ArticleLiterature Review

Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: Challenging tradition

Journal of Sports Sciences

July 2005
23(6):637-50

DOI:10.1080/02640410400021328

Source
PubMed

Authors:

Andrew Mark Williams

University of Utah

Nicola J Hodges

University of British Columbia

The acquisition of soccer skills is fundamental to our enjoyment of the game and is essential to the attainment of expertise. Players spend most of their time in practice with the intention of improving technical skills. However, there is a lack of scientific research relating to the effective acquisition of soccer skills, especially when compared with the extensive research base on physiological aspects of performance. Current coaching practice is therefore based on tradition, intuition and emulation rather than empirical evidence. The aim of this review is to question some of the popular beliefs that guide current practice and instruction in soccer. Empirical evidence is presented to dispel many of these beliefs as myths, thereby challenging coaches to self-reflect and critically evaluate contemporary doctrine. The review should inform sports scientists and practitioners as to the important role that those interested in skill acquisition can play in enhancing performance at all levels of the game.

“All Feedback is Beneficial” A Deconstruction of Feedback

Chapter

Sep 2024

This chapter focuses on the coach behaviour of feedback which is a popular coaching intervention implemented in some form by coaches in all sports and domains. According to Butler and Winne (1995) “feedback is information with which a learner can confirm, add to, overwrite, tune, or restructure information in memory”. However, not all feedback in a sports setting is equal and is provided in many ways (Williams & Hodges, 2005). One is through intrinsic feedback, where learners use their senses and evaluate their own performances (Williams & Hodges, 2005). Another is through augmented feedback, where external sources (e.g., a coach) provides information about a performance (Anderson, Rymal, & Ste-Marie, 2014). While augmented feedback has been researched in a variety of different modes including verbal, visual, auditory, haptic, and multimodal (Sigrist et al. 2013; Frikha et al. 2019), practically, augmented verbal feedback (AVF) is the most readily available mode of feedback in sporting environments. For this reason, AVF is the focus of this chapter. The purposes of this chapter are to (1) highlight the myth regarding feedback; (2) review the literature on feedback; (3) evaluate why feedback is delivered in certain ways, and then finally, (4) offer some thoughts and recommendations on feedback.

Improving Soccer Coaching: Considerations of Individual Learning Styles, Intelligence Levels, and Motivation

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2024

Problem statement. In the increasingly complex and competitive world of soccer, training approaches that do not consider differences in individual learning styles, intelligence levels, and player motivation can be a serious obstacle in producing quality players. The lack of a holistic coaching approach based on differences in learning styles, intelligence levels, and motivation in training soccer players, which has the potential to hinder the development of optimal soccer playing skills among students, is a specific problem in this study. Purpose. The purpose of this study is to develop a holistic and innovative soccer coaching approach, which not only takes into account differences in individual learning styles and intelligence levels, but also increases player motivation. Thus, it is expected to be able to produce high-quality soccer players and improve the mastery of big ball games in physical education in schools. Methods. This type of research is a Quasy experiment with a study population of 140 men, the sample amounted to 44 male students. The instruments used were soccer playing skills test and general intelligence test. The data were analyzed using two-way analysis of variance with the help of Statistical Package for the Social Sciens 23. Results. The results of the study are as follows: (1) in general, the soccer playing skills of students who learn to use the global method are better than the elementary method; (2) there is an interaction between training methods and intelligence levels on the ability to play soccer; (3) at high intelligence levels, the global method is better than training using elementary learning methods to improve students' soccer playing skills; (4) at low intelligence levels, the elementary method is better than training using the global method in improving students' soccer playing skills. Conclusions. It can thus be concluded that improving soccer training cannot be underestimated without seriously considering individual learning styles, intelligence levels, and player motivation. Based on the findings, a holistic approach that integrates learning style preferences, designs training strategies that match intelligence levels, and understands motivational factors, opens the door to more adaptive and successful soccer learning. Keywords: Methods, Learning, Intelligence, Play, Soccer.

The current landscape and contribution of isolated practice in European professional and academy football: A thematic analysis of professional coaches and player interviews

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024

Isolated practices (IP) are defined as isolating the skill and practice in a 'drill' format in which players progress from basic to complex motor skill patterns, focusing on learning the 'correct' technique (Pill, 2013). Coach education and academic research suggests that IP has no long-lasting effects for athletes (McLean et al., 2019), but it is still part of the practice design in a lot of successful European Football Academies (Bate, 2020). To better understand the use of IP in player development in European professional football settings twenty existing and openly available interviews of professional coaches were analysed using the six thematic steps of Braun and Clarke (2006). Two key themes emerged from the data: ball mastery and 1v1 and 2v2. A sub-theme of ball mastery was coaches' defence of IP. Ball mastery sessions (practicing a specific set of skills) are used in professional football academy sessions and the idea of ball mastery was found to act as a philosophy for development in the coaches. This activity was used before entering 1v1 and 2v2 situations. It is proposed that isolated football practice activities are termed ball mastery sessions, and that further work is needed to understand the practical progression from these sessions to 1v1 and 2v2 practice.

Using a coproduced educational workshop to change the focus of verbal instructions delivered by professional youth soccer coaches: a case study Using a coproduced educational workshop to change the focus of verbal instructions delivered by professional youth soccer coaches: a case study

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024
Phys Educ Sport Pedagog

Background: The predominant instructional method utilised by soccer coaches are verbal instructions that occur whilst (during) players are executing soccer-skill. However, little is known on the specificity of the information contained within. These verbal instructions can guide the learner to either the performance characteristics of a movement (internal focus) or the intended movement effects (external), with the latter known to facilitate superior motor performance, retention, and transfer. Purpose: The aims in the present study were to quantify the focus of concurrent verbal instructions utilised by professional youth soccer coaches during drill-based (i.e. isolated) practice activities, and to modulate how these instructions are delivered in coaching sessions following the engagement in a coproduced evidence-based educational workshop. Method: Systematic observation was used pre and post the workshop to quantify the nature of verbal instructions delivered by 5 male coaches (31-47 years of age with 4-24 years of coaching experience) across 34 sessions with players from 8 to 13 years of age. For instructions provided during (concurrent) action-execution, we further quantified whether these instructions were focused on motor performance characteristics (internal) or the intended movement outcome effects (external) using criteria outlined in the revised Arizona State University Observation Instrument. To facilitate behaviour change, all coaches engaged in an educational workshop led by skill acquisition specialists (SAS). The workshop was designed so that educational material related to the principles of skill acquisition, and motor control and learning, were presented using a pedagogical delivery method containing verbal information, data presented in illustrations, and videos. In addition, the results that quantified coaching behaviour during the pre-workshop systematic observation period were presented to coaches as quantitative feedback. To guide the coaches to appraise the

Developing an Intensive Football Goalkeeper Training Camp Program for Secondary School Students

Article

Full-text available

May 2025

Background and Aim: Football goalkeepers in China require specific skills and characteristics to excel in their positions. They need to have good aerobic endurance and anaerobic endurance to perform well in the competition. Overall, a combination of physical endurance, technical skills, and mental fitness is essential for football goalkeepers in China to succeed in the position. Therefore, this research objective was to develop and evaluate an intensive football goalkeeper training camp program for secondary school students. The research provides a valuable framework for designing effective training programs to enhance the performance of young goalkeepers. Materials and Methods: This research was a mixed-methods research that involved a four-phase process: 1) Literature review and research to gather existing knowledge on training adolescent goalkeepers. 2) Deep interviews with 5 experts to identify key factors for program design. 3) Focus group discussions with 9 experts to develop the training camp program, incorporating technical skills, tactical understanding, physical conditioning, mental fortitude, and recovery strategies. 4) Connoisseurship evaluation by 7 experts to assess the program's suitability and feasibility. Data analysis was computed with the mean and standard deviation. Results: The results found that: 1) The intensive football goalkeeper training camp program, a 14-day duration training, encompassed a holistic approach to goalkeeper development, progressing from foundational techniques to advanced skills, and integrating tactical awareness, physical conditioning, and mental training. 2) Experts rated the program highly, particularly commending its focus on tactical understanding and well-rounded physical conditioning. Conclusion: The intensive football goalkeeper training camp program represents a well-structured and evidence-based approach to goalkeeper development. By integrating technical, tactical, physical, and mental training components, it addresses the multifaceted demands of the position.

Making the Best Use of Time: Analysis of Practice Structure in Maltese Football Coaching

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2025

Practice design is an important part of the coach's role and can influence player development. Yet, we have little analysis of how football sessions in Malta are structured and what types of activities take place within sessions. Sport coaches in Malta are therefore confronted with a gap in the literature that may limit their ability to design effective, efficient, and evidence-based coaching sessions. To address this gap, football sessions from the Maltese talent development pathway (n = 20) were analysed during the period of January 2023 to April 2023. The analysis recorded the proportion of time players spent in drill-based activities (non-active decision making, e.g., unopposed technical or tactical skills practices, fitness training), game-based activities (active decision-making, e.g., small-sided games, skills practice with opposition), and transition periods (moving between exercise, coaches' intervention, and water breaks). The results demonstrated that, on average, players spent more time in transitions than game-based or drill-based activities. Transition activities are also significantly more frequent than game-based and drill-based activities. Suggestions for reducing transition periods and increasing time spent on games-based activities are provided to support football coaches in Malta and beyond with their practice design.

Analysis of the internal and external loads, and technical actions of small-sided games in soccer

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024

The priority in team sport training like soccer is the acquisition and refinement of individual and group skills as well as tactics to transform the group into an effective competitive unit. To achieve these objectives, it is common for coaches to reduce both the number of players and the field dimensions to manipulate exercise intensity, catering for the specific needs of their players. The use of small-sided games (SSGs) that feature less participant has proven a practical tool for coaches, for the development of technical, tactical, and physical abilities. The objective of this paper is to conduct a review of the literature on the topic of small-sided games to analyze specific parameters such as physiological, technical, and movement duration. The effectiveness of SSGs in enhancing aerobic and anaerobic capacities as well as technical skills is often highlighted although their main benefit might be to practice decision-making and problem-solving under pressure, replicating game-like situations. Examining the psychological aspects during small-sided games, such as confidence, motivation, enjoyment, and cognitive engagement, could also provide insights into optimizing training programs and enhancing player development. In summary, small-sided games offer diverse benefits for physical, technical, tactical development in players across different age groups and skill levels for both training and/or learning purposes. Future research should thus focus on investigating the long-term effects of small-sided games on players’ physical and technical development, as well as their transfer to actual match performance.

Improving teaching and movement strategies for skill learning and performance in skilled and elite alpine ski racers

Thesis

Full-text available

Jan 2025

Christian Magelssen

Background and aims. In recent decades, cognitive science has made great strides in understanding the mechanisms underlying skill learning. This knowledge has inspired ideas on how to achieve better learning by leveraging these mechanisms more effectively. Thus far, most studies have focused on simple, laboratory-based tasks. This raises questions about the extent to which these learning principles can be generalized to real-world learning contexts, such as sports, education, or rehabilitation. Consequently, there is a pressing need for studies with greater ecological validity to determine whether these principles can enhance critical life functions or skills that are important to individuals. The overall goal of this doctoral thesis was to bridge this gap by using alpine ski racing as a testbed to study skill learning in skilled and elite athletes. To achieve this goal, this doctoral thesis adopted an interdisciplinary approach grounded in both mechanics and psychology. This interdisciplinary approach was taken to learn about strategies to enhance the performance of skilled alpine skiers, and this knowledge was used as leverage to examine whether effective learning strategies could improve the learning of these strategies. Specifically, from a mechanical perspective, I asked what are the most effective strategies for skiing faster on flat slopes (research question I; Paper III) and what the kinematic signatures of one of the strategies is that it is so effective (research question II; Paper II). From a psychological perspective, I asked whether skiers could learn better by using contextual interference to train learning problems (research question III; Paper I) and whether reinforcement learning is a more effective learning signal for instruction and feedback than traditional instruction-based learning (research question IV; Paper III). Methods. This thesis is based on two learning studies. In Study I, we tested whether training with a high degree of contextual interference could enhance learning in 66 skilled alpine skiers. To test this prediction, we contrasted two learning groups who learned to use the ”extend” (or pumping) strategy on flat sections in slalom: an interleaved learning group who trained the strategy in three slalom courses each day in a random order (skiers never repeated more than two consecutive runs on the same course) and a blocked learning group who trained the same strategy on one slalom course per day (with a counterbalanced order of courses between skiers). The experiment spanned eight days, starting with a baseline test on the first day, followed by three days of training, and a retention test three days after the final training day. The effects of the learning groups on learning and performance are reported in Paper I. For three of the ski teams (18 skiers) who participated in this study, we additionally recorded the skiers’ positions in the slalom course using a local positioning system during the baseline and retention tests. The purpose of this recording was to analyze changes in kinematics throughout the intervention to better understand the kinematic signature of the ”extend” (pumping) strategy. The results of this analysis are reported in Paper II. In Study II, we tested which teaching signal for instruction and feedback is most effective for learning to choose optimal strategies. This experiment involved 98 skilled and elite alpine ski racers and compared three learning groups on their learning to make effective strategic choices to ski faster on flat sections in slalom. In the supervised (free choice) learning group, skiers were told by their coaches which strategy to use, either the one they believed to be the best or most appropriate for the skier. This learning group represents the conventional teaching strategy. We complemented this learning group with a supervised (target skill) learning group, where coaches instructed skiers to select the strategy that we defined as the theoretically best strategy based on mechanics and field observations of elite skiers. Since the skiers were instructed to use the theoretical optimal strategy, this learning group served as a benchmark for the upper limit of performance achievable through optimal strategy choices. In both of these supervised learning groups, the coaches saw the skiers’ race times but did not communicate them to the skiers. We compared these two learning groups to a reinforcement learning group where the skiers learned the values of the strategies by trying a strategy and learning from evaluations (that is, race times) instead of from a coach. The effect of the learning groups on learning to make good strategy choices for performance is reported in Paper III. In this study, we also reported analyses comparing movement strategies, but this analysis was overshadowed by other findings and therefore placed in a supplementary table. Therefore, in this thesis, I have reanalyzed these data and reported the findings within the main text. Results. To begin with the mechanical goals of this thesis, from Study II (Paper III and additional analysis in this thesis), we found that the skiers on average achieved the fastest race times using the “extend with rock skis forward” strategy, followed by the ”extend” (pumping), ”rock skis forward” and ”stand against” strategies in the flat section. Notably, the “extend with rock skis forward” strategy was only marginally better than the “extend” (pumping) strategy, which is simpler and nearly as effective on its own. From Study I (Paper II), we found that the skiers’ speed profile changed greatly after the training intervention on the ”extend” (pumping) strategy. After the intervention, the skiers reached higher speeds just after the gate passage, which continued to rise until midway between the gates before declining just before the next gate. We also observed a trend where the path length increased slightly from gate to gate, although this varied significantly from turn to turn. Switching to the psychological goals of the thesis, from Study I (Paper I), we did not find evidence that the interleaved learning group performed worse or improved retention compared to the blocked learning group, indicating no convincing evidence for the contextual interference effect. On the other hand, from Study II (Paper III), we found that learning strategies through reinforcement learning provided a more effective teaching signal than conventional instruction-based teaching. Interestingly, the reinforcement learning group also descriptively outperformed the supervised (target skill) learning group, which was intended to represent the upper limit of performance achievable through optimal strategy choices. Conclusion. This thesis shows that the strategies skiers choose can have a crucial impact on their performance in slalom. We did not find compelling evidence that training with higher contextual interference (interleaved learning) enhanced skill learning. However, we found that reinforcement learning was an effective teaching signal for training athletes to make good strategy choices. Based on these findings, coaches should develop various strategies and allow athletes to learn their values, ultimately enabling athletes to select the best option. Overall, this thesis highlights that an interdisciplinary approach can be an effective approach for studying skill learning in elite athletes, and it may represent a promising approach for future research.

Analysis of the internal and external loads, and technical actions of small-sided games in soccer

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024

https://insight.piscomed.com/index.php/ISS/article/view/638 The priority in team sport training like soccer is the acquisition and refinement of individual and group skills as well as tactics to transform the group into an effective competitive unit. To achieve these objectives, it is common for coaches to reduce both the number of players and the field dimensions to manipulate exercise intensity, catering for the specific needs of their players. The use of small-sided games (SSGs) that feature less participant has proven a practical tool for coaches, for the development of technical, tactical, and physical abilities. The objective of this paper is to conduct a review of the literature on the topic of small-sided games to analyze specific parameters such as physiological, technical, and movement duration. The effectiveness of SSGs in enhancing aerobic and anaerobic capacities as well as technical skills is often highlighted although their main benefit might be to practice decision-making and problem-solving under pressure, replicating game-like situations. Examining the psychological aspects during small-sided games, such as confidence, motivation, enjoyment, and cognitive engagement, could also provide insights into optimizing training programs and enhancing player development. In summary, small-sided games offer diverse benefits for physical, technical, tactical development in players across different age groups and skill levels for both training and/or learning purposes. Future research should thus focus on investigating the long-term effects of small-sided games on players’ p…

Exploring decision-making practices during coaching sessions in grassroots youth soccer: a mixed-methods study

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024

Decision-making ability in players during match-play is mostly acquired through practice activities with the same underlying structure as competition. However, researchers have not fully investigated how coaches design practice sessions at the participation level of the sport (i.e. ‘grassroots’), or why they use a particular activity at a specific time point. This study explores the practice activities employed by youth soccer coaches at the participation level in England and aims to understand their underlying intentions. Twelve male coaches working with players aged 9–11 years across ten clubs in the London region participated. Thirty-five practice sessions were filmed and analysed to assess the proportion of time spent in activities involving ‘non-active decision-making’ (e.g., technical practices, fitness training) versus ‘active decision-making’ (e.g., small-sided and conditioned games, skills practice with realistic opposition). A brief on-field interview with the coaches about the session purpose took place immediately after each systematic observation. Coaches allocated similar amounts of time to activities with active (M = 41%) and non-active (M = 42%) decision making, with the remaining 17% being transitions. There was a common progression from non-active decision-making activities early in the session towards increased active decision-making later in the session. Interviews with coaches revealed a belief in the necessity of frequent non-active decision-making practices for technique development, despite potential disparities with improving match performance. Findings highlight a potential gap between scientific understanding and coaching practices for young soccer players at the participation level, suggesting implications for coach education programmes and the optimisation of player development strategies.

Applying different levels of practice variability for motor learning: More is not better

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Background Variable practice is a broadly used tool to improve motor learning processes. However, controversial results can be found in literature about the success of this type of practice compared to constant practice. This study explored one potential reason for this controversy: the manipulation of variable practice load applied during practice and its effects according to the initial performance level and the initial intrinsic variability of the learner. Method Sixty-five participants were grouped into four practice schedules to learn a serial throwing task, in which the training load of variable practice was manipulated: one constant practice group and three groups with different variable practice loads applied. After a pre-test, participants trained for 2 weeks. A post-test and three retests (96 h, 2 weeks and 1 month) were carried out after training. The participants’ throwing accuracy was assessed through error parameters and their initial intrinsic motor variability was assessed by the autocorrelation coefficient of the error. Results The four groups improved their throwing performance. Pairwise comparisons and effect sizes showed larger error reduction in the low variability group. Different loads of variable practice seem to induce different performance improvements in a throwing task. The modulation of the variable practice load seems to be a step forward to clarify the controversy about its benefits, but it has to be guided by the individuals’ features, mainly by the initial intrinsic variability of the learner.

How did you perform? Investigating football players’ perception of self-regulated passing performances under auditory noise environments

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

Introduction This paper deals with the question on how sport performances may be influenced by internal, emotional processes, which stem from outside feedback. Methods In terms of methods, players’ subjective performance ratings for four experimental auditory cue conditions were examined; these included both ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ stadium noise, ‘no (auditory) conditions,’ and a control/‘baseline’ condition. This resulted in a qualitative-analytic data set that was obtained succeeding each auditory cue condition using a unique football training machine (i.e., known as ‘Footbonaut’). Without having received any coaching/performance feedback, players were asked to rate and individually comment on their perceived performance ratings for each experimental auditory condition. Results Findings indicate stronger and more significant correlations between auditory conditions and subjective ratings compared to the non-auditory condition and its subjective rating. Furthermore, data provides initial insight into players’ emotional experiences during each of the practice conditions. Discussion These noteworthy findings on players’ abilities to accurately judge their performances based on selfmonitoring and intrinsic feedback are discussed from an Ecological Dynamics perspective, linked to a Nonlinear Pedagogy for coaching. Here, representative and affective learning designs for skill learning and performance preparation are presented. Finally, a hypothetical catalyst effect of auditory stadium noise on subjective performance rating is proposed.

Reinforcement learning enhances training and performance in skilled alpine skiers compared to traditional coaching instruction

Preprint

Full-text available

Apr 2024

Skilled performers need skillful and adaptive movement strategies to solve tasks effectively. Typically, performers learn these strategies with instruction-based teaching methods where coaches offer performers a correct solution. Inspired by recent evidence from decision neuroscience, we asked whether skilled performers learn strategy choices better with an evaluation-based training strategy (reinforcement learning). To address this question, we conducted a three-day learning experiment with skilled alpine ski racers (n=98) designed to improve their performance on flat slopes on slaloms with four strategies at their disposal to achieve this goal. We compared performance and strategy choices of three groups: a reinforcement learning group, that only received feedback about their race times after every run, a supervised (free choice) learning group, that received strategy instructions from their coach, and a supervised (target skill) learning group, being coached to use the theoretically optimal strategy for skiing well on flats. We found that despite making similar strategy choices, the skiers in the reinforcement learning group, showed greater improvements in their race times during the training sessions than their counterparts in the supervised (free choice) learning group and outperformed them during a subsequent retention test. Surprisingly, the skiers in the reinforcement learning group even showed descriptively (but not significantly) better performance than those in the supervised (target skill) learning group. Our findings show that reinforcement learning can be an effective training strategy for improving strategy choices and performance among skilled performers, even among the best ones.

Experimental Study: The Effect of Soccer Like Games Teaching on Self Esteem and Soccer Playing Skills of Students of SMK Bina Wisata Lembang

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

This study aims to investigate the effect of applying soccer-like games on students' self-esteem and soccer playing skills at SMK Bina Wisata Lembang. The research employed an experimental method with a purposive sampling technique, selecting students from Grade X who were actively participating in extracurricular soccer activities. The instruments used in this study included the Game Performance Assessment Instrument (GPAI) to measure soccer playing skills and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) to assess students' self-esteem levels. Data analysis was conducted using appropriate statistical techniques, and the results demonstrated a statistically significant effect of the intervention. The analysis of playing skill data revealed a significance value of 0.000 (p 0.05), indicating that the application of soccer-like games significantly improved students' soccer playing performance. Similarly, the self-esteem data also showed a significance value of 0.000 (p 0.05), confirming a positive influence of the intervention on students' psychological development. These findings support the conclusion that soccer-like games serve as an effective pedagogical strategy not only for enhancing motor and tactical performance but also for fostering positive self-concept and confidence among students. The results highlight the importance of integrating game-based learning approaches in physical education programs to promote holistic student development. Future research is recommended to explore similar interventions across different educational settings and with larger sample sizes to further validate these findings.

Comparative Analysis of Pass Go and Traditional Drill Training Methods on Passing Accuracy Development in Youth Football Players Aged 12-15 Years: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Article

Full-text available

May 2025

The purpose of the study. The precision of passing techniques is crucial for young football players, yet empirical comparisons of training methodologies during ages 12 to 15 are lacking. This randomized controlled trial evaluated the effectiveness of the Pass Go methodology, a game-based learning approach, against traditional drill training in enhancing passing accuracy, decision-making speed, and technical execution among youth football players. Materials and methods. Sixty youth football players aged 12-15 were randomly assigned to a 12-week intervention with three groups: Pass Go (game-based training), drill-based training, and a control group. Passing accuracy (short-range and medium-range), decision-making, and technical execution were assessed at baseline, mid-intervention, and post-intervention. Results. During a 12-week intervention, the Pass Go methodology group significantly outperformed the drill-based training group in short-range passing accuracy, improving by 24.3% compared to 19.1% (d=1.82, p<0.001), medium-range passing accuracy with increases of 18.7% versus 15.4% (d=1.56, p<0.001), and decision-making speed, achieving a 64.3% improvement against 33.3% (p<0.001). Age-specific analysis revealed that younger participants (12 to 13 years) exhibited greater technical improvements, while older players (14 to 15 years) showed enhanced decision-making abilities. Both experimental groups significantly outperformed the control group across all parameters measured, confirming their superior efficacy. Conclusions. The Pass Go methodology, emphasizing game-based learning, significantly outperformed traditional training in developing comprehensive passing skills among youth football players. These findings advocate for the enhanced incorporation of game-based learning strategies in youth football programs and stress the need for age-specific adaptations in training design to maximize player development.

Development of a futsal sports curriculum model aged 6-8 years at the Super Junior club in Malang City

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025

Background: The lack of a structured futsal curriculum for children aged 6-8 years in futsal clubs, especially in Super Junior Club Malang, causes limitations in developing techniques, skills, and long-term athlete development. Objective: This is for developing a futsal curriculum model at the Super Junior Club of Malang City, which is presented as a curriculum for learning. Methods: The research and development model used in the study is to develop a curriculum model. Development research This uses the ADDIE method with steps study as follows: 1) analysis, 2) design, 3) development, 4) implementation, and 5) evaluation. This is done using a questionnaire and sheet valuation. Results of interviews that have been done do Not yet exist. Possible guidelines and curricula can be used to create training programs. Excess from study This includes: 1) becoming guidelines beginning in making training programs, 2) making things easier for trainers to determine goals in the training program. The weaknesses of the study include: 1) limitations in election group age certain, 2) not too many training models, and 3) the curriculum must keep updating along with the development of futsal sport. Result: Based on the results, an analysis by the validator is obtained. The average percentage was 88.07% from material validators, 97% from media validators, and 94.7% from group tests conducted on Malang City Super Junior Club students. Conclusion: Curriculum Model Development Sport Futsal Age 6-8 Years at the Malang City Super Junior Club is considered worthy of use. Future research could explore the effectiveness of implementing this futsal curriculum in improving players' technical and tactical skills and examine its impact on the long-term development of early athletes in various clubs and regions.

Fundamental movement skills in grassroots soccer: A comparative study of coaches’ perceptions and practices in 9 European countries

Article

Apr 2025

Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) are proven to be beneficial for development across sports domains, including soccer. Grassroots soccer provides a substantial platform to promote and develop FMS. However, coaches often have limited knowledge about FMS. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the perceptions and practices of FMS among grassroots soccer coaches across nine European countries and various coaching profiles. This study surveyed 1055 grassroots coaches from 9 countries based on prior studies to understand their perceptions and practices regarding FMS. Firstly, 14 questions were divided into three components with a Principal Component Analysis to enable clearer analysis: ‘Coaching Effectiveness,’ ‘Influencing Factors,’ and ‘Importance of FMS.’ The second phase involved comparing countries and coaching profiles to see how perceptions and practices varied by coaches’ expertise, experience, and the age group they coach. Kruskal-Wallis group comparisons revealed varied awareness and understanding of FMS among grassroots coaches in nine European countries (p < 0.001). Post-hoc results showed that perceptions and practices were influenced more by coaching experience (p < 0.01) and the age group coached (p < 0.01) rather than qualifications. Coaches with over 10 years of experience and those working in the fundamental phase (U7-U12) recognized the benefits of FMS to a greater extent. While FMS awareness exists, deep understanding and practical implementation remain challenging. Differences between countries suggest a unified approach to FMS in coach education is missing. Strengthening FMS education will ensure that grassroots coaches are better equipped to develop young players, ultimately contributing to more effective long-term player development.

Real Practice and Virtual Practice Improve Basketball Free Throwing Skill Learning in Female Students: Examining the Role of Concurrent and Delayed Feedback

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2025
J COMPUT ASSIST LEAR

Background Today, active video games, in which players' own body movements are used to control the avatar, can be used to teach students motor skills by providing concurrent feedback. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of concurrent and delayed feedback on basketball free throw learning. Methods Thirty female students performed 10 trials of the free throw basketball (pre‐test) in the real environment. Then, they were divided into three equal groups (concurrent feedback, delayed feedback and control group) by random assignment. Individuals in the concurrent and delayed feedback groups practiced 50 trials in each of four sessions over 2 weeks in a virtual and real environment in the acquisition phase. After the last acquisition session, the post‐test, the retention test and the transfer test were performed for all three groups. Results The results of mixed ANOVA showed no significant difference between the delayed and concurrent feedback in acquisition, retention and transfer (ps > 0.05). Each of these methods was better than the control group in acquisition and retention (ps < 0.05). Conclusions Therefore, it is suggested that teachers can use the concurrent feedback method and delayed video feedback.

The Impact of Mobility and Stability Training on Balance Performance in Elite Surfers

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2025

This study examined the effects of mobility and stability training on the balance performance of elite surfers. The research included 40 athletes-20 in the control and 20 in the experimental groups-who participated in windsurfing in the IQFoil discipline and resided in İzmir, Turkey. All participants had at least three years of training experience (control group: age 15.10 ± 4.21 years; experimental group: age 15.8 ± 4.76 years). The participants were divided into two groups: the control group continued their routine training, while the experimental group undertook an additional stability and mobility training program for eight weeks, three times per week (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday), alongside their regular training regimen. Anthropometric measurements (height, body weight, and BMI) and dynamic and static balance assessments were conducted. Data collected from the athletes were analyzed using the SPSS statistical package. Descriptive statistics were calculated based on the distribution characteristics of the data. A paired-sample t-test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were utilized to evaluate pre-and post-test differences. The findings indicated that the pre-test and post-test measurements of the control group did not exhibit any statistically significant differences (p > 0.05). Similarly, no significant differences were observed in the experimental group in BMI, right anterior, right posteromedial, right lateral, left anterior, left posteromedial, left lateral, proper final, or left final pre-test and post-test measurements (p > 0.05). However, there were significant differences in the experimental group's right-leg static balance, left-leg static balance, and double-leg static balance pre-test and post-test measurements (p < 0.05). This study demonstrates that mobility and stability training can enhance balance performance in elite windsurfers. Exercises aimed at enhancing mobility and stability improve athletes' balance abilities and help mitigate the risk of injury. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating such training programs to promote long-term athletic success and maintain a healthy sporting career. Öz Bu çalışma, elit sörfçülerde mobilite ve stabilite antrenmanlarının denge performanslarına etkisini incelemek amacıyla yapılmıştır. Araştırmaya İzmir ilinde ikamet eden lqfoil branşında rüzgar sörfü yapan, en az 3 yıl antrenman yaşına sahip (kontrol yaş 15,10±4,21, deney yaş 15,8± 4,76) 20 kontrol 20 deney grubu olmak üzere toplam 40 sporcu katılmıştır. Sporcular kontrol ve deney grubu olmak üzere iki gruba ayrılmıştır. Kontrol grubu rutin antrenmanlarına devam ederken, deney grubuna rutin antrenmanlara ek olarak 8 hafta boyunca haftada 3 gün (pazartesi, çarşamba, cuma) stabilite ve mobilite antrenmanları uygulanmıştır. Araştırmada sporculara antropometrik ölçümleri (boy uzunluğu, vücut ağırlığı, BKI) ve denge performansları (dinamik-statik) ölçülmüştür. Sporculardan elde edilen veriler için SPSS paket programı kullanılmıştır. Verilerin dağılım özelliklerine göre tanımlayıcı istatistikleri yapılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde ön-son test farklılıkları için bağımlı örneklem t-testi ve varyans analizi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulgularında kontrol grubundan alınan ön test ve son test ölçümleri anlamlı şekilde farklılık göstermemiştir (p>0,05). Deney grubunda BKI, sağ anterior, sağ ostero medial, sağ lateral, sol anterior, sol ostero medial, sol lateral, sağ sonuç, sol sonuç ön test ve son test ölçümleri anlamlı şekilde farklılık göstermemiştir (p>0,05). Ancak deney grubundan alınan sağ bacak statik denge, sol bacak statik denge ve çift bacak statik denge ön test ve son test ölçümleri anlamlı farklılık göstermiştir (p<0,05). Bu çalışma, mobilite ve stabilite antrenmanlarının elit rüzgar sörfçülerinin denge performansını iyileştirebileceğini ortaya koymuştur. Mobilite ve stabiliteyi geliştiren egzersizler, sporcuların denge yeteneklerini arttırıp aynı zamanda sakatlanma riskini azaltmaktadır. Bu sonuçlar, sporcuların uzun vadeli başarıları ve sağlıklı spor kariyerleri için bu tür antrenmanların önemli olduğunu göstermektedir..

A scoping review of empirical research on executive functions and game intelligence in soccer

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025

Introduction Executive functions (EFs)—including working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and planning—are essential for adaptive decision-making in dynamic environments like elite soccer. This scoping review explores the relationship between EFs and game intelligence in adult elite soccer players. Methods A systematic search was conducted across six major databases: Scopus, Web of Science, SportDiscus, PubMed, PsycInfo, and ERIC. Fifteen peer-reviewed empirical studies published between 2000 and 2023 were identified and analyzed for inclusion. Results The review reveals a strong association between EFs and players’ ability to process complex game situations, anticipate opponents’ actions, and make strategic decisions under pressure. Evidence also points to possible variations in EF demands across playing positions. Additionally, several studies suggest that EFs may be trainable through perceptual-cognitive interventions, although this area remains underexplored. Discussion Despite promising findings, the studies exhibit substantial methodological heterogeneity, particularly in the operationalization of both EFs and game intelligence. This variability limits the comparability and generalizability of results. The review underscores the need for more standardized methodologies, longitudinal research designs, and integrative approaches that account for both cognitive and personality factors to better understand elite soccer performance.

The value of opposed and unopposed practice: An ecological dynamics rationale for skill development

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2025
QUEST

Desempeño físico en jóvenes futbolistas y escolares por edad cronológica y estado de madurez: Desempeño físico en futbolistas y escolares

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Introducción: Durante el periodo de la adolescencia se producen cambios en el cuerpo, siendo importante identificar las diferencias individuales de madurez entre los adolescentes. En el caso de los futbolistas, esto puede generar diferencias en su rendimiento deportivo. Objetivo: Comparar el desempeño físico de jóvenes futbolistas vs escolares (no futbolistas) según edad cronológica y estado de madurez. Metodología: Se efectuó un estudio de tipo descriptivo-comparativo en 139 jóvenes (62 futbolistas con 16,38±1,30 años y 77 escolares con 16,35±1,45años). La selección de la muestra fue de tipo no probabilística por conveniencia. El rango de edad fue entre 14 a 18 años de edad. Se evaluó el peso, la estatura, velocidad 20 metros, salto horizontal (SH), y la prueba de aptitud aeróbica de Leger. Se calculó el índice de masa corporal (IMC), los años de pico de velocidad de crecimiento (APVC), y el VO2max absoluto y relativo. Resultados: Los jóvenes futbolistas presentaron mayor VO2max absoluto y relativo en comparación con sus similares escolares, tanto por edad cronológica y estado de madurez. Hubo correlación positiva significativa (p<0.05) entre la edad y los APVC con el VO2max absoluto y salto horizontal, y negativa con la velocidad de 20 metros. No hubo correlación entre la edad y APVC con el VO2máx relativo (edad y VO2máx, r= 0.10, p=0.023 y APVC y VO2máx, r= 0.07, p= 0.036). Conclusión: Los jóvenes futbolistas presentaron un mejor VO2max absoluto y relativo, SH y velocidad 20m en relación a los no-futbolistas, tanto por edad cronológica y estado de madurez, aunque, el desempeño físico se observa mejor por estado de madurez, especialmente en el VO2max y en el SH. Estos resultados sugieren que los profesionales del futbol deben considerar el control del estado de madurez como una alternativa para categorizar a los futbolistas cuando se evalúa y trabaja el desempeño físico

Considering the Impact of a Tactical and Technical Training Module on the Performance of Field Hockey Players (U-16) in Malaysia: A Quasi-Experimental Design

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2024

Background. The development of tactical and technical skills is critical for young athletes engaged in team sports, particularly in field hockey, where quick decision-making and strategic play are essential for success. Objectives. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a structured tactical and technical training module on the performance of field hockey players (U-16) in Malaysia. Materials and methods. A quasi-experimental design was used, involving 40 participants who were randomly assigned to either an intervention group (n = 20) or a control group (n = 20). The intervention group underwent an eight-week tactical and technical training module, while the control group followed their regular training regimen. Pre-test and post-test assessments were conducted to measure knowledge and performance in four key areas: ball action/direction, opponents’ action, positioning, and action during changing situations. The data were analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) to assess the impact of the intervention. Results. The MANOVA results revealed significant improvements in the intervention group across all four variables compared to the control group (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.327, F = 9.867, p = 0.001). Specifically, the intervention group showed substantial gains in knowledge about ball action/direction, opponents’ action, positioning, and actions during changing situations. These findings underscore the effectiveness of the training module in enhancing tactical and technical competencies in young field hockey players. The study demonstrates that a structured tactical and technical training module can significantly improve the performance of under-16 field hockey players. Conclusions. The results indicate the potential for broader application of such modules in youth sports development programs. It is recommended that coaches integrate similar training structures to optimize player development and competitive performance.

The critical thinking approach to tactical development in team sports: a review of the work of Jean Francis Gréhaigne

Article

Dec 2024
Phys Educ Sport Pedagog

Background: Critical thinking underlies tactical ability, and in the sporting context, it is known as reflective thinking that is used to make reasonable and defensible decisions in movement tasks. Critical thinking and sports tactics can then be described as analytical processes that involve solving situations in a reflective way. It is through experiences and discussions around experiences that more meaningful learning is generated (Godbout and Gréhaigne Citation2022). If we want to develop the tactical ability of players and, therefore, their decision-making ability, we should try to improve their critical thinking skills. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to review French Professor Jean Francis (J.F.) Gréhaigne's research on tactical development in team sports from a critical thinking perspective to enhance player decision-making. Gréhaigne, a professor in the Department of Sports Science and Physical Activity at the Institute for Teacher Education of Franche-Comté in Besancon, France, has dedicated his research career to identifying the elements associated with the teaching and pedagogy of team sports. His work is particularly noteworthy in that it proposes that critical thinking underlies tactical ability; it means that before a motor action, there must be an analysis of the situation, and this analysis must be explicit for the current moment. Method: A reflexive thematic analysis was conducted using electronic databases of research articles published before September 2021. The databases utilized were SCOPUS and Google Scholar. The search did not target any exclusive journal but focused on articles where Professor J.F. Gréhaigne was the lead or co-author, specifically related to tactical development and critical thinking in team sports. Although the search was primarily conducted in English, French works were also considered due to the author’s linguistic capabilities and the relevance of Professor Gréhaigne's contributions. A total of twenty articles were included in the documentary analysis. Results: According to the contributions of Professor J.F. Gréhaigne, it is possible to recognize that the proposals based on tactical development in team sports arose from the need, mainly, to identify a pedagogical didactic process that sought to develop analytical abilities in line with the reality of the game. Recognizing the game as a dynamic, chaotic, and uncertain system reveals that the way in which its development should be approached should be far from rigid pedagogical structures. Conclusions: Critical thinking is always essential for team sports players during the game. Pedagogical proposals should focus on developing players’ critical awareness and analytical capacity so that they can solve spontaneous situations on their own. This study is the first reflexive thematic analysis of the work developed by Professor J.F. Gréhaigne related to critical thinking and tactics in team sports. The findings of this study provide significant information and directions for the future development of tactical skills in team sports.

Unlocking athlete potential: The evolution of coaching strategies through artificial intelligence

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2024

Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly transforming sports coaching, offering new tools to enhance athlete performance and training methods. However, the balance between leveraging AI’s capabilities and maintaining the human touch in coaching remains a critical challenge. This study investigates how AI can be effectively integrated into sports coaching while maintaining the essential human elements of leadership, mentorship, and personalized support. The research aims to provide a framework for combining AI technology with traditional coaching strategies to optimize performance. Using Grounded Theory (GT) methodology, the study conducted expert interviews and performed a detailed literature review to understand the interaction between AI and sports coaching. The resulting “Synergy Theory” model explains how AI can enhance training while highlighting the importance of maintaining ethical standards and human-centered coaching practices. The research reveals that AI can considerably improve performance analysis, injury prevention, and training customization. However, over-reliance on AI risks undermining the human aspects of coaching. The findings underscore the need for technological literacy among coaches and the ethical integration of AI in sports. Challenges such as data quality, resistance to technology, and privacy concerns must also be addressed. The present article is one of the first studies to comprehensively explore the ethical, practical, and technical considerations of integrating AI into sports coaching. This study also offers practical recommendations for balancing AI technology with traditional coaching methods.

Use your imagination for better performance. Effects of analogy instruction in motor skills. A systematic review and Meta-Analysis

Article

Oct 2024
PSYCHOL SPORT EXERC

Ecological-Dynamic Approach vs. Traditional Prescriptive Approach in Improving Technical Skills of Young Soccer Players

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2024

Background: This study contributes to expanding the existing literature on learning technical skills in youth soccer by comparing the effectiveness of different training approaches in the development of passing skills. The ecological-dynamic approach, which emphasizes the continuous and adaptive interaction between the athlete and the environment, is analyzed in comparison to the traditional prescriptive approach, which relies on predefined techniques and exercises. The aim of the study is to determine which of the two approaches is more effective in improving the performance of young soccer players. Methods: Thirty players (age 12 ± 1.2 years) were randomly assigned to two groups: the ecological-dynamic group (ECG) and a control group (CON). Both groups underwent an eight-week training program with equal sessions. The ECG group’s training focused on adjusting constraints like the learning environment, game rules, and visual restrictions to boost adaptability and problem-solving skills. The CON group followed a traditional prescriptive approach with specific instructions, goal setting, immediate feedback, and structured exercise progression. Passing abilities were evaluated before and after the program using the Loughborough Soccer Passing Test, with a retention test administered five weeks later. Descriptive statistics, including mean values and percentage improvements, were used. A repeated measures ANOVA compared differences between the groups. Results: The analysis revealed a significant Occasion × Group interaction for all performance variables, indicating that the ECG group experienced greater improvements than the CON group. Specifically, the ECG group showed significant reductions in Trial Time (p = 0.001, ηp² = 0.6), Penalty Time (p = 0.016, ηp² = 0.4), and Overall Performance (p = 0.011, ηp² = 0.8) from pre-test to post-test. However, these improvements did not persist into the retention test (p = 0.131, p = 0.792, and p = 0.192, respectively). The CON group also improved significantly in Trial Time (p = 0.003), Penalty Time (p = 0.002), and Overall Performance (p = 0.001) from pre-test to post-test, but with smaller effect sizes and no sustained gains at retention. Conclusions: The ecological-dynamic approach (EDG) has proven to be more effective in enhancing passing skills compared to the traditional prescriptive approach (CON). Although both methods led to performance improvements, the EDG group achieved more significant progress.

Reconceptualising Intracareer Transitions as Coach-Becomings: A Rhizomatic Narrative Case Study of an American Basketball Coach

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2024

This paper offers a poststructuralist exploration of the career transitions of an American basketball coach into and within collegiate basketball. We draw on the theory of Deleuze and Guattari to reconceptualise coaching transitions as coach-becomings contrasted with humanist conceptions of outcome-centred, staged processes. Our nomadic analysis is based on longitudinal interviews and ethnographic data collected over a 4-year period. We adopt narrative rhizomatics and ventriloquism to examine the coaching and institutional assemblages engaged in the production of coaching beliefs and behaviours in specific transition contexts. We also attend to the dialogical and performative aspects of analysis in relation to the role of researchers. Our findings suggest that collegiate environments are conducive to disciplinary coaching practices framed within discourses of masculine militarism and dualist representationalism, thus adversely impacting learning, development, and adaptability in transition. We argue that an alternative conceptualisation of transitions as coach-becomings shifts the focus away from arborescent unitary logic to more creative, nonlinear pedagogies that embrace multiplicity and fluidity. Engaging with the Deleuzian ontology of difference also implies raising awareness of coaching as a social and political practice.

Current teachers’ perceptions and students' perspectives regarding activities modalities, instructional settings during primary school physical education classes in China: a cross-sectional observational study

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024

Introduction This study set out to understand the association between teaching practices, teacher confidence, competence, self-efficacy, and the resulting student outcomes. Methods Data regarding teaching behaviours were collected via video recording and then evaluated using the MASTER Observation Tool. The information about demographics, self-reported teaching confidence, competence, self-efficacy, and student outcomes was collected using questionnaires. The association between teacher characteristics, and teacher and/or student outcome variables were tested using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results A total of ten primary schools were involved, including 597 children (age range: 10–12 years, grade 4–6) and 16 grade 4–6 PE teachers (with 16 PE classes). Most of the Physical Education (PE) lesson time was spent in training-form activities (60.2% ± 9.1), followed by instructional time (33.1% ± 8.6%), reflection (3.4% ± 2.3%), and warm-up (2.9% ± 2.0 %). It was observed that teaching behaviours and student outcomes were significantly better in urban than rural areas. Smaller class sizes (21–30 children) were found to have more positive feedback than larger ones (41–50 children). PE teachers with more than 10 years of teaching experience reported more teaching competence and self-efficacy than teachers with less than 10 years of experience. PE teachers with class sizes of 21–30 children enjoyed significantly better scores in self-efficacy than classes with 41–50 children. They also scored more highly in confidence and competence than classes with 41–50 and 51–60 pupils. Conclusion The current study confirmed that teachers dedicated a large proportion of lesson time to PE delivering training-form activities, followed by instructional time. Teaching behaviour and student outcomes were associated with location and class size, but not gender. The study contributes to our understanding of PE instruction in Chinese primary schools and offers preliminary evidence to improve future PE teaching strategies in the country.

Impact of game format and age group on technical performance in youth football: A comprehensive analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2024

This study aimed to analyse technical action variations among 5, 7, 9, and 11-a-side game formats and investigate the effects of age groups (U8, U10, U12, and U14) on these actions. A total of 197 soccer players aged between 6.94 ± 0.7 and 13.46 ± 0.5 years participated, with three matches conducted weekly, totalling 48 matches. Two-way ANOVA was employed to analyse age group and game format as independent factors. The study revealed the influence of age group on players' technical actions variability: front pass success p < .001; side pass success p < .001; back pass success p < .001; short pass success p < .001; reception success p < .001; goal p < .002; unsuccessful short pass p < .001; unsuccessful long pass p < .001; ball contacts p < .001. Additionally, the study highlighted the impact of game format on success rates: front pass success p < .001; side pass success p < .001; back pass success p < .001; short pass success p < .001; reception success p < .001; goal p < .036; shot on target p < .001; ball contacts p < .001; interception p < .001. These findings enhance understanding of how game format and age group affect technical performance in youth soccer, emphasizing the need for interventions that optimize players’ development trajectories.

Effects of Constant Training Method and Variable Training Method on Football Dribbling Ability in Indian Tribal Boys

Article

Apr 2024

Pradip Saini

Purpose: The effects of a six-week constant training programme and variable training program on the dribbling ability of Indian Tribal football players. Methods: Forty-five Tribal boys football players (age:15.45 ± 0.75 years) were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: constant training method group (CTMG, N=15), variable training method group (VTMG, N=15), and control group (CG, N = 15). The constant training method group (CTMG) and variable training method group (VTMG) trained six sessions per week for 6 weeks. All football players were chosen from Bankura Football Academy, Bankura, West Bengal, India. Both before and after the intervention, dribbling efficiency was assessed. Football dribbling and passing skills were studied using a two-time repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) on the constant training group, the variable training group, and the control group. All of the aforementioned abilities were evaluated using the Mor-Christian soccer dribbling ability skill test both before and after the 6-week training programme. Conclusions: According to this study's findings, both constant and varied training methods significantly improved a youngster from an Indian tribal community's dribbling skills compared to the control group. The improvement of dribbling ability was greatly influenced by variable training methods.

Coaches’ experience of the importance, development and integration of decision-making and visual exploratory behaviour in an elite football academy setting

Article

Apr 2024

Understanding the pedagogic underpinning and knowledge sources of game form coaching in high- level team sport coaches

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

ОСОБИСТІСНО ЗОРІЄНТОВАНА ПІДГОТОВКА ТРЕНЕРІВ З ФУТБОЛУ: ТЕХНОЛОГІЯ ПЕДАГОГІЧНОГО ДИЗАЙНУ

Article

Mar 2024

Олексій Тимошенко

The role of pre-service physical education teachers in physical education – A bibliometric and systematic review

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024

Tong Zhou

Pre-service physical education teachers (PSPTs) have long been an important area of specific development in physical education and have become a significant force in the field of physical education and research over the past two decades. However, exploratory research on pre-service teachers remains relatively scarce, and lack a comprehensive scientific exploration of the scope of their role. Therefore, this study provides a comprehensive overview of pre-service physical education teacher education (PETE) from both a broad and specific perspective. Specifically, it includes the current state of PETE, the most influential authors, countries, journals, and literature, as well as specific research topics and future directions within PETE. Following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, a total of 340 articles were included, with 84 of them being empirical studies. The findings reveal that teacher training, diversity, equity, and inclusion in education, educational attitudes and beliefs, educational quality, educational methods and technology, career motivation, teaching models and strategies, and teacher assessment and reflection are major research themes. Visual analysis of the application of pre-service physical education teacher research highlights teacher training, diversity, equity, and inclusion in education, as well as instructional technology, as key areas of future focus. These insights contribute to the reasonable application of bibliometrics in the field of pre-service physical education teacher research.

Teaching grassroots soccer: a systematic review of literature

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024

Background and Study Aim. The process of soccer training for children and young people involves systematic exercise over an extended period to build a strong foundation of motor skills. These skills are designed to be both versatile and specific to the sport. The purpose of this research is to conduct a systematic review of literature related to the process of teaching grassroots football. This review aims to contribute to a better understanding of the strategies and methods employed in the development and training of young athletes. Material and Methods. To conduct this review, studies were searched in the Web of Science (WOS) and Scopus databases from 2012 to 2022. The search focused on scientific articles addressing soccer teaching for children and girls up to 14 years old, using the keywords "children AND (football OR soccer) AND teaching." The sample was limited to research in Spanish and English. The search yielded 149 articles, from which 19 studies were selected based on their titles and abstracts. Results. The findings revealed two main categories: teaching methods and their impact on technical and tactical skills in grassroots football, and factors affecting technical-tactical performance in this context. The most significant findings emphasize the importance of a comprehensive approach to teaching grassroots football, which involves the coordination of knowledge, skills, strategies, decision-making, and technical abilities. Conclusions. The review concludes that a variety of teaching approaches should be considered, and methodologies should be constantly evaluated to train future footballers with a deep understanding of the game.

Positional Differences in Youth Water Polo Players: Cognitive Functions, Specific Swimming Capacities and Anthropometric Characteristics

Article

Apr 2025

Objectives: Water polo players ought to possess various physical capacities and well-developed cognitive functions that reflect the requirements of their specific playing position. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compare the cognitive performance, anthropometric characteristics and specific swimming capacities of youth water polo players in different playing positions. Methods: The present cross-sectional study involved 106 youth water polo players. The subjects were recruited as part of a project for talent identification and selection for the Croatian National Water Polo Team. Testing included anthropometric measurements, specific swimming capacities and cognitive performance (Stroop test). Results: Among the 106 youth water polo players, there were 15 goalkeepers (14.2%), 21 center-defenders (19.8%), 17 center-forwards (16.0%), 34 drivers (32.1%) and 19 wings (17.9%), with the mean age of 14.14 ± 0.38 years. The wings performed faster than center-forwards in both StroopOff time (wings: 57.14 ± 10.04 s vs. center-forwards: 67.03 ± 9.72 s, p = 0.016) and StroopOn time (wings: 66.18 ± 15.86 s vs. center-forwards: 80.24 ± 15.64 s, p = 0.019). Conclusions: In conclusion, this study demonstrated significant differences between different playing positions in youth water polo players, specifically between center-forwards and wings. They performed faster than center-forwards in all tested variables of the Stroop test, measures of psychomotor ability, response inhibition and motor speed, as well as in specific swimming capacities measured in the 50 m crawl and the 400 m crawl. The results of this study provide a valuable foundation for establishing developmental recommendations for different playing positions, aimed at improving player’s performance. These recommendations should take into account anthropometric characteristics, specific functional swimming capacities and cognitive functions that influence players’ game intelligence, which can be enhanced through properly designed training programs.

Exploring the tendency to avoid physical activity among university students

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Feb 2025

Patricia Pawa Pitil

This study investigates the tendency to avoid physical activity and sports among university students at one public university. Physical inactivity is a significant public health concern, linked to increased risk of non-communicable diseases. The research aims to determine the differences in TAPAS based on gender, age groups, and Body Mass Index (BMI) categories. We collected data via online questionnaires, utilizing the Tendency to Avoid Physical Activity and Sports Scale (TAPAS). The study hypothesizes that there are significant differences in TAPAS scores across these demographic variables. Understanding the factors contributing to physical inactivity among university students is crucial for developing targeted intervention programs to improve their health outcomes. This research seeks to provide insights into the complex reasons behind the avoidance of physical activity, ultimately informing comprehensive strategies to promote healthier lifestyles among university students. The findings of this study can be beneficial references for future research related to physical activity and sports.

Management of football academies in Turkey: The player’s perspective

Article

Mar 2025

The performance of football academies is contingent upon the collaboration of various internal and external stakeholders. In this context, considering football players as crucial internal stakeholders in club-based football academies, the current research explores, from the viewpoints of elite players, the factors impacting the efficiency of management in Turkish football academies. Using the system theory approach as its theoretical framework, the specific focus was on describing the essential requisites and services within the input, process, feedback, output, and environmental aspects of the football academy management system. Subsequently, the study aimed to propose practical solutions to enhance various facets of the football academy management in Türkiye. Fifteen male participants, aged between 19 and 36 years old, were selected among active professional players competing in the top division of Türkiye (Süper Lig) who had also represented the Turkish National Teams in at least one official game above the U18 level during their careers. The data was obtained through semi-structured interviews and analysed using qualitative content analysis. According to the results, the effective selection of talented players, high-quality coaching, parents’ education, providing more competitive game experience, and resolving transition challenges to senior teams were critical for the success of football academies. The findings also highlighted key suggestions for the improvement of the overall performance of academies in Türkiye.

Win-Shift, Lose-Stay: Contingent Switching and Contextual Interference in Motor Learning

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2008
PERCEPT MOTOR SKILL

Learners (n = 48) practiced three multisegment movements with distinct target movement times. Four practice groups were compared: blocked, random, and two groups who had a win-shift/lose-stay schedule (WSLS1 and WSLS2). For these latter groups switching between practice tasks was performance-contingent: within 5% of target time for 1 or 2 consecutive trials, respectively. During acquisition, blocked performance was more accurate than for both random and WSLS2 groups. The WSLS1 group performed between blocked and random groups, but did not differ from either. In a next-day retention test, the random group scored better than the blocked group. The WSLS1 group performed similarly to the random practice while the WSLS2 group's scores were similar to those of the blocked group. Results encourage further study of similar practice schedules.

The Effect of Teaching Game for Understand on Cognitive Flexibility and Table Tennis Forehand Learning in Boy Students of the Second Year of Elementary School Keywords: Teaching Game for Understand, Tennis Learning, Cognitive Flexibility

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2025

Background and Objectives: Teaching in physical education in schools plays an important role in psychological and professional skills, especially in the elementary school. The present study was conducted with the aim of investigating the intervention of Teaching Game for Understanding (TGFU) on cognitive flexibility and learning table tennis forehand skills in second year elementary school students. Methods: For this purpose, a total of 60 students trained randomly in two TGFU (30 people) and traditional (30 people) groups. Interventions were conducted in 4 weeks, 3 sessions per week and each session lasted 45 minutes. All participants completed the cognitive flexibility questionnaire as well as the table tennis skill test from the beginning to the second week and the end of the intervention. Findings: The results of repeated measures analysis of variance showed that the participants of the TGFU group had higher scores than their counterparts in the traditional group in relation to table tennis skills and cognitive flexibility. Conclusion: The results of the present study confirm the positive role of TGFU on psychological and skill variables in students and can be used as a training to improve the knowledge of teachers. Therefore, the results of this study consider TGFU as an effective solution for the pedagogy content knowledge of physical education teachers.

The Handoff—Succession from Paul to Timothy

Chapter

Jan 2025

T. Martin Flowers

Succession is the result of the succession management and planning process. This chapter describes elements for Timothy to put in place to lead the Ephesian church. Paul planted the church and wanted to ensure the church's continuance. Timothy must have godly characteristics for consideration and ongoing development to be the successor. This chapter discusses the requirements for Timothy and other godly but young and timid leaders. Additionally, this paper shows that Paul modeled for Timothy the expectations he had of him. This section also briefly presents the relevant themes involved in succession.

Tenis Sporunda Antrenörün Rolü, Önemi ve Antrenör-Sporcu İlişkisi

Chapter

Dec 2024

La co-construction et l'implantation de séquences d'apprentissage de jeux et sports collectifs basées sur une approche fondée sur la compréhension du jeu (LGtU) : une recherche-action participative-collaborative

Thesis

Full-text available

Oct 2024

Vincent Pigeon

Depuis plusieurs années, on constate qu'un trop grand nombre d'adolescents canadiens ne vivent peut-être pas suffisamment d'expériences significatives dans leurs cours d'éducation physique, ce qui peut avoir des effets négatifs sur leur pratique d'activité physique (Robitaille, 2019). Plusieurs chercheurs ont ainsi tenté de déterminer quelles pourraient être les pratiques pédagogiques les plus susceptibles de favoriser la motivation et l'apprentissage des élèves, particulièrement lors de l'enseignement des jeux et sports collectifs qui occupent une place importante dans les programmes d'éducation physique (Bunker et Thorpe, 1982 ; Gréhaigne et al., 2009, 2010 ; Kirk, 2012; Mitchell et al., 2013). À maintes reprises, ces chercheurs ont exposé les limites de l'approche traditionnelle dite « technocentrée » pour les enseigner. Ces limites seraient susceptibles d'être défavorables autant à la motivation des élèves qu'à leurs apprentissages. Depuis, de nombreuses approches à fondement socioconstructiviste et basées sur la compréhension du jeu ont été proposées et sont considérées comme plus adéquates pour favoriser l'apprentissage des jeux et sports collectifs (Ben Khalifa et al., 2021 ; Zerai, 2018 ; Zghibi, Guinoubi et al., 2013). C'est le cas de l'approche « Learning Games through Understanding » (LGtU) (Gréhaigne et al., 2009, 2010). Quoi qu'il en soit, l'expérience et les observations du terrain portent à croire que l'approche « technocentrée » est tout de même préconisée par la grande majorité des éducateurs physiques (Chevrier, 2021 ; Chevrier et al., 2017 ; Genet-Volet et Desrosiers, 1995). Par ailleurs, les raisons pour lesquelles ces enseignants semblent résister à changer leurs façons d'enseigner pour ces approches plus appropriées sont très peu documentées (Cloes et al., 2014). La présente étude vise donc à étudier un processus de co-construction de séquences d'apprentissage de jeux et sports collectifs qui s'appuie sur l'approche LGtU et à décrire l'incidence de son implantation sur les enseignants-participants. L'étude a été réalisée en collaboration avec trois éducateurs physiques de niveau secondaire et tenait compte de leur contexte d'enseignement. Les pratiques pédagogiques sur lesquelles s'appuient ces processus de co-construction et d'implantation des séquences d'apprentissage ont par ailleurs été supportées par l'expertise du chercheur principal en matière d'enseignement des jeux et sports collectifs. Plusieurs méthodes de collectes de données, dont des entrevues semi-dirigées et des enregistrements des rencontres collectives, ont été utilisées tout au long de ces processus de co-construction et d'implantation, non seulement pour optimiser le développement professionnel des enseignants- participants, mais également pour garder des traces des changements de leurs pratiques, de leurs perceptions quant à ces processus ainsi qu'aux effets sur les conditions d'enseignement-apprentissage implantées. Le chercheur principal a également tenu un journal de bord lui permettant de consigner ses propres perceptions tout au long de l'étude. L'analyse des données récoltées a mis en exergue plusieurs préoccupations et préconceptions des enseignants-participants quant à l'opérationnalisation de l'approche LGtU. Entre autres, il a été question d'inquiétudes relatives aux lacunes techniques qu'elles pourraient occasionner chez les élèves, à l'assurance du maintien d'un temps de développement moteur élevé de ces derniers et au nombre élevé de séances d'apprentissage proposées. De même, une compréhension lacunaire du rôle de catalyseur d'apprentissage que doit adopter l'éducateur physique utilisant ce genre d'approche a également fait surface au cours de l'étude. Pour contrecarrer ces préoccupations, plusieurs pratiques complémentaires à l'approche LGtU visant à mobiliser les élèves au cours des activités d'apprentissage proposées ont été ajoutées aux séquences d'apprentissage co-construites. Globalement, les séquences d'apprentissage ont été planifiées, implantées et régulées en respectant les principaux fondements du LGtU, bien que certaines pratiques aient été délaissées principalement par crainte de perdre l'intérêt des élèves pour l'activité sportive enseignée. En définitive, les résultats obtenus et l'expérience vécue lors de cette recherche-action ont démontré qu'il est difficile, pour des éducateurs physiques, de changer leurs pratiques pour tendre vers une approche socioconstructiviste. Il est toutefois probable qu'un changement de vision s'opère progressivement dans ce sens en respectant certains « éléments critiques » (Kirk, 2017) d'un modèle pédagogique « souple ». D'autres études du même genre seraient nécessaires pour contribuer à renforcer le modèle de pratiques pédagogiques proposées et pour approfondir les connaissances relatives à ce qui est nécessaire pour assurer un accompagnement optimal des éducateurs physiques dans ce type de changement de pratique.

TENİSTE YETENEK SEÇİMİ

Chapter

Full-text available

Dec 2024

Emrah Yilmaz

TENİSTE YETENEK SEÇİMİ

The Effect of Pedagogy Content Knowledge in Linear and Differential Method on Athletes' Performance and Coaches' Knowledge in Breaststroke

Article

Aug 2024

Background: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of pedagogy content knowledge in linear (LP) and differential (DL) methods on athletes' performance and coaches' knowledge in breaststroke. Methods: For this study, 45 physical education students (age mean = 22.17 ± 2.59) were purposefully selected. Based on their performance, they were divided into three groups of 15 individuals each: Control (G1), linear (G2), and differential (G3). G1 underwent ten days of initial training. The coach then attended an LP workshop and trained G2 for the following ten days. Subsequently, the coach attended a DL workshop and trained G3 for the final ten days. The coach's behavior was assessed in three domains: Verbal communication, visual representation, and appropriateness of descriptive evaluation method. Results: The findings indicated that the trainer's actions decreased as they progressed from G1 to G3, with noticeable changes in behavior based on the training method. The results revealed significant differences between the groups in terms of group and test * group interaction. Specifically, G3 outperformed G2 and G1 in both record variables and hand strokes. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that pedagogy content knowledge (PCK) workshops are beneficial for enhancing a coach's behavior to support learners and enhance their skills.

The Research Map Regarding the Importance of Communication in Athlete Success: Bibliometric Analysis

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2024

How Does Increasing Contextual Interference in a Musical Practice Session Affect Acquisition and Retention?

Article

Apr 2024

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of three schedules of practice on high-level violinists’ learning. The contextual interference (CI) effect occurs when two or more tasks are practiced in an interleaved manner, which has been shown to impair initial learning but improve retention. How a musician alternates between tasks during practice can have a great impact on learning. This study was designed to explore how an increasing schedule of CI within a practice session would compare to the traditional blocked and random schedules. Sport research has shown a dynamically adaptive schedule to be advantageous, yet this area is relatively unexplored in music. Twenty advanced violinists at a music school practiced three sets of musical excerpts under three practice schedule conditions: blocked (pieces practiced one at a time), increasing contextual interference (blocked and then random), and interleaved (pieces randomly alternating). Recordings were taken at the stages of sight-reading, acquisition (immediately after practice sessions), and retention (24 hours later). Expert ratings of each musician’s recordings revealed no effect at the acquisition stage. However, at the delayed retention test, the blocked condition proved to be most effective. Fifty percent of participants perceived blocked practice to be the most effective.

A Pragmatic Approach to Skill Acquisition for Physical Education: Considering Cognitive and Ecological Dynamics Perspectives

Article

May 2024
QUEST

Learning theories provide philosophically informed, basic principles for understanding the mechanisms through which people learn based on a combination of field or laboratory studies. Unfortunately, however, there are several clear conflicts between theoretical approaches and common methods in teaching. Consequently, key challenges among teachers relate to knowing which theoretical approach to adopt and, therefore, methods to apply. This contradiction is even more confusing since some arguments from each approach are coherent with current practice, whilst others are either inconsistent, unclear or even counter to established teaching views. In short, the implications for teachers are, at best, suboptimal. Accordingly, this paper aims to explore the differences in theoretical perspectives and thence, to propose that there is a need for multiple approaches, possibly used in combination. We hope to offer clearer guidance for practitioners and provide some direction to promote better application from researchers.

Estudio del feedback de entrenadores/as de voleibol a jugadoras durante la competición en etapa formativa

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024

El feedback desempeña un papel determinante en los procesos de enseñanza-aprendizaje. La utilización adecuada del feedback, mejora la calidad del proceso de enseñanza y fomenta que el aprendizaje sea más significativo para el alumnado y los deportistas, ya que los hace partícipes de su propio desarrollo. Para ello, es necesario conocer las distintas formas y momentos de uso del feedback. El objetivo del presente estudio fue analizar el tipo de feedback que proporcionan los entrenadores/as de voleibol a sus jugadoras de etapa de formación durante la competición. Este análisis se llevó a cabo a través de la grabación de tres partidos de 5 entrenadores/as de diferentes equipos de voleibol pertenecientes a la categoría infantil en la Región de Murcia, registrando un total de 1968 feedbacks. Los resultados mostraron que prevalecen los feedbacks de tipo individual, prescriptivo y afectivo sin una inclinación hacia positivo o negativo. Además, se observó que algunos tipos de feedback cambian en función de si se proporciona durante el juego o en tiempos muertos, como el feedback según la dirección ya que en los tiempos muertos los entrenadores/as hacen un mayor uso del feedback grupal. Estos resultados coinciden con estudios semejantes realizados hace más de 20 años, si bien, tanto en los estudios previos, como en el presente estudio, los resultados van en contra del uso del feedback para lograr un adecuado proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje.

Contextual Interference Effects with Skilled Baseball Players

Article

Full-text available

Jun 1994
PERCEPT MOTOR SKILL

The learning benefits of contextual interference have been frequently demonstrated in different settings using novice learners. The purpose of the present study was to test such effects with skilled athletic performers. Scheduling differences for biweekly additional (“extra”) batting-practice sessions of a collegiate baseball team were examined. 30 players (ns = 10) were blocked on skill and then randomly assigned to one of three groups. The random and blocked groups received 2 additional batting-practice sessions each week for 6 wk. (12 sessions), while the control group received no additional practice. The extra sessions consisted of 45 pitches, 15 fastballs, 15 curve-balls, and 15 change-up pitches. The random group received these pitches in a random order, while the blocked group received all 15 of one type, then 15 of the next type, and finally 15 of the last type of pitch in a blocked fashion. All subjects received a pretest of 45 randomly presented pitches of the three varieties. After 6 wk. of extra batting practice, all subjects received two transfer tests, each of 45 trials; one was presented randomly and one blocked. The transfer tests were counterbalanced across subjects. Pretest analysis showed no significant differences among groups. On both the random and blocked transfer tests, however, the random group performed with reliably higher scores than the blocked group, who performed better than the control group. When comparing the pretest to the random transfer test, the random group improved 56.7%, the blocked group 24.8%, and the control group only 6.2%. These findings demonstrate the contextual interference effect to be robust and beneficial even to skilled learners in a complex sport setting.

Perceptual expertise: Development in sport

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2003

The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance

Article

Full-text available

Jul 1993

The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning.

Information Feedback for Skill Acquisition: Instantaneous Knowledge of Results Degrades Learning

Article

Full-text available

Jul 1990

The role of acquired error-detection capabilities in skill learning was investigated by manipulating the delay of knowledge of results (KR). Compared with delayed feedback, instantaneous KR should be detrimental to the learning of error-detection capabilities because it should tend to block spontaneous subjective evaluation of response-produced feedback. Weaker error-detection capabilities should then be evident on delayed no-KR retention tests. During acquisition, one group of subjects received KR after a delay of a few seconds while another group received KR instantaneously; then both were evaluated on several retention tests. Using a timing task with two reversals in direction (Experiment 1) and a coincident-timing task (Experiment 2), we found that, relative to delayed feedback, instantaneous KR degraded learning as measured on delayed retention tests. Although the KR-delay interval has traditionally been considered of minor importance for skill learning, the present findings suggest that very short KR-delays interfere with learning, perhaps by degrading the acquisition of error-detection capabilities.

Perceptual and Cognitive Skill Development in Soccer: The Multidimensional Nature of Expert Performance

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2003

This study examined the relative contribution of visual, perceptual, and cognitive skills to the development of expertise in soccer. Elite and sub-elite players, ranging in age from 9 to 17 years, were assessed using a multidimensional battery of tests. Four aspects of visual function were measured: static and dynamic visual acuity; stereoscopic depth sensitivity; and peripheral awareness. Perceptual and cognitive skills were assessed via the use of situational probabilities, as well as tests of anticipation and memory recall. Stepwise discriminant analyses revealed that the tests of visual function did not consistently discriminate between skill groups at any age. Tests of anticipatory performance and use of situational probabilities were the best in discriminating across skill groups. Memory recall of structured patterns of play was most predictive of age. As early as age 9, elite soccer players demonstrated superior perceptual and cognitive skills when compared to their sub-elite counterparts. Implications for training perceptual and cognitive skill in sport are discussed.

Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1979
J Exp Psychol Hum Learn Mem

72 college students learned 3 motor tasks under a blocked (low interference) or random (high interference) sequence of presentation. Retention was measured after a 10-min or 10-day delay under blocked and random sequences of presentation. Subsequent transfer to a task of either the same complexity or greater complexity than the originally learned tasks was also investigated. Results showed that retention was greater following random acquisition than under changed contextual interference conditions. Likewise, transfer was greater for random acquisition groups than for blocked acquisition groups. This effect was most notable when transfer was measured for the transfer task of greatest complexity. Results are considered as support for W. F. Battig's (1978) conceptualization of contextual interference effects on retention and transfer. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Contextual Interference Effects in Learning Three Badminton Serves

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2013

This study investigated the generalizability of results of contextual interference effects by extending previous laboratory research to a field setting. Thirty female subjects (N = 30) learned three badminton serves in either a blocked (low interference), serial (mixed interference), or random (high interference) practice schedule. The subjects practiced the serves three days a week for three weeks. On the day following the completion of practice the subjects were given a retention and transfer test. Results replicated previous findings of contextual interference research by showing a significant group by block interaction between acquisition trials, retention, and transfer. The random group performed better on both retention and transfer than the blocked group. The significant trial block by contextual interference interaction also supports the generalizability of contextual interference effects, as posited by Shea and Morgan (1979), to the teaching of motor skills.

DELIBERATE PRACTICE AND EXPERT PERFORMANCE: DEFINING THE PATH TO EXCELLENCE

Article

Full-text available

Examining and Extending Research in Coach Development

Article

Full-text available

Feb 1998

Research to date provides two approaches to assessing coaching expertise. The first is behavioral assessment and the second is to assess coaches' knowledge base. However, we contend that both approaches are flawed due to their inability to adequately improve coach development by failing to answer three fundamental questions: What knowledge should be taught to novice coaches? What is the optimal method for teaching this knowledge? And how should we assess to encourage learning? Cognitive psychology has demonstrated that someone with expert cognitive skill is characterized as having expert declarative and procedural knowledge. Experts are further characterized by having greater organization of this knowledge. Thus the expert is able to apply expert knowledge in a more expert manner to solve complex problems in a specific domain. Properly exploiting ideas such as these can help direct future research to provide answers to the questions posed above. © 1998 National Association for Physical Education in Higher Education.

The Development of Response Selection Accuracy in a Football Linebacker Using Video Training

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1990

Examined whether response selection (RS) accuracy could be improved without sacrificing a male 22-yr-old football linebacker's RS speed by practicing his RS skills in relation to various offensive plays that were seen via videotape from an angle similar to what he would see in a game. The S responded to the cues of the tight end and backfield play by manipulating a joystick as accurately and quickly as possible. There was an improvement in RS accuracy without sacrificing RS speed. Training using a videotape can be an effective method for improving the perceptual skills needed for RS accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Information feedback for skill acquisition: Instantaneous knowledge of results degrades learning’, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 16, 706-716

Article

Full-text available

Jul 1990

Team Sports and the Theory of Deliberate Practice

Article

Full-text available

Mar 1998

Two studies tested the theory of deliberate practice (K. A. Ericsson et al, 1993) and contrasted results with the sport commitment model (T. K. Scanlan et al, 1993a, 1993b). In Part I, international (mean age 25.6 yrs), national (mean age 24.0 yrs), and provincial (mean age 25.4 yrs) soccer and field hockey players recalled the amount of time they spent in individual and team practice, sport-related activities, and everyday activities at the start of their career and every 3 years since. In Part II, these activities were rated in terms of their relevance for improving performance, effort and concentration required, and enjoyment. A monotonic relationship between accumulated individual plus team practice and skill level was found. In contrast with Ericsson et al's findings for musicians, relevant activities were also enjoyable, while concentration became a separate dimension from effort. The viability of a generalized theory of expertise is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

A Schema Theory of Discrete Motor Skill Learning

Article

Full-text available

Jul 1975

Richard A. Schmidt

Argues that although a number of closed-loop postulations to explain motor skills learning and performance phenomena have appeared recently, each of these views suffers from either (a) logical problems in explaining the phenomena or (b) predictions that are not supported by the empirical evidence. After these difficulties are discussed, a new theory for discrete motor learning is proposed that is considered to be capable of explaining the existing findings. The theory is based on the notion of the schema and uses a recall memory to produce movement and a recognition memory to evaluate response correctness. Some of the predictions are mentioned, research techniques and paradigms that can be used to test the predictions are listed, and data in support of the theory are presented. (89 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance

Article

Full-text available

Jul 1993
PSYCHOL REV

The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 yrs. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Modeling: Considerations for motor skill performance and psychological responses

Article

Jan 2001

An integrative modeling approach to the study of intentional and movement behavior

Article

Jan 2001

Training perceptual skill using on-court instruction in tennis: Perception versus perception and action

Article

Jan 2005

Using situational probabilities to train perceptual and cognitive skill in novice soccer players

Article

Jan 2005

Youth Soccer: From Science to Performance

Book

Sep 2004

As the adult game has increased in popularity, youth soccer has also seen significant expansion in recent years. The popularity of the youth game is set to continue. Young boy and girl players wish to emulate professional soccer stars and the professional game, often with long-term financial rewards in mind, is increasingly keen to develop young talent. Applied sports science is now a well-established feature of the adult game but the sports science that supports modern football does not translate directly into the youth game. The coaches of young players need specific information about children. Themes explored in this text include: growth of physiological systems development of motor and perceptive skills paediatric environmental physiology prevention of injury diet and nutrition youth fitness and skills training effective teaching and coaching of juniors the role of football academies. Youth Soccer: From Science to Performance blends current child-focused sports science theory with youth-specific coaching practice to help create soccer development strategies for children. It promotes knowledge and understanding in all these areas and will further professional expertise amongst coaches who wish to develop the all year round potential of youth soccer players and train the stars of the future. © 2004 Gareth Stratton, Thomas Reilly, A. Mark Williams and Dave Richardson. All rights reserved.

Chapter 9 Activity During the Post-Knowledge of Results Interval Can Benefit Motor Skill Learning

Chapter

Dec 1988

Richard A. Magill

Information presented from an external source to a learner following a practice response is commonly termed 'knowledge of results' (KR). The importance of KR can be demonstrated by observing the influence on learning of interval length or activity conditions following the receipt of KR during the post-KR interval. The traditional view is that if interval conditions lead to an increased likelihood of forgetting KR or sensory feedback, or of disrupting strategy formation for the next practice response, then poorer learning should result than if more optimal conditions prevailed. Two experiments are presented that argue against this view. Results indicate that conditions involving post-KR activity or a 20-sec empty interval lead to no worse retention than a 5-sec no activity interval. Even more striking is that post-KR activity and a 20-sec empty interval facilitate novel response transfer. This benefit cannot be due to experiencing response Variations, contrary to schema theory predictions, since practising goal task variations during the post-KR interval did not lead to more accurate transfer performance than practising responses not related to the goal task. These results indicate the need to rethink current hypotheses relative to the influence of post-KR interval conditions on motor skill learning.

Deliberate practice and expertise in the martial arts: The role of context in motor recall

Article

Sep 1998

This study used participants from the marital arts (karate) to examine the influence of context in the acquisition of novel motor sequences and the applicability of Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer's (1993) theory of deliberate practice in this athletic domain. The presence of context did not benefit recall performance for the experts. The performance of the novice group was hindered by the presence of context. Evaluation of the role of deliberate practice in expert performance was assessed through retrospective questionnaires. The findings related to the relationship between relevance and effort, and relevance and enjoyment diverged from Ericsson et al.'s (1993) definition of deliberate practice, suggesting that adaptations should be made if it is to be considered a general theory of expertise.

Wrestling with the nature of expertise: A sport specific test of Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer's (1993) theory of ≪deliberate practice

Article

Oct 1996
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer (1993) have concluded from work with musicians that expertise is the result of ≪deliberate practice≫, so how valid is this conclusion in sport? Four groups of male amateur wrestlers (n = 42); 2 international and 2 club (current and retired) recalled the number of hours they had spent in wrestling and everyday activities since beginning wrestling. All groups had begun wrestling at a similar age (M = 13 yrs) and had been wrestling for 10 years or more. Data were examined as a function of age and years spent wrestling. Contrary to Ericsson et al. practice alone activities did not differentiate between the groups, only practice with others. At 6 years into their careers, the international group practised 4.5 hrs/week more than the club wrestlers. At 20 years of age the international wrestlers had accumulated over 1000 more hours of practice with others compared to the club wrestlers. Evaluations of wrestling related activities showed that activities judged to be relevant were also rated high with regards to concentration and enjoyment. Diary data were collected from current wrestlers to validate the retrospective reports. The time spent in all wrestling related activities was comparable for the club and international wrestlers, however, the international wrestlers spent longer travelling to practice, which reflected the necessity to train at a club with the best sparring partners. Practice with others yielded high correlations between estimates for a typical week and the diary data for the international wrestlers. In conclusion Ericsson et al.'s definition of ≪deliberate practice≫ needs to be considered, especially as ≪relevancez≫ correlates highly with ≪enjoyment≫. It is recommended that future studies focus on what it is that motivates people to spend the necessary hours of practice to achieve expertise.

Coordination, Control and Skill

Article

Dec 1985

Karl Newell

In this chapter, I develop the interpretation of coordination, control and skill sketched by Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1980, 1982). The orientation promoted here is primarily descriptive with the focus being the development of a framework for a useful operational distinction between the three terms. 1 believe one can draw on the interpretation of coordination, control and skill outlined by Kugler and colleagues without necessarily invoking the theoretical position advanced by this group, although it will become clear as this chapter unfolds, that I am sympathetic to this theoretical position.

Observational learning and the acquisition of motor skills: Toward a visual perception perspective

Article

Jan 1985
J Hum Mov Stud

Emergence of sport skills under constraints

Article

Jan 2004

Perception and action in sport

Article

Jan 1999
J Hum Mov Stud

Observational learning: Is it time we took another look?

Article

Jan 2004

Growth and maturity status of young soccer players

Article

Feb 2003

R.M. Malina

Correct and learning models and the use of model knowledge of results in the acquisition and retention of a motor skill

Article

Jan 1990
J Hum Mov Stud

Knowledge of results and motor learning: A review and critical reappraisal

Article

May 1984

Examines some critical definitional and experimental-design problems that underlie the principles of knowledge of results (KR) and learning, the KR literature, and how newer principles of KR lead to notions of how KR works in human motor-learning situations. KR is defined as augmented feedback, where the KR is additional to those sources of feedback that are naturally received when a response is made. Transfer tests, usually under no-KR conditions, are essential for unraveling the temporary effects of KR manipulations from their relatively permanent learning effects. When this is considered, the literature reveals findings that produce reasonable agreement, although there are a number of inconsistencies in studies examining the same variables. When learning vs performance effects of KR are separated, a number of contradictions occur; new principles that emerge include the notion that KR acts as guidance, that it is motivating or energizing, and that it has a role in the formation of associations. It is suggested that KR may guide an S to the proper target behavior, with other processes (e.g., simple repetition) being the critical determinants of learning. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).

Can Forgetting Facilitate Skill Acquisition?

Chapter

Dec 1985

This chapter presents a conceptual synthesis of some related, and perhaps, previously unrelated empirical research. The impetus for this chapter arises primarily from our recent explorations of the so-called "contextual" "interference" effect (Lee & Magill, 1983a, 1983b; Lee, Magill & Weeks, 1984; Magill & Lee, 1984) and specifically, the inability of current theories of motor learning to explain why this effect occurs.

Science and soccer

Book

Jan 2003

Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis

Book

Jan 1999

Sport Psychology: Contemporary Themes

Book

Jan 2004

Sport Psychology: Contemporary Themes

Book

Jan 2012

Knowledge of Results Precision as a Learning Variable in Motor Skill Acquisition

Article

Dec 2013

Visual Perception & Action in Sport

Book

Jan 1999

A Theoretical and Empirical Review of the Contextual Interference Effect and the Learning of Motor Skills

Article

Aug 1998

Frank Brady

This paper addresses the contextual interference hypothesis, which was originally formulated by Battig (1966) and later adapted to motor learning by Shea and Morgan (1979). The hypothesis has generated much research, and its application has been readily suggested to practitioners. According to the hypothesis, high contextual interference (random practice) impairs acquisition but enhances retention and transfer, whereas low contextual interference (blocked practice) has the opposite effects. The empirical basis for the hypothesis—from laboratory-oriented and field-based settings—is examined. The generalizability of the hypothesis is also assessed. Recommendations are made for practitioners for optimal use of the contextual interference effect.

INSTRUCTIONS, DEMONSTRATIONS AND THE LEARNING PROCESS: CREATING AND CONSTRAINING MOVEMENT OPTIONS

Article

Jul 1977

The rage to master: the decisive role of talent in the visual arts

Article

Jan 1996

Ellen Winner

Symbolic Connectionism: Toward Third-Generation Theories of Expertise

Article

Keith J Holyoak

Extending the boundaries of science: implications for the various codes of football

Article

Jun 2004

Effects of Training in Visual Discrimination after One Year: Visual Analysis of Volleyball Skills

Article

Aug 1992

SUSAN WILKINSON

Although the effects of specialized training in visual analysis of skills are well documented, whether the effects are lasting is not. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the effect a visual skills training program in volleyball had on participants one year after the completion of a training intervention. Subjects received either traditional performance instruction supplemented with visual training or traditional performance instruction in volleyball only. All subjects remaining in the teacher education program from a previous study were given a visual test on diagnosing errors in three different volleyball skills (the forearm pass, the overhead pass, and the overhead serve). Subjects exposed to visual training remained significantly better at diagnosing errors for the three volleyball skills one year later as compared to those subjects who had not received visual training.

Research report Fixation behavior in observation and imitation of human movement

Article

Nov 1998
Cognit Brain Res

This paper describes experiments performed with 40 subjects wearing an eye-tracker and watching and imitating videos of finger, hand, and arm movements. For all types of stimuli, the subjects tended to fixate on the hand, regardless of whether they were imitating or . just watching. The results lend insight into the connection between visual perception and motor control, suggesting that: 1 people analyze human arm movements largely by tracking the hand or the end-point, even if the movement is performed with the entire arm, and .2 when imitating, people use internal innate and learned models of movement, possibly in the form of motor primitives, to recreate the details of whole-arm posture and movement from end-point trajectories. q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Deliberate practice in sports: What is it anyway?

Article

Jan 1996

look at the practice activities of skilled wrestlers and figure skaters from the deliberate practice framework developed by K. A. Ericsson, R. T. Krampe, and C. Tesch-Römer (1993) / looks at practice in wrestlers of different skill levels to determine whether the framework of deliberate practice applies to an activity very different from the domain of music in which it was first investigated / considers what expert coaches consider to be the most important factors in producing world-class skaters, and how they structure practices / compares wrestlers and skaters to the violinists and pianists studied by Ericsson et al (1993) / [describe] a golfer who, we argue, shows the limits to what can be accomplished purely through deliberate practice (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Training perceptual skill in sport

Article

Jan 1970
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

This review considers whether there are any potential training methods to enhance the development of perceptual skill in sport. The efficacy of generalized visual skills training programs and more cognitively-based interventions are considered. Although research has neglected to examine whether improvements in perceptual skill transfer to the performance context, sport-specific training programs which develop the knowledge base underlying skilled perception are likely to be more effective than clinically-based visual skills training programs. Video technology or simulation may be particularly effective, when coupled with appropriate instructional techniques, in developing perceptual expertise in sport. Several practical and theoretical issues related to the design, implementation, and evaluation of perceptual training programs in sport are discussed and future research directions highlighted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Skill in Chess

Article

Jul 1973

Reports some unexpected byproducts of experiments with chess-playing tasks and computer simulation of skilled performance and problem solving. First, the theory of the processes used by expert chess players in discovering checkmating combinations and the MATER computer simulation of these processes are reviewed. Next phenomena involving the perceptual bases of mastery in chess and eye movements at the chess board are described. Perceptual processes were evaluated by way of the MATER program, and a new program, PERCEIVER, was used to explain the eye movement phenomenon. To further refine the above findings, other more sophisticated simulation programs were introduced. Findings indicate that acquisition of chess skills depends, in large part, on building up recognition memory for many familiar chess patterns. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Talent scouts, not practice scouts: Talents are real

Article

Jun 1998
BEHAV BRAIN SCI

David C. Rowe

Howe et al. have mistaken gene x environment correlations for environmental main effects. Thus, they believe that training would develop the same level of performance in anyone, when it would not. The heritability of talents indicates their dependence on variation in physiological (including neurological) capacities. Talents may be difficult to predict from early cues because tests are poorly designed, or because the skill requirements change at more advanced levels of performance. One twin study of training effects demonstrated greater heritability of physical skill after than before training. In summary, talents are real.

The effect of type of practice on motor learning in children

Article

Mar 1991
APPL COGNITIVE PSYCH

Gabriele Wulf

The present investigation was concerned with the variability-of-practice hypothesis of Schmidt's schema theory of motor learning; i. e. it was sought to determine if there is an optimal way to structure the variable practice session with regard to schema formation. Furthermore, children's motor recognition (movement evaluation) was examined, in addition to recall (movement production), since apparently no such studies had been done within the context of schema theory before. Eighty-eight girls and boys with a mean age of 11.3 years were tested on a throwing task. Three groups of subjects practised under variable conditions (different target distances and weights) that differed with regard to contextual interference and sequential organization of task variations; another group received constant throwing practice. Following practice trials with knowledge of results, the four treatment groups and a control group without prior practice were required to produce and evaluate a novel response (novel target distance and weight) without vision and knowledge of results. The results supported the variability-of-practice hypothesis, in that variable practice in general facilitated recall and recognition on the novel task. Furthermore, variable practice with the highest level of contextual interference (random order of tasks) produced most effective transfer performance, suggesting that the structure of the variable-practice session in fact plays a role with regard to the effectiveness of motor schema development. Contrary to the ‘organization hypothesis’ (Gentile and Nacson, 1976) a hierarchical organization of movement variations was not more beneficial to schema formation than random practice.

Information feedback for motor skill learning: a review

Chapter

Jan 1996

Stephan P Swinnen

Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: Challenging tradition

Abstract

No full-text available

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