminophen, AUC was 36,053 ng/mL.h and 37,768 ng/mL.h in plasma and breast milk, respectively, with a milk-to-plasma drug concentration ratio of 1.048. For diclofenac, the AUC was 0.227 ng/mL.h and 0.021 ng/mL.h, in plasma and breast milk, respectively, with a milk-to-plasma drug concentration ratio of 0.093. Conclusions While diclofenac sodium showed low mammary transfer, acetaminophen showed a relatively high milk-to-plasma drug concentration ratio. Given recent studies suggesting potential connections between acetaminophen use during pregnancy and risks to developmental prognosis in children, we believe that adequate information regarding the fact that acetaminophen is easily transferred to breast milk should be provided to mothers.
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... mothers believe that cereal or cereal with homemade food is the best food for starting weaning. [11][12][13][14] In this study, 121(38.3%) mothers believe that baby feeding type during weaning is only breast feeding, 25(7.9%),142(44.9%) ...
Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Breast Feeding and Weaning among Mothers of Children up to 2 Years Old in a Rural Area
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2023
Introduction: Breast feeding and weaning practice is an important aspect in modern era. To evaluate the knowledge of mothers a study was conducted among 316 mothers in Parbatipur Upazilla, Dinajpur. Concerning national benefit, we have to grow awareness about the issue among the mothers as well as all the people. Objective: To evaluate the mother's knowledge on Breast feeding and Weaning practice of Parbatipur Upazilla, Dinajpur. Methods: This is a cross sectional type of descriptive study conducted in Parbatipur Upazilla, Dinajpur among 316 mothers by the purposive sampling method. Result: This study showed that among 316 mothers 201(63.6%) are less than 25 years,111(35.1%) are 25-35 years and rest 4(1.3%) mothers are more than 35 years. About 197(62.34%) mothers have undergone normal delivery and 119(37.66%) mothers have undergone cesarean-section. Among 316 mothers, 35(11.1%) mother don't have adequate knowledge about breast feeding and 281(88.9%) mothers have adequate knowledge about breast feeding. About 301(95.3%) mothers believe that best nutrition for the baby is Breast milk and rest 15(4.7%) believe that other artificial foods are the best nutrition for the baby. About255(80.7%) mothers are aware of the advantages of breast milk for the baby and other 61(19.3%) mothers are unaware of the advantages of breast milk. 255(80.7%) mothers know about initiation of breast feeding and 61(19.3%) mothers don't know about initiation of breastfeeding. 271(85.8%) mothers know about the duration of exclusive breastfeeding, 45(14.2%) mothers don't know about the duration of exclusive breast feeding.239(75.6%) mothers know about the importance of Colostrum and 77(24.4%) mothers don't know about the importance of Colostrum. Conclusion: Majority of the respondents are familiar with breast feeding and weaning practice.Itseems that mothers are quite progressive about the issue.
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Are There Benefits to Breastfeeding for Long Durations That Continue after Breastfeeding Has Stopped? An Analysis of Acute Respiratory Illness in Nigerian Children
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
Background: While an abundance of evidence exists regarding infectious outcomes in children as they relate to the short-term benefits of breastfeeding, there is limited evidence related to similar impacts beyond one year and after breastfeeding has stopped. Specifically, little is known about the long-term benefits of breastfeeding for acute health outcomes after infancy, particularly in Nigeria. Methods: The Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey data was used in this study. We utilized data (n = 5391) on children who had stopped breastfeeding for at least 12 months before the survey. Breastfeeding duration was categorized into 1–6 months, 7–12 months, 13–18 months, 18–24 months, and > 24 months. Any recent incident of acute respiratory illness in children was operationalized using the responses to related questions (recent incidents of fever, cough, running nose, and short, rapid, or difficulty breathing in children). Adjusted logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios, and statistical significance was determined at p ≤ 0.05. Results: Post-infancy and after breastfeeding had stopped, the odds of recent acute respiratory illness were significantly less (AOR = 0.37, 95% CI [0.15–0.79], p = 0.04) in children breastfed for 19–24 months compared to those breastfed for 1–6 months. No significant association was found between the other durations and ARI post-infancy (p > 0.05). Conclusions: These findings indicate that breastfeeding for up to 24 months has a long-term protective effect from an acute health condition that contributes to the high under-five mortality rates recorded for decades in Nigeria specifically, and more broadly, in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Association Between Prepregnancy Body Mass Index and Newborn Breastfeeding Initiation
Article
  • Mar 2024
Background: The benefits of breastfeeding a newborn are well documented. Identification of mothers who do not initiate breastfeeding is essential for developing initiatives to improve breastfeeding initiation. Methods: The study used data from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) National Vital Statistics System (NVSS) birth certificate data (2014-2021) to identifying 15,599,930 in-hospital deliveries. We used multivariable logistic regression to assess the association between seven body mass index (BMI) categories and initiation of breastfeeding before hospital discharge. Prepregnancy BMI (weight in kilograms/height in meters2) included underweight (<18.5), healthy weight (18.5-24.9), overweight (25.0-29.9), Obesity Class I (30-34.9), Obesity Class II (35-39.9), and Obesity Class III (40-49.9) classes, in addition to a class newly identified in the literature as super obese (≥50), hereafter "Obesity Class IV." "This project was deemed non-human subjects research." Results: Approximately, 83% of mothers initiated breastfeeding before hospital discharge. Compared to mothers with a healthy prepregnancy BMI, the likelihood of breastfeeding initiation before hospital discharge decreased with increasing prepregnancy BMI. Specifically, we found reduced likelihood of initiation for mothers who were overweight (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.952, 95% confidence interval [CI]: [0.948-0.955]), Obesity Class I (aOR: 0.884, 95% CI: [0.880-0.888]), Obesity Class II (aOR: 0.816, 95% CI: [0.811-0.820]), Obesity Class III (aOR: 0.750, 95% CI: [0.745-0.755]), and Obesity Class IV (aOR 0.672: 95% CI: [0.662-0.683]). Conclusions: Mothers with prepregnancy BMI above the healthy range had reduced likelihood of initiating breastfeeding prior hospital discharge. This information should be used to develop and initiate interventions for mothers who wish to breastfeed but may need additional lactation assistance support.
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Routledge Handbook of Sustainable Diets
Book
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
This handbook presents a must-read, comprehensive and state of the art overview of sustainable diets, an issue critical to the environment and the health and well-being of society. Sustainable diets seek to minimise and mitigate the significant negative impact food production has on the environment. Simultaneously they aim to address worrying health trends in food consumption through the promotion of healthy diets that reduce premature disability, disease and death. Within the Routledge Handbook of Sustainable Diets, creative, compassionate, critical, and collaborative solutions are called for across nations, across disciplines and sectors. In order to address these wide-ranging issues the volume is split into sections dealing with environmental strategies, health and well-being, education and public engagement, social policies and food environments, transformations and food movements, economics and trade, design and measurement mechanisms and food sovereignty. Comprising of contributions from up and coming and established academics, the handbook provides a global, multi-disciplinary assessment of sustainable diets, drawing on case studies from regions across the world. The handbook concludes with a call to action, which provides readers with a comprehensive map of strategies that could dramatically increase sustainability and help to reverse global warming, diet related non-communicable diseases, and oppression and racism. This decisive collection is essential reading for students, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers concerned with promoting sustainable diets and thus establishing a sustainable food system to ensure access to healthy and nutritious food for all.
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Inspiring sustainable diets
Chapter
Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Inspiring sustainable diets and cultivating diets that are inspiring are the ambitious endeavours of this collection. This introductory chapter lays out a framework for sustainable diets and the complex issues, diversity of stakeholders, and diversity of levels of privilege (or the obvious, and not so obvious, ways injustices intersect with food systems) that are involved. This chapter offers a definition of sustainable diets and touches on strategies for increasing healthy food for all while preserving and rebuilding local, regional, and international food systems inspired by principles of rejuvenation, justice, vitality, and optimising resources for the betterment of all life forms, in current and future generations.
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Effect of Dill Seed Tea on Lactation Among Postnatal Mothers Admitted in Tertiary Care Hospital
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2023
Breastfeeding is the most beneficial initial nourishment for newborns in terms of health outcomes. Galactagogues are substances that aid in increasing milk production. Galactagogues include herbs such as dill seeds, fenugreek, as well as medications like metoclopramide and domperidone. The objective of this study was to assess the effectiveness of dill seeds tea in promoting lactation among postnatal mothers admitted to a tertiary care hospital. A quasi-experimental research design with a quantitative approach was employed, and data was collected using a convenient sampling technique from 60 postnatal mothers, with 30 participants assigned to the quasi-experimental group and 30 to the control group. The quasi-experimental group received dill seeds tea in the morning for five days, consisting of 1 teaspoon of dill seeds, 200 ml of water, 1 teaspoon of jaggery, and half a teaspoon of cow ghee. The sample selection followed specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. The research tools utilized in the study included a questionnaire to gather demographic and obstetrical data, as well as a Likert scale to assess breastfeeding adequacy in postnatal mothers. The study results revealed that during the pre-test, the majority of the control group (86.7%) experienced inadequate lactation, while 13.3% had satisfactory lactation. In the experimental group, the majority (93.3%) had inadequate lactation, with only 6.7% experiencing satisfactory lactation. During the post-test, the control group had a majority of 76.7% with inadequate lactation. In contrast, the experimental group had 80% with adequate lactation and 20% with satisfactory lactation. The study’s findings indicate that the majority of postnatal mothers in both the experimental and control groups initially experienced insufficient breast milk production, but after receiving dill seeds tea, lactation improved among the postnatal mothers. Therefore, it can be concluded that dill seeds tea was effective in enhancing lactation in postnatal mothers.
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Breast-feeding and Diarrheal Morbidity
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1991
This study used a unique longitudinal survey of more than 3000 mother-infant pairs observed from pregnancy through infancy. The sample is representative of infants from the Cebu region of the Philippines. The sequencing of breast-feeding and diarrheal morbidity events was carefully examined in a longitudinal analysis which allowed for the examination of age-specific effects of feeding patterns. Because the work controlled for a wide range of environmental causes of diarrhea, the results can be generalized to other populations with some confidence. The addition to the breast-milk diet of even water, teas, and other nonnutritive liquids doubled or tripled the likelihood of diarrhea. Supplementation of breast-feeding with additional nutritive foods or liquids further increased significantly the risk of diarrhea; most benefits of breast-feeding alone or in combination with nutritive foods/liquids became small during the second half of infancy. Benefits of breast-feeding were slightly greater in urban environments.
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Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media
Article
  • May 1993
Objective. This study was designed to assess the relation of exclusive breast-feeding, independent of recognized risk factors, to acute and recurrent otitis media in the first 12 months of life. Methods. Records of 1220 infants who used a health maintenance organization and who were followed during their first year of life as part of the Tucson Children's Respiratory Study were reviewed. Detailed prospective information about the duration and exclusiveness of breast-feeding was obtained, as was information relative to potential risk factors (socioeconomic status, gender, number of siblings, use of day care, maternal smoking, and family history of allergy). Acute otitis media and recurrent otitis media, defined as three or more episodes of acute otitis media in a 6-month period or four episodes in 12 months, were the outcome variables. Results. Of the 1013 infants followed for their entire first year, 476 (47%) had at least one episode of otitis and 169 (17%) had recurrent otitis media. Infants exclusively breast-fed for 4 or more months had half the mean number of acute otitis media episodes as did those not breast-fed at all and 40% less than those infants whose diets were supplemented with other foods prior to 4 months. The recurrent otitis media rate in infants exclusively breast-fed for 6 months or more was 10% and was 20.5% in those infants who breast-fed for less than 4 months. This protection was independent of the risk factors considered. Conclusion. These findings suggest that exclusive breast-feeding of 4 or more months protected infants from single and recurrent episodes of otitis media.
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Reproductive correlates of bone mass in elderly women
Article
  • Aug 1993
Results from previous studies of reproductive factors and bone density have been conflicting; some demonstrate a beneficial effect, but others show a detrimental effect on bone density. The present study investigates the association of parity, lactation, and menstruation with radial bone density in 2230 white women, 65 years of age and older. Bone density was assessed by single-photon absorptiometry. Linear multiple regression was utilized to determine if reproductive factors were associated with radial bone density. The number of births, duration of menstrual bleeding, age at menarche, and years menstruating were significant independent predictors of postmenopausal bone density of the radius. A 1.4% increase in distal radius bone density was observed with each additional birth. Women who began menstruation at age 9 had 6.3% higher bone density than women who began at age 16. Women who menstruated for 3 days during each menstrual cycle had 2.8% less distal radius bone density than women who bled for 7 days. Each decade of menstruation was associated with a 2% greater distal radius bone density. No difference in bone density was demonstrated for women who breast-fed and women who did not. Length of the menstrual cycle, amount of menstrual flow, and irregularity of the menstrual cycle were not significantly associated with radial bone mineral density. In conclusion, pregnancy and menstruation are associated with postmenopausal bone density of the radius.
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Lactation and the Risk of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer
Article
  • Apr 1993
The relationship between lactation and the development of epithelial ovarian cancer was assessed in data from seven countries that were collected for a multinational hospital-based case-control study conducted between 1979 and 1988. Three hundred and ninety-three cases of ovarian cancer were compared to 2565 controls matched on age, hospital, and year of interview. A non-significant reduction in risk with short-term lactation was observed but no further reduction in risk was seen with long-term lactation. The reduction in risk associated with months of lactation was not as great as the reduction with months of pregnancy, which may be a result of lactation being a less effective form of ovulation suppression than pregnancy. The short-term lactation that takes place in developed countries, may provide as great a reduction in risk as the long-term lactation practised in the developing countries included in this study.
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Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Pre-Term
Article
  • Mar 1992
There is considerable controversy over whether nutrition in early life has a long-term influence on neurodevelopment. We have shown previously that, in preterm infants, mother's choice to provide breast milk was associated with higher developmental scores at 18 months. We now report data on intelligence quotient (IQ) in the same children seen at 7 1/2-8 years. IQ was assessed in 300 children with an abbreviated version of the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (revised Anglicised). Children who had consumed mother's milk in the early weeks of life had a significantly higher IQ at 7 1/2-8 years than did those who received no maternal milk. An 8.3 point advantage (over half a standard deviation) in IQ remained even after adjustment for differences between groups in mother's education and social class (p less than 0.0001). This advantage was associated with being fed mother's milk by tube rather than with the process of breastfeeding. There was a dose-response relation between the proportion of mother's milk in the diet and subsequent IQ. Children whose mothers chose to provide milk but failed to do so had the same IQ as those whose mothers elected not to provide breast milk. Although these results could be explained by differences between groups in parenting skills or genetic potential (even after adjustment for social and educational factors), our data point to a beneficial effect of human milk on neurodevelopment.
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Pregnancy and Lactation as Determinants of Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Women
Article
  • Dec 1992
  • AM J EPIDEMIOL
The relation of pregnancy and breast feeding to bone mineral density of the wrist, radius, hip, and spine was examined in a white, upper middle-class, homogeneous sample of 741 postmenopausal women ranging in age from 60 to 89 years. Number of pregnancies ranged from 0 to 14, with a mean of 2.0 pregnancies and 1.5 live births. Almost two thirds of the women who had had a live birth reported breast feeding. Unadjusted comparisons indicated that bone mineral density of the wrist, radius, and hip increased with increasing numbers of pregnancies, and women who had breast-fed had higher bone mineral densities at these sites. However, after adjustment for age or age and body mass index, these associations were no longer significant. Multiple regression analyses adjusted for age, age at menopause, obesity, cigarette smoking, and estrogen and thiazide use also indicated that number of pregnancies and breast feeding were not significantly associated with bone mineral density at any of the four sites measured. Results of the present study suggest that reproductive history and breast feeding are not long-term determinants of bone mineral density.
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Protective effect of breast feeding against infection
Article
  • Feb 1990
To assess the relations between breast feeding and infant illness in the first two years of life with particular reference to gastrointestinal disease. Prospective observational study of mothers and babies followed up for 24 months after birth. Community setting in Dundee. 750 pairs of mothers and infants, 76 of whom were excluded because the babies were preterm (less than 38 weeks), low birth weight (less than 2500 g), or treated in special care for more than 48 hours. Of the remaining cohort of 674, 618 were followed up for two years. Detailed observations of infant feeding and illness were made at two weeks, and one, two, three, four, five, six, nine, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 months by health visitors. The prevalence of gastrointestinal disease in infants during follow up. After confounding variables were corrected for babies who were breast fed for 13 weeks or more (227) had significantly less gastrointestinal illness than those who were bottle fed from birth (267) at ages 0-13 weeks (p less than 0.01; 95% confidence interval for reduction in incidence 6.6% to 16.8%), 14-26 weeks (p less than 0.01), 27-39 weeks (p less than 0.05), and 40-52 weeks (p less than 0.05). This reduction in illness was found whether or not supplements were introduced before 13 weeks, was maintained beyond the period of breast feeding itself, and was accompanied by a reduction in the rate of hospital admission. By contrast, babies who were breast fed for less than 13 weeks (180) had rates of gastrointestinal illness similar to those observed in bottle fed babies. Smaller reductions in the rates of respiratory illness were observed at ages 0-13 and 40-52 weeks (p less than 0.05) in babies who were breast fed for more than 13 weeks. There was no consistent protective effect of breast feeding against ear, eye, mouth, or skin infections, infantile colic, eczema, or nappy rash. Breast feeding during the first 13 weeks of life confers protection against gastrointestinal illness that persists beyond the period of breast feeding itself.
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Failure of delayed oral feedings to prevent necrotizing enterocolitis. Results of study in very-low-birth-weight neonates
Article
  • May 1985
  • Am J Dis Child
To test the hypothesis that delayed oral feedings would lower the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) in neonates weighing less than 1,500 g at birth, we compared the incidence of NEC in two matched groups of newborns. High-risk neonates were selected from 160 consecutive admissions, based on a cumulative risk scoring of their illness during the first three days of life. One group (N = 20) was given no oral feedings for two weeks, receiving nutrition parenterally, while the other (N = 18) was given incremental enteric feedings of dilute infant formula or breast milk during the first two weeks of life. The overall incidence of NEC in the parenterally fed group was 60% (12/20) compared with 22% (4/18) in the early-oral-feeding group. These data show that withholding oral feedings for two weeks postnatally does not lower the incidence of NEC and in fact may promote its occurrence.
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The Effect of Early Initiation of Colostrum Feeding on Proliferation of Intestinal Bacteria in Neonates
Article
  • Feb 1982
One hundred eighty normal neonates with an average weight above 2.50 kg and having no feeding difficulties were divided into two groups and randomly assigned to either colostrum or to glucose water feeding regimens during the 3-day stay at the maternity ward. The effects of the feeding regimens on intestinal colonization were studied by examining the stools of the neonates. All bacteria recovered were identified quantitatively and biochemically. Of the 180 mothers, 105 complied with the instructions on feeding regimens. The majority of the neonates receiving colostrum had significantly lower bacterial counts than those on glucose water (p less than 0.001). The results of the preliminary study indicated that early initiation of colostrum feeding to neonates where potable water is not readily available will suppress the proliferation of bacteria in the neonates.
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A prospective cohort study on breast-feeding and otitis media in Sweden
Article
  • Apr 1994
This study analyzed the effect of breast-feeding on the frequency of acute otitis media. The protocol was designed to examine each child at 2, 6 and 10 months of age. At each visit nasopharyngeal cultures were obtained, the feeding pattern was recorded and the acute otitis media (AOM) episodes were documented. The analysis was based on 400 children from whom complete information was obtained. They represented 83% of the newborns in the study areas. By 1 year of age 85 (21%) children had experienced 111 AOM episodes; 63 (16%) had 1 and 22 (6%) had 2 or more episodes. The AOM frequency was significantly lower in the breast-fed than in the non-breast-fed children in each age group (P < 0.05). The first AOM episode occurred significantly earlier in children who were weaned before 6 months of age than in the remaining groups. The frequency of nasopharyngeal cultures positive for Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis and Streptococcus pneumoniae was significantly higher in children with AOM. At 4 to 7 and 8 to 12 months of age, the AOM frequency was significantly higher in children with day-care contact and siblings (P < 0.05 and < 0.01, respectively). The frequency of upper respiratory tract infections was increased in children with AOM but significantly reduced in the breast-fed group.
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