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Benefits of Breastfeeding

DOI:10.1071/NB05011
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Jane Allen
Jane Allen
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Debra J Hector
Debra J Hector
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Abstract

Summary of 60 surveys carried out in the last 15 years, showing the benefits of breastfeeding for the child's health (less otitis, pneumonia, diarrhea, meningitis, allergies, etc.) and for the mother's health (lesser risk of breast can- cer, ovarian cancer, osteoporosis, fractured hips), as well as psycochosocial and money saving aspects.
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46
VENTAJAS DE LA LACTANCIA
MATERNA PARA EL BEBÉ
Nutrición óptima
La leche materna proporciona nutrientes de alta cali-
dad que el bebé absorbe fácilmente y utiliza con efica-
cia. La leche también contiene todo el agua que el bebé
necesita. No requiere ningún otro líquido.
La leche materna es un fluido cambiante, que se
adapta a las necesidades del bebé.
La composición de la leche depende de la edad
gestacional (la leche prematura es diferente de la leche
a término), de la fase de la lactancia (el calostro es dis-
tinto de la leche de transición o de la madura, que sigue
cambiando con el tiempo), y del momento de la mama-
da (la leche inicial es distinta de la leche final, que tiene
una concentración mayor de lípidos).
El calostro tiene cualidades especiales, y es muy
importante para el lactante, por su efecto en el desarro-
llo, la digestión y la inmunidad
48
.
Normalmente, la leche materna sigue siendo una
fuente importante de energía y nutrientes de gran cali-
dad durante el segundo año de edad y después.
La leche materna puede proporcionar hasta un ter-
cio de la energía y proteínas que necesita un niño duran-
te el segundo año.
Inmunidad
La leche materna es un líquido vivo, que protege al
lactante contra las infecciones por su contenido en célu-
las, factores antiinflamatorios, factores específicos, anti-
bacterianos, antivíricos y antiprotozoarios y por la natu-
raleza interactiva de las inmunoglobulinas IgA.
La leche materna es potenciadora de la inmuni-
dad
49
.
Durante el primer año, el lactante depende de su
madre para luchar contra las infecciones porque su pro-
pio sistema inmunitario no está completamente desarro-
llado.
La OMS recomienda dar el pecho dos años o más,
y los primeros 6 meses de forma exclusiva.
Los efectos de la lactancia materna para la salud se
prolongan años después del destete
62
.
Reunidos en 1998 expertos de la OMS para estudiar
los efectos de las dioxinas en la leche humana, su con-
clusión fue que los datos disponibles no dan motivos para
Ventajas de la lactancia materna
María Jesús Blázquez García
Bióloga, Catedrática del I.E.S. «Félix de Azara» de Zaragoza
Socia fundadora de la Asociación de Madres «Vía Láctea»
RESUMEN:
De más de 60 estudios realizados en los últimos años, que demuestran las ventajas de la lactancia materna para la salud
del lactante (menos otitis, neumonías, diarreas, meningitis, alergias, etc.) y para la salud de la madre (reducción del ries-
go de cáncer de mama, de ovario, osteoporosis, fractura de cadera...). Así como los aspectos psicosociales y de ahorro
económico asociados a la lactancia materna.
Palabras clave: Inmunidad-lactancia materna, salud de la madre, salud del lactante.
The benefits of breastfeeding
ABSTRACT:
Summary of 60 surveys carried out in the last 15 years, showing the benefits of breastfeeding for the child’s health
(less otitis, pneumonia, diarrhea, meningitis, allergies, etc.) and for the mother’s health (lesser risk of breast can-
cer, ovarian cancer, osteoporosis, fractured hips), as well as psycochosocial and money saving aspects.
Key words: Immunity, breastfeeding, mother’s health, child’s health.
44
MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
I.S.S.N.: 1576-3080
MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
45
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
47
modificar las recomendaciones de la OMS que protegen
y apoyan la lactancia materna. Más información en la
página de la OMS, en internet: sum/exe-sum-final.html
En las últimas décadas se ha demostrado, en paí-
ses desarrollados, que los niños de pecho tienen menos
otitis, neumonías, diarreas, meningitis, alergias... etc.
Todos estos niños ya estaban tomando leche conta-
minada con dioxinas, lo que demuestra que las ventajas
de la lactancia materna superan ampliamente a los posi-
bles riesgos de las dioxinas
26, 27, 4, 37
.
Menor riesgo de diarrea
Un estudio en Filipinas mostró que la lactancia arti-
ficial se asociaba a un riesgo hasta 17 veces mayor de
diarrea que la lactancia materna exclusiva.
Los que recibían lactancia mixta tenían un riesgo de
sufrir diarrea superior a los que tomaban sólo el pecho,
pero inferior al de los que no recibían leche materna
55
.
Un estudio en Dundee, Escocia, encontró que los
niños amamantados tenían muchas menos diarreas.
Por ejemplo, entre 0 y 13 semanas de edad casi el
20% de los niños con lactancia artificial tuvieron diarrea,
frente a sólo el 3,6% de los que tomaban el pecho
24
.
Menor riesgo de infección respiratoria
Los bebés con lactancia artificial tienen un riesgo
hasta 3 ó 4 veces mayor de morir por pulmonía que los
que sólo tomaban el pecho.
Un estudio en Brasil encontró que los niños con lac-
tancia artificial tenían un riesgo cuatro veces de morir de
pulmonía que los que tomaban el pecho
61
.
Menor riesgo de otitis y meningitis
En Suecia, se encontró que los niños tenían menos
otitis con lactancia materna que con lactancia artificial. Por
ejemplo, entre 1 y 3 meses de edad, el 6% de los niños
que ya habían sido destetados, tenían otitis media frente
a sólo un 1% de los amamantados
1, 13, 14
.
Menos enfermedad atópica (cuando
hay antecedentes familiares de atopía)
Menos eccema
41, 59
.
Menor riesgo de dificultades respiratorias
(asma)
7, 59, 65
Menor riesgo de enfermedades autoinmunes. Dia-
betes
29, 44, 50
.
Menor riesgo de infecciones del tracto urinario
43, 51
.
Menor riesgo de infecciones gastrointestinales
23
.
Menor riesgo de mortalidad infantil por enterocolitis
necrosante en prematuros. La incidencia fue de 6 a 10
veces más alta entre los que recibieron sólo leche artifi-
cial que entre los que tomaban lactancia materna exclu-
siva. Según un estudio multicéntrico realizado con 926
lactantes
35, 39
.
Menor riesgo de muerte súbita infantil
16
.
Menor riesgo de padecer:
— Maoclusión dentaria
34
.
— Linfoma
12, 19
.
— Enfermedad inflamatoria intestinal
9
.
— Enfermedad cardiaca coronaria
3
.
— Enfermedad tiroidea autoinmune
17
.
— Enfermedad de Crohn
31
.
— Celiaquía (retraso en la aparición)
30
.
— Tetania neonatal
60
.
— Esclerosis múltiple
52
.
— Apendicitis
53
.
VENTAJAS DE LA LACTANCIA
MATERNA PARA EL HOSPITAL
La lactancia materna crea un clima de calma y calor
emocional. Los lactantes lloran menos y están más tran-
quilos y las madres pueden responder más fácilmente a
sus necesidades.
Cuando hay alojamiento conjunto, disminuyen las
infecciones neonatales.
La lactancia materna previene la tristeza de la soledad.
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
46 MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
48
En Suecia el 98% de los hospitales ofrece aloja-
miento conjunto de la madre y su bebé.
La necesidad de medicamentos para la madre no
interfiere necesariamente con la lactancia materna
28
.
ASPECTOS PSICOSOCIALES
La lactancia materna favorece el vínculo madre-hijo,
hija.
El estrecho contacto inmediatamente después del
parto, fomenta el desarrollo del amor mutuo.
Los bebés lloran menos y las madres responden
mejor a las necesidades de sus hijos.
La leche materna favorece el desarrollo mental e
intelectual.
Los prematuros que han tomado leche materna en
las primeras semanas, obtienen años más tarde mejo-
res puntuaciones en pruebas de inteligencia que los que
recibieron leche artificial
40, 41, 42
.
En niños a término, mayor inteligencia (desarrollo
cognitivo), si han sido amamantados
54, 56, 57
.
La lactancia materna favorece el desarrollo visual
5
.
VENTAJAS DE LA LACTANCIA
MATERNA PARA LA MADRE
Pérdida de peso de la madre y reducción en la cir-
cunferencia de cadera
32
.
Reduce la hemorragia postparto y acelera la recu-
peración del útero debido a la liberación de oxitocina
durante la lactancia.
Dar el pecho reduce el riesgo de cáncer de
mama
38
.
Un estudio multicéntrico en Estados Unidos, en
cuatro estados del Este, encontró que el riesgo relati-
vo de cáncer de mama en mujeres premenopáusicas
era inversamente proporcional a la duración de la lac-
tancia
45, 46
.
Dar el pecho reduce el riesgo de cáncer de ova-
rio
22, 58
.
Un estudio multinacional en Australia, Chile, China,
Israel, Méjico, Filipinas y Tailandia encontró que el ries-
go relativo de cáncer de ovario era menor cuando la
duración de la lactancia era mayor
22
.
La lactancia materna protege a la madre contra la
osteoporosis y la fractura de cadera en edad avanza-
da
11, 15, 18, 33
.
La lactancia materna disminuye el riesgo de artritis
reumatoide
8
.
AHORRO ECONÓMICO ASOCIADO
A LA LACTANCIA MATERNA
Ahorro para la familia
El porcentaje del salario medio o mínimo necesario
para suplementar la dieta de la madre lactante, es muy
inferior al que se necesita para adquirir sucedáneos de
la leche materna
6, 47, 63
.
DIEZ PASOS HACIA UNA LACTANCIA NATURAL
Todos los servicios de maternidad y atención a los recién nacidos deberán:
1. Disponer de una política por escrito relativa a la lactancia natural, conocida por todo el personal del Centro.
2. Capacitar a todo el personal para llevar a cabo esa política.
3. Informar a las embarazadas de los beneficios de la lactancia materna y cómo realizarla.
4. Ayudar a las madres a iniciar la lactancia en la media hora siguiente al parto.
5. Mostrar a la madre cómo se debe dar de mamar al niño-a y cómo mantener la lactación incluso si se ha de
separar del niño-a.
6. No dar a los recién nacidos más que leche materna.
7. Facilitar la cohabitación de la madre y el bebé 24 horas al día.
8. Fomentar la lactancia a demanda.
9. No dar a los niños-as alimentados a pecho chupetes.
10. Fomentar el establecimiento de grupos de apoyo a la lactancia materna y procurar que las madres se pongan
en contacto con ellos.
Declaración conjunta OMS-UNICEF año 1989
MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
47
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
49
“Dar el pecho es una parte íntegra en el proceso de la reproducción,
la manera idónea de alimentar al recién nacido y una base biológica
y emocional única para el desarrollo del niño y de la niña.”
OMS
La gama amplia
de vitaminas y minerales,
fórmulas compuestas.
One a day. 1 comp. al día.
Liberación sostenida.
(de 6 a 8 h. de liberación).
Altas concentraciones
Sin colorantes artificiales ni conservantes
LIVE A HEALTHIER LIFE
Distribuidor de Vitalife
Fórmulas libres de Gluten, Trigo, Levaduras,
Lactosa, etc. Tolerados por vegetarianos
y algunos por vegetalianos
(Ver etiqueta identificativa)
Productos elaborados y envasados
en el Reino Unido bajo extrictas
normas Oficiales G.M.P.
La morbilidad en hijos de madres que trabajan es la
mitad en los que reciben lactancia materna que en los
que reciben artificial
10
.
Ahorro para el sistema de salud
Se reduce a la mitad el costo comparado del trata-
miento durante el primer año de niños con lactancia
materna con respecto a la lactancia artificial, debido al
menor número de hospitalizaciones
23, 25
.
La lactancia materna ayuda a la contención del
gasto a nivel nacional
21, 63
.
Basándose en los datos de estudios ya publicados
sobre la lactancia materna exclusiva hasta los tres
meses y la menor incidencia de enfermedades respi-
ratorias de vías bajas, gastroenteritis y otitis durante el
primer año, calcularon teóricamente lo que cuesta la
asistencia sanitaria en USA según el tipo de lactancia.
Entre 1.000 niños que no toman el pecho y otros 1.000
que toman lactancia materna exclusiva durante 3
meses, la diferencia sería de 60 episodios de enfer-
medad respiratoria, 580 de otitis media y 1.053 de
gastroenteritis durante el primer año, que generarían
2.033 visitas al médico, 212 días de hospitalización,
609 recetas y 51 radiografías, por un precio total para
el prestador de servicios de más de 51 millones de
ptas. Sólo con tres meses de lactancia, sólo en tres
enfermedades y sólo en costos médicos directos
2
.
Hazle caso, sólo él sabe cuándo tiene bastante.
MARÍA JESÚS BLÁZQUEZ GARCÍA, Ventajas de la lactancia materna
48 MEDICINA NATURISTA, 2000; N.º 1: 44-49
50
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... However, once breast milk, is subjected to heat treatment including freezing, the proteins contained in breast milk no longer feature the same bio-activity characteristics. Breast milk is a dynamic body fluid, and it changes from colostrum to late lactation milk stages in all developmental phases from the birth of the infant through each feeding, each day, and differs by mother (Allen and Hector 2005). ...
... Breast milk has particularly been proven to have an important role in preventing neonatal and childhood infections in both underdeveloped and developed countries. However, the recent studies have indicated that breast milk protect individuals from a plurality of disorders in increased ages and in the long term (Allen and Hector, 2005). ...
... Recently, it was found out that breast milk also protects infants against urinary system infections. (Allen and Hector 2005). In a prospective study conducted in Sweden, it was seen that the rate of pyelonephritis cases in the infants fed with breast milk for a long period of time, particularly until the first seven months was less than that of the infants fed with formulas. ...
Benefits of Breastfeeding for Infant and Maternal Health
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... The Research Ethics Committee of the University of Health and Allied Sciences approved the study protocol for the data collection (UHAS-RECA. 12 [171]21-21) on the 21st of July 2021. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual mothers after providing them with adequate explanations regarding the aims of the study. ...
... This nding is not different from Smith & Forrester, (2013) where exclusive breastfeeding was said to minimize public health costs (11). Similarly, Allen & Hector, (2005) reported that exclusive breastfeeding is associated with several health bene ts (12) and this is consistent with a study by Couto et al., (2020), an integrative review, also reported that exclusive breastfeeding has a signi cant array of health bene ts for both the mother and baby (13). ...
... This nding is not different from Smith & Forrester, (2013) where exclusive breastfeeding was said to minimize public health costs (11). Similarly, Allen & Hector, (2005) reported that exclusive breastfeeding is associated with several health bene ts (12) and this is consistent with a study by Couto et al., (2020), an integrative review, also reported that exclusive breastfeeding has a signi cant array of health bene ts for both the mother and baby (13). ...
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Full-text available
  • Jul 2022
Background In Ghana, only 52% of mothers exclusively breastfeed their babies and the rate of increase has been steadily slow across all geographical areas of Ghana. The purpose of this study was to determine the various factors that influence exclusive breastfeeding among mothers who visited the child welfare clinic at the Tema General Hospital. Methodology This descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out at the Child Welfare Clinic of the Tema General Hospital. A random sampling technique was used to recruit mothers with children between the ages of 6 months and 24 months attending the Child Welfare Clinic. Mothers were interviewed with the aid of a structured questionnaire. Results About 65.8% of mothers exclusively breastfed their infants for six months. Mothers who had good knowledge of exclusive breastfeeding had 96.3% increased odds of exclusively breastfeeding their babies (COR: 0.037, p < 0.001, CI = 95%). Also, mothers whose spouses complained of exclusively breastfeeding had decreased odds (COR: 0.205, p < 0.001, CI = 95%). Finally, mothers who had poor attitudes towards exclusive breastfeeding were 8.733 times less likely to exclusively breastfeed their babies for six months (COR = 8.733, p < 0.001, CI = 95%). Conclusions High rate of exclusive breastfeeding among mothers who visited the child welfare clinic was found. The level of knowledge and attitude of the mothers towards exclusive breastfeeding significantly influenced the six months practice of exclusive breastfeeding. Spouses also showed a high influence on whether or not mothers should exclusively breastfeed their babies.
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... 1 Consistent evidence supports multiple short term and long term health risks to both children and mothers when substitutes such as infant formula are used. [2][3][4][5] Decisions about infant feeding can be influenced by a range of medical, socio-political, and psychological factors; however, the marketing of infant formula is an important factor that can undermine breastfeeding. 6 research by the World Health Organization and United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (Unicef) highlighted how "pervasive, personalised and powerful" the marketing of infant formula can be, with personal data on digital platforms being used to refine strategies. ...
... (2) 1(1) 11(4) on 16 February 2023 by guest. Protected by copyright. ...
Health and nutrition claims for infant formula: international cross sectional survey
Article
Full-text available
Objectives To review available health and nutrition claims for infant formula products in multiple countries and to evaluate the validity of the evidence used for substantiation of claims. Design International cross sectional survey. Setting Public facing and healthcare professional facing company owned or company managed formula industry websites providing information about products marketed for healthy infants delivered at full term in 15 countries: Australia, Canada, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States in 2020-22. Main outcome measures Number and type of claims made for each product and ingredient. References cited were reviewed and risk of bias was assessed for registered clinical trials using the Cochrane risk of bias tool, and for systematic reviews using the Risk Of Bias in Systematic reviews tool. Results 757 infant formula products were identified, each with a median of two claims (range from 1 (Australia) to 4 (US)), and 31 types of claims across all products. Of 608 products with ≥1 claims, the most common claim types were “helps/supports development of brain and/or eyes and/or nervous system” (323 (53%) products, 13 ingredients), “strengthens/supports a healthy immune system” (239 (39%) products, 12 ingredients), and “helps/supports growth and development” (224 (37%) products, 20 ingredients). 41 groups of ingredients were associated with ≥1claims, but many claims were made without reference to a specific ingredient (307 (50%) products). The most common groups of ingredients cited in claims were long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (278 (46%) products, 9 different claims); prebiotics, probiotics, or synbiotics (225 (37%) products, 19 claims); and hydrolysed protein (120 (20%) products, 9 claims). 161/608 (26%) products with ≥1 claims provided a scientific reference to support the claim—266 unique references were cited for 24 different claim types for 161 products. The reference types most frequently cited were clinical trials (50%, 134/266) and reviews (20%, 52/266). 28% (38/134) of referenced clinical trials were registered, 14% (19/134) prospectively. 58 claims referred to 32 registered clinical trials, of which 51 claims (27 trials) related to a randomised comparison. 46 of 51 claims (90%) referenced registered clinical trial outcomes at high risk of bias, and all cited systematic reviews and pooled analyses, carried a high risk of bias. Conclusions Most infant formula products had at least one health and nutrition claim. Multiple ingredients were claimed to achieve similar health or nutrition effects, multiple claims were made for the same ingredient type, most products did not provide scientific references to support claims, and referenced claims were not supported by robust clinical trial evidence.
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... Allen J. and Hector D. in the year 2005, found breastfeeding to be protective against asthma and allergy but some other studies show no relation to breastfeeding and increased risk of asthma and atopic disease in children possible due to family history of allergy and asthma. [8] The study contradicted other studies as other factors also influence the occurrence of asthma. On correspondence, breastfeeding is still recommended to prevent asthma and atopic outcome. ...
... A recent meta-analysis demonstrated that six-months exclusive breastfeeding and long-term breastfeeding reduces systolic blood pressure in older children. [8] This is a review study, so evidence from original research requires for justification. ...
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... As mothers that gave birth during the COVID-19 pandemic are more likely to experience breastfeeding problems because of higher odds of acute stress levels [44], their children are unable to profit from its advantages. These potential disadvantages should be emphasized, because breastfeeding is associated with various (health) benefits, including reduced risk of infectious and chronic diseases during the life course as well as better development of children's cognitive function [45,46]. From the current point of view, the WHO does not recommend these contact limitations for COVID-19-positive women as the benefits of breastfeeding and skin-to-skin contact outweigh the risk of transmission [38]. ...
Pregnancy Care during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Germany: A Public Health Lens
Article
Full-text available
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to various challenges in German health care, including pregnancy care. This paper aims to provide an overview of the pandemic-related challenges faced by pregnant women, new mothers, and their families in maternal and newborn care. A literature review was performed by including international literature as well as recommendations of institutions and official stakeholders. These challenges refer to restrictions at all stages of pregnancy, including wearing masks during labour, limitations of a companion of choice during birth, and restrictions of unvaccinated women from attending, e.g., antenatal classes. Compared with the general population, COVID-19 vaccination of pregnant women was recommended later, as pregnant women were initially excluded from clinical trials. Women who gave birth during the COVID-19 pandemic also reported mental health issues. The findings stress the importance of the inclusion of pregnant women in clinical trials. This might also help to overcome vaccine hesitancy among pregnant women and women seeking family planning. Taking the COVID-19 pandemic as an example, one must weigh the changes and restrictions associated with the potential disadvantages for mothers, newborns, and their families in pregnancy care against the measures to control the pandemic.
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... But with the growth of infants, the proportion of temperate phages in the infants with formula milk decreases more rapidly than those with the mixed feeding type. One possible reason is that breastfeeding can reduce the chance of infection by microbes [63][64][65] and thus, leading to relatively stable environments for the infants with access to breast milk. ...
PhaTYP: predicting the lifestyle for bacteriophages using BERT
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2022
Bacteriophages (or phages), which infect bacteria, have two distinct lifestyles: virulent and temperate. Predicting the lifestyle of phages helps decipher their interactions with their bacterial hosts, aiding phages’ applications in fields such as phage therapy. Because experimental methods for annotating the lifestyle of phages cannot keep pace with the fast accumulation of sequenced phages, computational method for predicting phages’ lifestyles has become an attractive alternative. Despite some promising results, computational lifestyle prediction remains difficult because of the limited known annotations and the sheer amount of sequenced phage contigs assembled from metagenomic data. In particular, most of the existing tools cannot precisely predict phages’ lifestyles for short contigs. In this work, we develop PhaTYP (Phage TYPe prediction tool) to improve the accuracy of lifestyle prediction on short contigs. We design two different training tasks, self-supervised and fine-tuning tasks, to overcome lifestyle prediction difficulties. We rigorously tested and compared PhaTYP with four state-of-the-art methods: DeePhage, PHACTS, PhagePred and BACPHLIP. The experimental results show that PhaTYP outperforms all these methods and achieves more stable performance on short contigs. In addition, we demonstrated the utility of PhaTYP for analyzing the phage lifestyle on human neonates’ gut data. This application shows that PhaTYP is a useful means for studying phages in metagenomic data and helps extend our understanding of microbial communities.
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... 83 Optimal breastfeeding is associated with recognizable short-term and long-term benefits ( Table 5) to the infant and mother. [103][104][105][106][107] The recent WHO recommendations on MNC strongly emphasized three care guidelines related to infant feeding, including breastfeeding to encourage positive postnatal experience, as stated in the following: 80 1. All newborns should receive exclusive breastfeeding from birth until 6 months postnatal. ...
Antenatal and Postnatal Care
Article
Optimal care during the antenatal and postnatal phases of the life cycle is a potentially positive determinant of health elsewhere in the continuum. A successful transition from the antenatal to the postnatal period requires early detection, optimal management, and prevention of disease; health promotion; birth preparedness; and complication readiness. Women, their babies, and families need appropriate evidence-based care based on their dignity and human rights before, during, and after birth. In this review, we present an overview of the components of antenatal and postnatal care needed to provide women a culturally sensitive and positive pregnancy and postnatal experience. The challenge of antenatal and postnatal care is determining their core components and underpinning them with evidence without overmedicalizing their practice.
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Investigating factors that influence the practice of exclusive breastfeeding among mothers in an urban general hospital in Ghana: a cross-sectional study Open Access
Article
Full-text available
Background: In Ghana, only 52% of mothers exclusively breastfeed their babies and the rate of increase has been steadily slow across all geographical areas of Ghana. The purpose of this study was to determine the various factors that influence exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) among mothers who visited the child welfare clinic at the Tema General Hospital, Accra, Ghana. Methodology: This descriptive cross-sectional study was carried out at the Child Welfare Clinic of the Tema General Hospital, Accra, Ghana. A random sampling technique was used to recruit mothers with children between the ages of 6 months and 24 months attending the Child Welfare Clinic. Mothers were interviewed with the aid of a structured questionnaire. Results: Out of the 222 of mothers interviewed, 68.8% of them exclusively breastfed their infants up to 6 months. Mothers who have good knowledge were more than 3 times (AOR = 3.484, 95% CI 1.200, 10.122, P = 0.022) likely to breastfeed their children exclusively. Those who had positive attitudes towards EBF were about 4 times (COR: 4.018, 95% = 1.444, 11.181, P = 0.008) more likely to exclusively breastfeed than those who had poor attitudes towards EBF. Also, mothers whose spouses complained about EBF were about 3 times (AOR: 2.655, 95% CI 0.620, 11.365, P = 0.018) at increased odds of not exclusively breastfeeding their babies. Conclusions: High rate of EBF among mothers who visited the child welfare clinic was found. The mothers' level of knowledge and attitude towards EBF significantly influenced the 6 months of EBF. Spouses also showed a high influence on whether or not mothers should exclusively breastfeed their babies.
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The Prevalence of Nonserious Events in a Cohort of Breastfed Infants
Article
  • Nov 2022
Introduction: Data on baseline rates of nonserious events in breastfed infants in the general population are sparse. This results in difficulty determining if there is an increase in infant nonserious events potentially due to prescription medication exposure through human milk. In this study, we determined the prevalence of nonserious events in infants consuming human milk whose mothers reported no exposure to any prescription medications, tobacco, or recreational drugs in the previous 14 days. Materials and Methods: Between August 2014 and December 2019, 487 breastfeeding mothers without any recent exposure to prescription medications, tobacco, or recreational drugs enrolled in the Human Milk Research Biorepository at the University of California, San Diego. Participants completed a semistructured telephone interview with trained research staff and provided information on maternal and child health, breastfeeding habits, recent medication, and lifestyle exposures, and completed a standard checklist of infant adverse reactions. Results: We found 131 (44.1%) participants reported one or more infant nonserious adverse events in the past 14 days at the time of their study interview. The most commonly reported nonserious events were rash (12.1%), irritability (9.4%), constipation (7.8%), poor sleep (7.1%), and fever (6.3%). Conclusions: These baseline frequencies provide a benchmark for rates of recent nonserious events in breastfed infants in the general population. These data can be used as a reference point for studies that examine adverse events in breastfed infants following maternal use of prescription medications or exposures due to other lifestyle habits such as tobacco or other substances. Clinical Trial Registration Number: NCT05553743.
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Early Investigation and Bracing in DDH Impacts Maternal Wellbeing and Breastfeeding
Article
Background: The outcomes of Pavlik Harness (PH) management for Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip (DDH) are equivalent regardless of the initiation timing, if it is within the first 6 weeks of life. A PH may be a physical barrier to breastfeeding, which is important for nutrition, immunity, and normal child development. The diagnosis of DDH and early management with a PH may also negatively affect the maternal psychosocial wellbeing and the infant-maternal relationship. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of the diagnosis of DDH and the management with a PH has on maternal wellbeing and maintenance of breastfeeding, compared with being screened for but not diagnosed with DDH. Methods: A retrospective cohort of the mothers of infants who were diagnosed with DDH and treated with a PH brace was compared with the mothers of infants who were screened for DDH only. The Hip Worries Inventory and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale were completed by the mothers in both groups. The PH group also completed an in-house questionnaire specific to PH and breastfeeding. Results: Eighty completed surveys were included, 50 from the treatment group. The mean age of the PH initiation was 6.2 weeks. The modified Hip Worries Inventory score was higher in the treatment group, with a mean difference (MD) of 9.7 out of 50 (95% confidence interval, CI, 6.8, 12.5). The MD of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was 2.0 out of 30 (CI -0.5, 4.5). Although there was no difference in the breastfeeding ease before and after the PH initiation (MD-0.2, CI-0.7, 0.2), 83% of mothers found breastfeeding more difficult with a PH and 11% of mothers stopped breastfeeding earlier than planned because of the PH. Conclusions: Mothers of infants with DDH worry more about their child's hips and the PH. Screening alone may contribute to maternal psychological dejection and negative thoughts. The presence of a PH makes breastfeeding more difficult. Level of evidence: Retrospective comparative study, level III.
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Breast-feeding and Diarrheal Morbidity
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 1991
This study used a unique longitudinal survey of more than 3000 mother-infant pairs observed from pregnancy through infancy. The sample is representative of infants from the Cebu region of the Philippines. The sequencing of breast-feeding and diarrheal morbidity events was carefully examined in a longitudinal analysis which allowed for the examination of age-specific effects of feeding patterns. Because the work controlled for a wide range of environmental causes of diarrhea, the results can be generalized to other populations with some confidence. The addition to the breast-milk diet of even water, teas, and other nonnutritive liquids doubled or tripled the likelihood of diarrhea. Supplementation of breast-feeding with additional nutritive foods or liquids further increased significantly the risk of diarrhea; most benefits of breast-feeding alone or in combination with nutritive foods/liquids became small during the second half of infancy. Benefits of breast-feeding were slightly greater in urban environments.
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Exclusive Breast-Feeding for at Least 4 Months Protects Against Otitis Media
Article
  • May 1993
Objective. This study was designed to assess the relation of exclusive breast-feeding, independent of recognized risk factors, to acute and recurrent otitis media in the first 12 months of life. Methods. Records of 1220 infants who used a health maintenance organization and who were followed during their first year of life as part of the Tucson Children's Respiratory Study were reviewed. Detailed prospective information about the duration and exclusiveness of breast-feeding was obtained, as was information relative to potential risk factors (socioeconomic status, gender, number of siblings, use of day care, maternal smoking, and family history of allergy). Acute otitis media and recurrent otitis media, defined as three or more episodes of acute otitis media in a 6-month period or four episodes in 12 months, were the outcome variables. Results. Of the 1013 infants followed for their entire first year, 476 (47%) had at least one episode of otitis and 169 (17%) had recurrent otitis media. Infants exclusively breast-fed for 4 or more months had half the mean number of acute otitis media episodes as did those not breast-fed at all and 40% less than those infants whose diets were supplemented with other foods prior to 4 months. The recurrent otitis media rate in infants exclusively breast-fed for 6 months or more was 10% and was 20.5% in those infants who breast-fed for less than 4 months. This protection was independent of the risk factors considered. Conclusion. These findings suggest that exclusive breast-feeding of 4 or more months protected infants from single and recurrent episodes of otitis media.
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Reproductive correlates of bone mass in elderly women
Article
  • Aug 1993
Results from previous studies of reproductive factors and bone density have been conflicting; some demonstrate a beneficial effect, but others show a detrimental effect on bone density. The present study investigates the association of parity, lactation, and menstruation with radial bone density in 2230 white women, 65 years of age and older. Bone density was assessed by single-photon absorptiometry. Linear multiple regression was utilized to determine if reproductive factors were associated with radial bone density. The number of births, duration of menstrual bleeding, age at menarche, and years menstruating were significant independent predictors of postmenopausal bone density of the radius. A 1.4% increase in distal radius bone density was observed with each additional birth. Women who began menstruation at age 9 had 6.3% higher bone density than women who began at age 16. Women who menstruated for 3 days during each menstrual cycle had 2.8% less distal radius bone density than women who bled for 7 days. Each decade of menstruation was associated with a 2% greater distal radius bone density. No difference in bone density was demonstrated for women who breast-fed and women who did not. Length of the menstrual cycle, amount of menstrual flow, and irregularity of the menstrual cycle were not significantly associated with radial bone mineral density. In conclusion, pregnancy and menstruation are associated with postmenopausal bone density of the radius.
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Lactation and the Risk of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer
Article
  • Apr 1993
The relationship between lactation and the development of epithelial ovarian cancer was assessed in data from seven countries that were collected for a multinational hospital-based case-control study conducted between 1979 and 1988. Three hundred and ninety-three cases of ovarian cancer were compared to 2565 controls matched on age, hospital, and year of interview. A non-significant reduction in risk with short-term lactation was observed but no further reduction in risk was seen with long-term lactation. The reduction in risk associated with months of lactation was not as great as the reduction with months of pregnancy, which may be a result of lactation being a less effective form of ovulation suppression than pregnancy. The short-term lactation that takes place in developed countries, may provide as great a reduction in risk as the long-term lactation practised in the developing countries included in this study.
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Breast Milk and Subsequent Intelligence Quotient in Children Born Pre-Term
Article
  • Mar 1992
There is considerable controversy over whether nutrition in early life has a long-term influence on neurodevelopment. We have shown previously that, in preterm infants, mother's choice to provide breast milk was associated with higher developmental scores at 18 months. We now report data on intelligence quotient (IQ) in the same children seen at 7 1/2-8 years. IQ was assessed in 300 children with an abbreviated version of the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (revised Anglicised). Children who had consumed mother's milk in the early weeks of life had a significantly higher IQ at 7 1/2-8 years than did those who received no maternal milk. An 8.3 point advantage (over half a standard deviation) in IQ remained even after adjustment for differences between groups in mother's education and social class (p less than 0.0001). This advantage was associated with being fed mother's milk by tube rather than with the process of breastfeeding. There was a dose-response relation between the proportion of mother's milk in the diet and subsequent IQ. Children whose mothers chose to provide milk but failed to do so had the same IQ as those whose mothers elected not to provide breast milk. Although these results could be explained by differences between groups in parenting skills or genetic potential (even after adjustment for social and educational factors), our data point to a beneficial effect of human milk on neurodevelopment.
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Pregnancy and Lactation as Determinants of Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Women
Article
The relation of pregnancy and breast feeding to bone mineral density of the wrist, radius, hip, and spine was examined in a white, upper middle-class, homogeneous sample of 741 postmenopausal women ranging in age from 60 to 89 years. Number of pregnancies ranged from 0 to 14, with a mean of 2.0 pregnancies and 1.5 live births. Almost two thirds of the women who had had a live birth reported breast feeding. Unadjusted comparisons indicated that bone mineral density of the wrist, radius, and hip increased with increasing numbers of pregnancies, and women who had breast-fed had higher bone mineral densities at these sites. However, after adjustment for age or age and body mass index, these associations were no longer significant. Multiple regression analyses adjusted for age, age at menopause, obesity, cigarette smoking, and estrogen and thiazide use also indicated that number of pregnancies and breast feeding were not significantly associated with bone mineral density at any of the four sites measured. Results of the present study suggest that reproductive history and breast feeding are not long-term determinants of bone mineral density.
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Protective effect of breast feeding against infection
Article
  • Feb 1990
To assess the relations between breast feeding and infant illness in the first two years of life with particular reference to gastrointestinal disease. Prospective observational study of mothers and babies followed up for 24 months after birth. Community setting in Dundee. 750 pairs of mothers and infants, 76 of whom were excluded because the babies were preterm (less than 38 weeks), low birth weight (less than 2500 g), or treated in special care for more than 48 hours. Of the remaining cohort of 674, 618 were followed up for two years. Detailed observations of infant feeding and illness were made at two weeks, and one, two, three, four, five, six, nine, 12, 15, 18, 21, and 24 months by health visitors. The prevalence of gastrointestinal disease in infants during follow up. After confounding variables were corrected for babies who were breast fed for 13 weeks or more (227) had significantly less gastrointestinal illness than those who were bottle fed from birth (267) at ages 0-13 weeks (p less than 0.01; 95% confidence interval for reduction in incidence 6.6% to 16.8%), 14-26 weeks (p less than 0.01), 27-39 weeks (p less than 0.05), and 40-52 weeks (p less than 0.05). This reduction in illness was found whether or not supplements were introduced before 13 weeks, was maintained beyond the period of breast feeding itself, and was accompanied by a reduction in the rate of hospital admission. By contrast, babies who were breast fed for less than 13 weeks (180) had rates of gastrointestinal illness similar to those observed in bottle fed babies. Smaller reductions in the rates of respiratory illness were observed at ages 0-13 and 40-52 weeks (p less than 0.05) in babies who were breast fed for more than 13 weeks. There was no consistent protective effect of breast feeding against ear, eye, mouth, or skin infections, infantile colic, eczema, or nappy rash. Breast feeding during the first 13 weeks of life confers protection against gastrointestinal illness that persists beyond the period of breast feeding itself.
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Failure of delayed oral feedings to prevent necrotizing enterocolitis. Results of study in very-low-birth-weight neonates
Article
To test the hypothesis that delayed oral feedings would lower the incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) in neonates weighing less than 1,500 g at birth, we compared the incidence of NEC in two matched groups of newborns. High-risk neonates were selected from 160 consecutive admissions, based on a cumulative risk scoring of their illness during the first three days of life. One group (N = 20) was given no oral feedings for two weeks, receiving nutrition parenterally, while the other (N = 18) was given incremental enteric feedings of dilute infant formula or breast milk during the first two weeks of life. The overall incidence of NEC in the parenterally fed group was 60% (12/20) compared with 22% (4/18) in the early-oral-feeding group. These data show that withholding oral feedings for two weeks postnatally does not lower the incidence of NEC and in fact may promote its occurrence.
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The Effect of Early Initiation of Colostrum Feeding on Proliferation of Intestinal Bacteria in Neonates
Article
  • Feb 1982
One hundred eighty normal neonates with an average weight above 2.50 kg and having no feeding difficulties were divided into two groups and randomly assigned to either colostrum or to glucose water feeding regimens during the 3-day stay at the maternity ward. The effects of the feeding regimens on intestinal colonization were studied by examining the stools of the neonates. All bacteria recovered were identified quantitatively and biochemically. Of the 180 mothers, 105 complied with the instructions on feeding regimens. The majority of the neonates receiving colostrum had significantly lower bacterial counts than those on glucose water (p less than 0.001). The results of the preliminary study indicated that early initiation of colostrum feeding to neonates where potable water is not readily available will suppress the proliferation of bacteria in the neonates.
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A prospective cohort study on breast-feeding and otitis media in Sweden
Article
  • Apr 1994
This study analyzed the effect of breast-feeding on the frequency of acute otitis media. The protocol was designed to examine each child at 2, 6 and 10 months of age. At each visit nasopharyngeal cultures were obtained, the feeding pattern was recorded and the acute otitis media (AOM) episodes were documented. The analysis was based on 400 children from whom complete information was obtained. They represented 83% of the newborns in the study areas. By 1 year of age 85 (21%) children had experienced 111 AOM episodes; 63 (16%) had 1 and 22 (6%) had 2 or more episodes. The AOM frequency was significantly lower in the breast-fed than in the non-breast-fed children in each age group (P < 0.05). The first AOM episode occurred significantly earlier in children who were weaned before 6 months of age than in the remaining groups. The frequency of nasopharyngeal cultures positive for Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis and Streptococcus pneumoniae was significantly higher in children with AOM. At 4 to 7 and 8 to 12 months of age, the AOM frequency was significantly higher in children with day-care contact and siblings (P < 0.05 and < 0.01, respectively). The frequency of upper respiratory tract infections was increased in children with AOM but significantly reduced in the breast-fed group.
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