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Practice, instruction and skill acquisition in soccer: Challenging tradition
Abstract
The acquisition of soccer skills is fundamental to our enjoyment of the game and is essential to the attainment of expertise. Players spend most of their time in practice with the intention of improving technical skills. However, there is a lack of scientific research relating to the effective acquisition of soccer skills, especially when compared with the extensive research base on physiological aspects of performance. Current coaching practice is therefore based on tradition, intuition and emulation rather than empirical evidence. The aim of this review is to question some of the popular beliefs that guide current practice and instruction in soccer. Empirical evidence is presented to dispel many of these beliefs as myths, thereby challenging coaches to self-reflect and critically evaluate contemporary doctrine. The review should inform sports scientists and practitioners as to the important role that those interested in skill acquisition can play in enhancing performance at all levels of the game.
... No futebol de alto rendimento, entretanto, não é suficiente que apenas a configuração do exercício seja específica, é necessário também que a intervenção do treinador seja ajustada para alcançar os objetivos do treino (Azevedo, 2009;Otte et al., 2020). Nessa direção, uma série de estudos tem demonstrado que os comportamentos (por exemplo, instrução, feedback, organização da prática) dos treinadores tem um forte impacto sobre o desenvolvimento de habilidades técnicas e táticas de jogadores de futebol, sendo especificamente o feedback extrínseco um dos principais fatores tradicionalmente manipulados pelos treinadores, com o objetivo de potencializar a aprendizagem esportiva (Williams & Hodges, 2005;Pacheco et al., 2023). A investigação específica sobre a utilização do feedback extrínseco vem sendo historicamente analisada por diversas áreas de conhecimento, o que pode ser explicado por sua ampla possibilidade de aplicação nos mais diversos contextos (e.g., Garcia et al., 2014;Ridder et al., 2008;Tani et al., 2010). ...
... Especificamente, o CP fornece informações sobre o desempenho do movimento ou processos durante a execução da habilidade motora (e.g., informações sobre o padrão de movimento do chute). Já o CR fornece informações sobre os resultados da ação de realização da habilidade motora (e.g., informações fornecidas aos atletas sobre se o objetivo da tarefa foi alcançado ou o grau de erro que levou à não realização) (Magill, 2011;Williams & Hodges, 2005). Segundo Arjol-Serrano (2021) e Yi et al. (2019), as exigências técnico-motoras e energéticofuncionais no futebol são influenciadas pelo contexto táticoestratégico do jogo, o que pode influenciar a escolha no estudo do CP, visto que as informações advindas do CR podem ser insuficientes para os jogadores se corrigirem ou, em outro extremo, podem ser redundantes com base na utilização de feedback intrínseco (e.g., visão, audição). ...
... Outro tipo de feedback analisado encontrado foi o feedback de vídeo (Harris et al., 2020;Magill et al., 2017), podendo ser considerado um feedback tecnológico e uma ferramenta eficaz para treinadores em torno de uma sessão de treinamento ou competição (Williams & Hodges, 2005;Otte et al., 2020). Na presente revisão, o estudo de Harris et al. (2020) encontrou ganhos no desempenho de exercícios de ZigZag em jogadoras a partir da utilização do feedback de vídeo. ...
O presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar o panorama de produções científicas investigando o papel do feedback extrínseco no contexto de jogadores de futebol. Foi realizada uma revisão integrativa de literatura a partir da pesquisa nas bases de dados Pubmed via MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus (Elsevier) e Scielo. A estratégia de busca incluiu os descritores “soccer”, “football”, “futebol”, “feedback”, sendo que foram incluídos artigos em língua inglesa ou portuguesa que apresentaram um ou mais descritores no título e/ou no resumo e/ou nas palavras-chave e tiveram o futebol e feedback extrínseco como objeto de investigação no estudo, com enfoque no jogador, em textos completos disponíveis na íntegra pelo meio online. Dos 853 artigos identificados após a busca, 29 artigos foram incluídos nesta revisão. Os resultados demonstraram o conhecimento de performance como o tipo de feedback mais analisado e as formas de fornecimento e frequência de feedback como os temas de pesquisa mais investigados. Além disso, as dimensões técnica e pedagógica foram os fatores de rendimento esportivo mais analisados, com a utilização de questionários customizados como o principal instrumento para avaliação do feedback extrínseco. Conclui-se que o feedback extrínseco, quando aplicado aos jogadores de futebol, é um fator que modifica seu comportamento e traz benefícios para diferentes processos de aprendizagem e desenvolvimento profissional. Palavras-chave: futebol; feedback; ensino; aprendizagem; treinamento.
... This aligns with the skill acquisition theory, which suggests that randomness in practice promotes long-term learning (W. Ford, 2013;Schmidt, 2005;Williams & Hodges, 2005). Although TF may improve shortterm performance, it may fail to transfer these improvements to real-game situations and may hinder skill development with less PF activities (Chris F. . ...
... Specifically, Madrid coaches behaved in silence a lot while Beijing coaches hustled a lot. The approach of Beijing coaches is associated with short-term performance improvement and hinders long-term learning according to skill acquisition theory (Williams & Hodges, 2005). Excessive instructions and feedback may have an adverse effect on long-term learning, whereas silence provides players with opportunities to learn by doing (Stonebridge & Cushion, 2018), and coaches with the chance to observe and reflect. ...
... For young players, a more "hands-off" approach may be more appropriate and was suggested to be implemented (F. Stonebridge & Cushion, 2018;Williams & Hodges, 2005). ...
Youth football training should ensure proper player development. However, coaches worldwide behave differently during their coaching process. Thus, this study aims to: a) compare the coaching behaviour and training activities of the football coaches from China and Spain, and b) explore the impact of different pedagogy on coach’s behaviour and players’ perceptions. Systematic observations and semi-structured interviews were developed for 6 youth coaches from Madrid (n = 3) and Beijing (n = 3). And 16 players randomly selected from each academy were queried their perception. The results showed significant differences in coaching behaviours and training activities between both groups. Madrid coaches used more “playing form” (PF) and achieved greater times of activation (motor participation) during practices, compared to Beijing coaches. Concurrent-instruction was the most used behaviour among coaches from both groups. Moreover, Madrid coaches applied more “positive feedback” whereas Beijing coaches used more “negative feedback”. This phenomenon is related to different educational and pedagogical backgrounds. Positive feedback is recommended to Beijing coaches and “silence” should also be properly used while “instruction” and “hustle” should be carefully used to help players learn to “think” (e.g. decision-making). This study offers a comparative analysis to develop proper strategies for a better player’s development.
... Williams and Hodges (2005) stated five myths that soccer coaches held when organizing their athletes' practice. However, their arguments were based, majorly, in laboratory studies which limit their validity. ...
... The goal is to describe how researchers studied manipulation in practice conditions and instructions in soccer and, if possible, reevaluate the myths presented by Williams and Hodges. 1 We also included new aspects of practice (i.e., focus of attention, self-controlled practice) not considered in the original paper. ...
... 25,26,27,28 Thus, one must consider that demonstrations/instructions are not problematic as thought by Williams and Hodges. 1 The issue lies in that demonstrations/instructions (or more generally, "prescriptions") might not be as constraining to guide search-directing attention might be the main point. ...
Williams and Hodges (2005) stated five myths that soccer coaches held when organizing their athletes’ practice. However, their arguments were based, majorly, in laboratory studies which limit their validity. Here, we performed a systematic review to verify the validity of their claims and map the current scenario of how coaches can manipulate factors of practice (augmented information, focus of attention, demonstration, and practice schedule) to support learning and performance in soccer. The results, in terms of each category or the myths presented, are, in most cases, not unanimous and much more must be performed to support, or criticize, coaches’ practice. We provide an encompassing view that provides general ideas for practice and future research.
... One particular way the quality of training in dance practice may be improved, relates to examining how information is transferred; or in other words, considering dance teachers' use of instructions and feedback (Ericsson et al., 1993;Williams and Hodges, 2005;Neenan, 2009;Badami et al., 2012;Abbas and North, 2018;Otte et al., 2020;Larkin et al., 2022). In dance, instructions provide the information about the execution of the skills whereas feedback functions as confirmation, motivation, and guidance for the correction of mistakes (Wulf et al., 1998;Enghauser, 2003;Gibbons, 2004). ...
... Research from sports suggests that overuse of direct verbal instructions and feedback may actually impede learning and development by hindering athletes' self-exploratory and self-regulating mechanisms (Davids et al., 2008;Partington and Cushion, 2013). In order to counteract the dependence on direct instructions and feedback, the use of questions has been proposed as a way to strengthen learners' self-regulation (Williams and Hodges, 2005;Elferink-Gemser and Hettinga, 2017;Otte et al., 2020). Questions can further be distinguished in terms of their open or closed nature. ...
... As briefly summarized above, research from across different performance domains, has shown that components of teachers' instructions and feedback can have differential effects on learning and performing motor tasks (Williams and Hodges, 2005;Neenan, 2009;Badami et al., 2012;Abbas and North, 2018;Otte et al., 2020;Larkin et al., 2022). However, relatively little is known about teachers' use of instructions and feedback in dance specifically. ...
Background: Given the demands posed by excessive practice quantities in modern dance, physical and mental health can be compromised. Therefore, there is a need to consider how quality of practice may be improved and possibly even reduce training times. Sports literature has shown that instructions and feedback given by coaches can have an effect on the quality of training and influence self-regulation and the performance of athletes. However, currently little is known about the use of instructions and feedback by dance teachers. The aim of the current study was, therefore, to examine the type of instructions and feedback given by dance teachers during various dance classes.
Methods: A total of six dance teachers participated in this study. Video and audio recordings were made of six dance classes and two rehearsals at a contemporary dance university. The dance teacher’s coaching behavior was analyzed using the modified Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS). Additionally, feedback and instructions were also examined in terms of their corresponding focus of attention. Absolute numbers, as well as times per minute (TPM) rates were calculated for each behavior before, during, and after an exercise. Absolute numbers were also used to calculate ratios of positive-negative feedback and open-closed questions.
Results: Most feedback comments were given after an exercise (472 out of 986 total observed behaviors). Improvisation had the highest positive-negative feedback ratio (29) and open-closed questions ratio (1.56). Out of the focus of attention comments, internal focus of attention comments were used most frequently (572 out of 900).
Discussion/conclusion: The results make clear that there is a large variability in instructions and feedback over teachers and classes. Overall, there is room for improvement toward a higher positive-negative feedback ratio, a higher open-closed question ratio and producing more comments eliciting an external focus of attention.
... To improve players' skills, a wide body of research has explored how different training approaches impact players' development. Traditionally, training approaches in team sports have adopted analytical tasks by prescribing specific movement patterns that reduce DM, as players' actions are often predetermined [6,7]. For example, from a technical perspective, players are often exposed to repetitive blocked practices (e.g., groups of two players passing the ball to one another in a static position), which decrease attentional demands [8,9]. ...
... These activities are usually performed during earlier phases of the training session and/or learning phase [8,[10][11][12], following which the players are exposed to game-based scenarios where it is expected that such skills are transferred [13][14][15]. However, this approach has received criticism because it decouples perception from action [8], preventing individuals from perceiving when or how to use such skills [6,13]. ...
... During training sessions, coaches often plan tasks under one or two specific topics (e.g., changing the point of attack, developing finishing behaviours), in which there is a progressive structure in terms of contextual dependency and decision-making process [6,51]. For example, before a task intended to develop the offensive process (e.g., 7 vs. 4 + Gk), coaches usually perform more repetitive tasks (e.g., specific set of players in 11 vs. 0 + Gk) that highlight the individual/collective possibilities for actions that need to be performed to be successful in the context of performance. ...
This study aimed to understand how the design of decision-making tasks affects youth football players’ ball control, passing performance, and external load. A total of 16 male youth football players (age: 12.94 ± 0.25 years) competed in various tasks based on the following levels of decision-making: (i) low decision-making (Low DM), which consisted of a predefined ball control and passing sequence; (ii) moderate decision-making (Mod DM), which consisted of maintaining possession in a square with four players and two balls while maintaining the same position; and (iii) high decision-making (High DM), which consisted of a 3 vs. 3 + 2 neutral players ball possession game. The study design consisted of a pre–post design (a 6 min pre-test game, a 6 min intervention, and a 6 min post-test game). The players’ ball control and passing performance were measured using the game performance evaluation tool and notational analysis, while GPS data were used to determine their physical performance. The pre–post test analysis revealed decrements in players’ ability to identify more offensive players after the Mod DM task (W = 9.50, p = 0.016), while there was an increase in their ability to receive the ball towards the space following the High DM task (t = −2.40, p = 0.016). Analysis between groups showed lower values in most ball control variables for the Low DM task compared to the Mod DM task (ball control execution, p = 0.030; appropriateness, p = 0.031; motor space, p = 0.025), while there were also lower values in the distance covered while sprinting (p = 0.042). Overall, prescriptive tasks (Low DM) that are repetitive in nature may affect players’ perceptual attunement, whereas static tasks (e.g., Mod DM) may limit their ability to locate players in more offensive positions. Moreover, game-based situations (High DM) seem to acutely enhance players’ performance, possibly due to contextual dependency. Overall, coaches should carefully consider the type of practice structure when designing tasks that aim to improve players’ technical skills in youth football.
... These important outcomes, along with player retention, are important benchmarks for assessing the quality of junior sport programmes (Australian Sports Commission 2017; Noble, Vermillion, and Foster 2016). Quality learning through sport is emphasised through game-based pedagogies, where players are engaged in various complex and pertinent playing-form learning activities, such as small-sided games and game-based scenarios, to help facilitate the creation of tactical knowledge, to develop problem-solving and to increase understanding in players (Lee et al. 2014;Williams and Hodges 2005). Studies have demonstrated that these coaching practices may increase player learning and success Práxedes et al. 2018). ...
... passing drills, moving or dribbling around cones, shooting into an open goal). In a traditional delivery model, coaches may gradually introduce game-like activities or small-sided games towards the end of training (Ford, Yates, and Williams 2010;Williams and Hodges 2005). Primarily engaging players in training-form learning activities have been criticised due to the inadequate consideration of the contextual nature of games and sports (Lee et al. 2014;Williams and Hodges 2005). ...
... In a traditional delivery model, coaches may gradually introduce game-like activities or small-sided games towards the end of training (Ford, Yates, and Williams 2010;Williams and Hodges 2005). Primarily engaging players in training-form learning activities have been criticised due to the inadequate consideration of the contextual nature of games and sports (Lee et al. 2014;Williams and Hodges 2005). Training-form activities replicate the skill being practiced but often fail to give the player the conceptual understanding of when to apply the skill in the game. ...
Background
There is a growing body of evidence showing the benefits to coaches and players in adopting a game-based pedagogical approach. Whilst the evidence in support of a game-based pedagogy continues to rise it is acknowledged that the complex art form of coaching is a uniquely personal one, where the coach may draw on previous first-hand experiences and traditional coaching practices regarding training methods rather than the use of current evidence-based best practice techniques.
Purpose
The aim of this randomised control trial was to evaluate the impact of a coach development intervention (MASTER) on game-based coaching practices of football coaches.
Methods
Four clubs were recruited, and 20 coaches were randomised to two groups, MASTER intervention (n = 10) and 10 usual practice (waitlist, n = 10); NSW Australia) which included 200 junior footballers (aged 8–16years). Intervention coaches participated in an 8-week multi-component intervention (which included a coach education workshop focused on positive game-based pedagogy, mentoring, peer evaluations and an online discussion forum) underpinned by positive coaching and game-based coaching practices. Pre- and post-intervention assessments occurred at baseline and 10 weeks. The primary aim was to investigate if the MASTER intervention could increase playing form (PF) and active learning time within training sessions. Three coaching sessions per coach were filmed at baseline and follow-up and assessed using the MASTER assessment tool. Secondary aims investigation included coach confidence and competence to coach (assessed by questionnaire), player game play and decision making (videoed during structured game play using a Game Performance Assessment Instrument), a range of player well-being measures including enjoyment, self-perception, and various motivations (questionnaire) and the parent’s perception of their child’s enjoyment was assessed by the completion of a questionnaire. Intervention effects were analysed using linear mixed models.
Findings
Significant effects were found for the primary outcome which was the percentage of training time devoted to playing-form activities (22.63%; 95% CI 9.07–36.19; P = 0.002, d = 1.78). No significant effect was observed for ALT. Significant interventions effects were also observed for the secondary outcomes of coach perceptions of confidence and confidence; player game skills including defence, support and decision making, wellbeing, physical self-perceptions, enjoyment, learning and performance orientations and motivation; and parent’s perception of child’s enjoyment (P < 0.05).
Conclusions
The MASTER programme was effective in improving game-based coaching practices of football coaches during training sessions, and in facilitating improvements in multiple coach and player outcomes.
... Intentional and incidental coaching approaches should not be operationalised as a question of either-or, but one which depends on informed assessment of the needs of the players (Cushion, Ford, and Williams 2012;Williams and Hodges 2005). Furthermore, conceptual links between the intentional and incidental training approaches have been frequent, where tactics and strategy filter through to coaching methods within game-oriented activities (Light, Harvey, and Mouchet 2014;Pill 2021;Mouchet 2005). ...
... Coaches espoused the use of non-linear design principles as central when creating an effective learning environment (Passos et al. 2008;Correia et al. 2019). Specifically, coaches referenced the importance of designing learning activities that represent the random nature of the competitive environment (Correia et al. 2019;Williams and Hodges 2005), tasks that exaggerate specific game information to couple perception and action (Tan, Chow, and Davids 2012) and manipulate task constraints to increase the number of opportunities to make (goal-directed) decisions (Passos et al. 2008;Balagué et al. 2019). This was best captured by Coach 2, who suggested that; ...
... Thematic analysis of self-confrontation interviews suggested that this was to guide players to perceptual cues, error corrections and optimal decisions (Carpentier and Mageau 2013;McPherson and Vickers 2004). These findings align with our view where direct instruction, corrective feedback and supporting game understanding are significant methods within a wider coaching toolbox (Cope and Cushion 2020;Williams and Hodges 2005;More and Franks 1996). Thus, the blending of task constraints being accompanied by intentional development of a players understanding of what they're aiming to achieve in the context of the shared mental model seems necessary (Richards, Collins, and Mascarenhas 2017). ...
Introduction
Researchers exploring how coaches can best support the development of their players decision making within team invasion sports have often been conducted from a cognitive or ecological approach, which differ in their views regarding the presence and absence of memory representations. This difference has, in turn, resulted in practical implications that are theoretically different, but not pedagogically different. Research has categorised such approaches to coaching decision making into intentional decision making training or incidental decision making training that offer different suggestions for how coaching methods may be used within their practice. Sometimes, these categories of training have been offered as the way coaches should operate over the careful selection of coaching methods given their intentions for impact. Instead, within this study we aim to explore the pragmatic nature of coaching practice, rather than adherence only to theoretical principles or beliefs.
Materials and Methods
In this study five English Regional Academy Rugby Union Coaches participated in a semi-structured interview, three categorised systematic observations of their coaching practice and a self-confrontation interview to explore; (i) the espoused theories coaches believe they use in practice; (ii) the theories in use within their coaching practice and; (iii) the alignment and misalignment between their espoused theories and theories in use during their coaching practice.
Results & Discussion
Our findings demonstrate that coaches employed a balance and blend of intentional and incidental coaching methods concurrently. Coaches proposed the use of non-linear pedagogy and the manipulation of constraints to promote learning activities which captured the representative nature of the competitive decision making environment. Yet also promoted the role and importance of shared mental models, tactical frameworks, off field video analysis and deliberate if–then rules of thumb when supporting the development of their players decision making. Thematic analysis extracted from interview data regarding coaches espoused theories, alongside the coaches theories in use, captured through categorised frequencies of coach behaviours and learning activities through systematic observations, present clear misalignments between proposed coaching methods and those used in practice. Misalignments were apparent for learning activities, where coaches espoused the need for representative practice but used more single-phase and huddle based scenarios, and coach behaviours, where coaches espoused the importance of setting problems for their participants through divergent questioning, yet used more instructional behaviours and convergent questions leading players toward a shared mental model of collective decision making behaviour. From our findings, we offer practical implications to coaches which suggest that when supporting player decision making, coaches should consider using their judgment to select the appropriate evidence-informed coaching method given their wider intentions for impact in the session and the context in which they operate. Furthermore, we offer a suggestion to coaches and researchers where we encourage the exploration of the chain and gap between what coaches they think they do, and what they actually do in practice as a means for critical reflection.
... It can be said that the effects of direct cranial stimulation on adjacent areas may have improved motor performance by affecting sensory-motor integration [24]. The results of the present study on the significant effect of PE on locomotor movement skill are in contradiction with the findings of Williams and Hodges (2005) [25] and Saraco (2000) [26]. Williams and Hodges (2005) believe that participation in motor activities had no effect on improvement fundamental motor skills. ...
... It can be said that the effects of direct cranial stimulation on adjacent areas may have improved motor performance by affecting sensory-motor integration [24]. The results of the present study on the significant effect of PE on locomotor movement skill are in contradiction with the findings of Williams and Hodges (2005) [25] and Saraco (2000) [26]. Williams and Hodges (2005) believe that participation in motor activities had no effect on improvement fundamental motor skills. ...
... The results of the present study on the significant effect of PE on locomotor movement skill are in contradiction with the findings of Williams and Hodges (2005) [25] and Saraco (2000) [26]. Williams and Hodges (2005) believe that participation in motor activities had no effect on improvement fundamental motor skills. While confirming the theory of maturity, they pointed out that fundamental motor skills are improved only on the basis of age and maturity [25]. ...
Introduction: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation and physical exercise on locomotor movement skill of children with DCD.
Materials and Methods: The present study is a quasi-experimental study with a pre-posttest design with a control group. 80 boys aged 6-10 years (mean age: 8.68±1.2) were selected from primary school students in Shiraz using multi-stage cluster sampling method and were randomly divided into three experimental and control groups. Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ7), Raven Intelligence Test and Movement Assessment Buttery for Children (MABC-2) were used to screen children and the Ulrich Gross Motor Skills Development Test (TGMD-2) was used to assess locomotor movement skills. Experimental groups performed the interventions for 8 weeks, Paired t-test and analysis of covariance were used to analyze the data. Results: The results showed that the locomotor movement skill score in the groups of cognitive rehabilitation, physical exercise and combined intervention from the pre-test to post-test stages increased significantly (P<0.05). While in the control group no significant difference was observed (P>0.05). Conclusion: Concomitant use of cognitive rehabilitation-related interventions with physical exercise is more effective in improving locomotor movement skill in children with developmental coordination disorders.
... Small-Sided Games (SSGs) are play-form activities organized on the field where players perform their actions in smaller spaces, areas, and goals than in the match play (Ford et al., 2010). According to the design of SSGs, it is possible for players to adjust their behaviour and improve their performance in a context that presents similarities with the match play, such as high variability and random practice (Williams and Hodges, 2005). Thus, SSGs are an important training method that allows the development of technical, tactical, physical, and psychological skills with the purpose to enable players to play efficiently and effectively in the match play regardless of their age or category (Aguiar et al., 2012;Sarmento et al., 2018). ...
... In a defensive phase, players mark players with the ball and off-ball in different field areas according to the ball and opponents' movements. These demands require players to constantly move to several different zones according to the position of the ball, their teammates, and opponents, demonstrating the need to perform all core tactical principles in environments with high variability (da Duarte et al., 2012;Williams and Hodges, 2005). ...
This study aimed to compare soccer players’ tactical performance according to their positional roles in the field test of FUT-SAT. The sample consisted of 54 male players from elite youth clubs (Medellín-Colombia), U16 and U17 categories. Participants trained five times per week (Tier 3). We used the System of Tactical Assessment (FUT-SAT), which evaluates tactical behaviour and performance through core tactical principles of soccer. The field test is structured in a numerical configuration of a goalkeeper + 3 players vs. 3 players + a goalkeeper played during 4 min on a playing field 36 m long by 27 m wide. All teams were structured with one player in each positional role (one defender, one midfielder, and one forward). To determine the differences between the positional roles, the following factors were analysed: the number of actions, the percentage of correct actions, the place of action related to the principles, and the Tactical Performance Index of core tactical principles. A total of 2891 tactical actions distributed in nine games were analysed. A Kruskal-Wallis test for the independent groups (defenders, midfielders, and forwards) or a one-way ANOVA was used. There was no difference in soccer players’ tactical performance and behaviour between players of different positional roles in the field test of FUT-SAT. Therefore, teams need to be evaluated with the system of play with players in all field sectors in medium or large sided games. The system of play can be chosen according to the category given that competitions are held in reduced spaces and with fewer players.
Keywords: youth sport; playing position; team sports; game performance; tactical behaviour
... En el ámbito deportivo, la presentación de las tareas o información prepráctica (Hodges & Franks, 2002;Williams & Hodges, 2005) es el momento en el que el entrenador comunica a sus deportistas "lo que hay que hacer y cómo se debe realizar" (Rink, 1994). Este momento es crucial porque el entrenador debe tener la habilidad de presentar a los deportistas los movimientos de las tareas (Chen, Mason, Staniszewski, Upton & Valley, 2012;Rink, 2013;Tristán et al., 2016) con claridad (Haerens et al., 2013) y de una forma que facilite la formación acertada de un plan motor (Rink, 2013) sin restringir el proceso de aprendizaje, y que, al mismo tiempo, se asegure de que el deportista tenga cierto grado de autonomía (Curran, Hill & Niemiec, 2013;Haerens et al., 2013;Tristán et al., 2016;Williams & Hodges, 2005) para así, permitir que los deportistas se sientan capaces de comenzar a participar en la tarea de aprendizaje (Garza-Adame, Tristán, Tomás, Hernández-Mendo & López-Walle, 2017). ...
... En el ámbito deportivo, la presentación de las tareas o información prepráctica (Hodges & Franks, 2002;Williams & Hodges, 2005) es el momento en el que el entrenador comunica a sus deportistas "lo que hay que hacer y cómo se debe realizar" (Rink, 1994). Este momento es crucial porque el entrenador debe tener la habilidad de presentar a los deportistas los movimientos de las tareas (Chen, Mason, Staniszewski, Upton & Valley, 2012;Rink, 2013;Tristán et al., 2016) con claridad (Haerens et al., 2013) y de una forma que facilite la formación acertada de un plan motor (Rink, 2013) sin restringir el proceso de aprendizaje, y que, al mismo tiempo, se asegure de que el deportista tenga cierto grado de autonomía (Curran, Hill & Niemiec, 2013;Haerens et al., 2013;Tristán et al., 2016;Williams & Hodges, 2005) para así, permitir que los deportistas se sientan capaces de comenzar a participar en la tarea de aprendizaje (Garza-Adame, Tristán, Tomás, Hernández-Mendo & López-Walle, 2017). ...
En este estudio se puso a prueba un modelo que analizó las asociaciones entre la presentación de las tareas que proporciona el entrenador, la satisfacción de las necesidades psicológicas de autonomía, competencia y relación de los deportistas y la satisfacción con la vida y el burnout deportivo. Participaron 706 futbolistas (530 hombres y 175 mujeres; Medad = 17.76 años; DE = 2.18) pertenecientes a diferentes equipos representativos de una universidad pública del estado de Nuevo León, México. Los resultados del análisis de ecuaciones estructurales encontraron que la calidad en la presentación de las tareas se relacionaba de manera positiva y significativa con la satisfacción de las tres necesidades psicológicas básicas (βautonomía = .59, p < .001; βcompetencia = .30, p < .001; βrelación = .60, p < .001). A su vez, la satisfacción de las necesidades de autonomía (β = .31, p < .001), competencia (β = .16, p < .001) y relación (β = .22, p < .001), se asociaron positiva y significativamente con la satisfacción con la vida de los deportistas, mientras que la relación de las tres necesidades psicológicas fue negativa y significativa con el burnout deportivo (βautonomía = -.16, p < .001; βcompetencia = -.14, p < .001; βrelación = -.30, p < .001). Los resultados son discutidos a la luz de la Teoría de la Autodeterminación, y se concluyó que la calidad de la presentación de las tareas realizada por el entrenador tiene importantes repercusiones en la salud psicológica de sus futbolistas. Palabras clave: Información prepráctica, Entrenador, Teoría de la autodeterminación, satisfacción con la vida, burnout. Abstract. This study tested a model that analyzed the associations between the task presentation provided by the coach, the satisfaction of athletes' psychological needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness, and satisfaction with life and sport burnout. A total of 706 soccer players (530 men and 175 women; Mage = 17.76 years; SD = 2.18) belonging to different teams representing a public university in the state of Nuevo León, Mexico, participated. The results of the structural equation analysis found that the quality of task presentation was positively and significantly related to the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs (βautonomy = .59, p < .001; βcompetence = .30, p < .001; βrelatedness = .60, p < .001). In turn, satisfaction of the needs for autonomy (β = .31, p < .001), competence (β = .16, p < .001) and relatedness (β = .22, p < .001), were positively and significantly associated with athletes' life satisfaction, whereas the relationship of the three psychological needs was negatively and significantly associated with sport burnout (βautonomy = -.16, p < .001; βcompetence = -.14, p < .001; βrelatedness = -.30, p < .001). The results are discussed in the light of Self-Determination Theory, and it was concluded that the quality of task presentation performed by the coach has important repercussions on the psychological health of his soccer players. Keywords: Pre-practical information, Coach, Self-determination theory, satisfaction with life, burnout.
... Thus far, research on GKs has tended to focus on physiological and perceptual-cognitive skills, as opposed to the area of skill acquisition training (i.e., training to coordinate motor skills "that are adaptable to a range of varying performance characteristics"; Davids, Bennett, & Button, 2008, p. 4). Despite skill development methods for outfield players having been extensively explored (e.g., Torrents et al., 2016;Williams & Hodges, 2005), similar research in the football goalkeeping context is notably limited. ...
... In contrast to aforementioned "modern" coaching tasks, rather "traditional" coaching methods can be briefly summarised by four characteristics: 1) large amounts of explicit "expert" feedback and instructions focused on technical details; 2) idealised technical movement solutions and "textbook" techniques; 3) "drill-based" skill training with large numbers of predictable repetitions and in isolation from perception-action couplings; and 4) task decomposition to limit information loading on the player (Ford et al., 2010;Passos, Araújo, Davids, & Shuttleworth, 2008;Williams & Hodges, 2005). Under this latter approach, motor patterns are supposed to eventually achieve "the same performance solution repeatedly" (Passos et al., 2008, p. 128) and once skills become proficient, the athlete is introduced to complex game play (Pizarro, Dominguez, Serrano, Garcia-Gonzalez, & Del Villar Alvarez, 2017). ...
... The practice environment frequently presents tasks without context to the complexities of the game dynamics at all stages of game development. Recently, sport skill learning informed by constraints-led theory and operating from the assumption of sport as complex dynamic systems, has highlighted the value of 'game-based' coaching foregrounding the development of 'thinking players' (see for example, Chow et al., 2007;Davids, 1998;Davids et al., 2005;Renshaw et al., 2010;Williams & Hodges, 2005). The Game Sense approach is a coaching approach that foregrounds game-based coaching. ...
... Research suggests that this may be because prescriptive coaching typical of the traditional directive approach results in less efficient and reliable player performance in the longer term. Players do not learn the adaptive movement competency coming from the development of the pattern recognition abilities that arise from repeated exposure to the game action sequences that emerge from the complexity of game play (Williams & Hodges, 2005). ...
This book will outline a process of exploring, modifying, experimenting,
adapting and developing ‘thinking players’.
... The bulk of an athlete's career is associated with coach-led practice activities [1][2]. However, little attention has been given to what athletes do during their practice sessions [3][4][5]. ...
... Minimal physical conditioning was applied during the observed practices. Youth development programs may have more elements of technical activities; when younger athletes only need to focus on specific parts of a skill at a time, it is easier for them to pick up particular skills [2,10]. Moreover, the use of technical activities may be needed at certain times, depending on the current skill status of the athlete and the type of sports. ...
... Resarch results appear to be in line with some earlier research on children who are at the preschool stage (Šalaj et al., 2019;Guo et al., 2018;Plazibat et al., 2021;Uzun & Tok, 2023;Balyi, 2001;Esen et al., 2023;Barnett et al., 2014;Aktaş, 2021;Hedstrom & Gould, 2004;Tiktampanidi et al., 2021;Jaakkola et al., 2016;Morris et al., 1982;Lemos et al., 2012;Altınkök, 2016;Williams & Hodges, 2005;Hardy et al., 2010;Altınkök, 2017a;Anshel & Marisi 1978;Brown et al., 1981;Chatzipanteli et al., 2007;Deli et al., 2006;Altınkök, 2017b;Derri et al., 2001;Pollatou & Hatzitaki, 2001;Zachopoulou et al., 2004;Sabo, 2004). Based on the literature review, it is seen that many studies on fundamental movement skill interventions only examine pre and post comparisons and the results claim positive outcomes (Roth et al., 2015;Kurnaz, 2022;Bellows et al., 2013;Esen et al., 2023;Altınkök, 2006). ...
This study aimed to explore the effects of a coordination-based movement education program on the fundamental motor movement performance, fundamental movement skills, and attention skills in children aged 60-72 months. This research employed a randomized controlled trial, selecting participants through convenience sampling, encompassing a total of 60 preschool children. The participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 30) or the control group (n = 30). Over a period of 12 weeks, the experimental group engaged in a structured coordination-based movement education program, while the control group continued with the Ministry of National Education's preschool education movement activities. To assess fundamental movement skill performance, the study employed 10 main tests, including squat jump, standing broad jump, countermovement jump, airtime, tennis ball throwing, sit-and-reach, 20 m linear sprint, flamingo balance (static), Y balance (dynamic), and an agility test. Additionally, attention skills were measured using the Frankfurter attention test (Frankfurter Tests für Fünfjährige-Konzentration: FTF-K). The results indicated that, compared to the control group, the experimental group exhibited significant improvements in countermovement jump, airtime, squat jump, standing broad jump, tennis ball throwing, sit-and-reach, 20 m linear sprint, agility, static and dynamic balance, and attention tests following the coordination-based movement education intervention. Intragroup comparisons within the control group did not reveal significant differences. Gender-specific analyses demonstrated no significant differences in pre-tests; however, post-intervention, boys showed significant improvements in standing long jump and tennis ball throwing, while girls demonstrated enhancements in sit-and-reach and static and dynamic balance. This study highlights the positive impact of coordination-based movement education practices on the enhancement of fundamental motor movement performance, fundamental movement skills, and attention skills in children aged 60-72 months.
... It has been previously suggested in research that variable/random practice (high contextual interference) is more effective in promoting motor learning than constant/blocked practice (low contextual interference; Williams & Hodges, 2005). This is supported in a recent systematic review of practice, instruction, and motor skill acquisition in soccer wherein Pacheco et al. (2021) not only reported that random practice performance results were superior with higher skilled individuals but also highlighted the potential utility of blocked practice if the recipient cohort is of a lesser skilled nature. ...
This study examined differences in bilateral skill proficiency and frequency of use between selected and nonselected under-17 male intercounty academy Gaelic footballers. Participants ( N = 82, mean age = 15.54 years, SD = 0.27) were retrospectively grouped as selected ( n = 19) and nonselected ( n = 63) for the final squad. A discrete skills test evaluated bilateral hand pass and kick pass proficiency. Within-academy matches ( N = 8) were recorded to analyze in-game bilateral passing proficiency and frequency ( N = 3,109). Selected players were more proficient in both nondominant kick pass ( p = .001) and nondominant hand pass ( p = .007) in the discrete skills test and nondominant hand pass ( p = .002) in match play. Nonselected players used the dominant hand pass ( p = .037) significantly more than selected players in match play. The strongest predictors of selection were the nondominant kick pass and nondominant hand pass in the skills test, and successful dominant kick pass and successful nondominant hand pass in match play ( p < .05), with 89% of players correctly classified. The findings suggest that higher bilateral proficiency scores provide greater opportunities to be selected.
... Notably, large improvements in performance can be achieved when the mental resources 144 required are relatively low because there is less self-regulatory demand during recall of the 145 skill from long-term to short-term working memory (Soderstrom & Bjork, 2015). An example 146 of this is the frequent provision of prescriptive feedback and expert demonstration (i.e., "do 147 it like this, not like that") (Williams & Hodges, 2005). Furthermore, coaches may prescribe 148 practice conditions that aim to consolidate short-term performance enhancements; for 149 example, using blocked practice where one skill is repeatedly practised for an extended 150 number of repetitions or length of time before moving on to the next skill. ...
Decades of motor learning research has challenged the role of errors; for the same reason some authors promote them, others demote them. In this discursive article, we propose that the role of errors in the sports coaching context is more complex than a binary error avoidance or promotion approach. Accordingly, we present a novel perspective, which suggests that when equipped with effective decision-making skills, coaches can use errors strategically, manipulating their frequency to align with an athlete’s performance context and achieve interdisciplinary learning outcomes. In doing so, the article discusses the considerations for error implementation and emphasises the importance of coaches' decision-making skills for implementing a nuanced error-based approach. Such ideas have the potential to positively impact the quality of applied coaching practice within the field of motor learning and player development, but more research is required to establish how this could be operationalised with practitioners in the field.
... According to Reilly, Williams, Nevill, and Franks (2000), a multidisciplinary approach is needed to identify talented players at childhood. Furthermore, the perceptual and decision-making skills, which are more difficult to measure than fitness or motor skills, cannot be neglected (Williams & Hodges, 2005). The amount of scientific information available on the relationship between general and task-specific perceptual skills in children is limited at the moment. ...
Biannual Symposium of the International Association of Computer Science in Sport
... Individual differences in personality traits can affect the visual-motor strategies used to direct the gaze [17,18]. Eye-tracking systems offer a means to evaluate gaze direction and gauge the effectiveness of decision-making processes by measuring various parameters such as search rate (duration and number of fixations and number of fixated areas), percentage of viewing time devoted to specific areas of interest, and pupillary response (variability of pupil diameter) [19][20][21][22][23][24]. These measurements provide valuable insights into pupil/corneal displacement, eye/head position, and orientation, thereby enabling the assessment of sensor-related quality and performance. ...
The principle of Fitts' law explains that the difficulty of movement increases when targets are farther away and narrower in width, particularly when touching two parallel targets as quickly as possible. Understanding the differences in motor and gaze behaviors between extroverts and introverts when performing tasks that require speed and accuracy is crucial for the development of sensor-based interfaces for games and rehabilitation. This study aimed to investigate such differences in a computer task that assesses the speed-accuracy trade-off (Fitts' task). Twenty introverts and seventeen extroverts wore an eye tracker and an accelerometer attached to their hand while performing 12 trials through six levels of difficulty presented on a computer screen. The results showed that introverts had longer visual fixations at the higher difficulty levels and reduced pupil diameter variability when difficulty was intermediate, suggesting that their gaze behavior may be different from that of extroverts. However, no significant differences were found in the speed and accuracy performance or kinematic variables between extroverts and introverts. These findings have important implications for the design of interventions that require both speed and accuracy in movement, such as in the development of virtual reality/games for rehabilitation purposes. It is important to consider individual differences in motor and gaze behaviors, particularly in those who may struggle with longer visual fixations, for the design of sensor-based applications and to promote successful interventions and recovery.
... Skill is, in broad terms, defined as the ability to perform a challenging behaviour well (Briffa & Lane, 2017;Byers et al., 2010) and encompasses many qualities such as accuracy, precision, patience, risk assessment, etc., which are distinct from of the animal's kinematic capacities like maximal speed, acceleration or maximal bite force. The impact of skill on performance has extensively been studied in human sports (Williams & Hodges, 2005;Wilson et al., 2017). In an animal ecological context, it has to a more limited extent been studied for courtship behaviour (Byers et al., 2010;Manica et al., 2017), fighting (Lane & Briffa, 2020), and tool use during feeding in crows (Rutz et al., 2011). ...
In granivorous songbirds, feeding is a complex process as seeds need to be dehusked before they can be consumed, making the feeding act a biomechanically challenging endeavour. However, most previous research has focused on how beak morphology affects feeding performance, while the influences of beak kinematics remain largely unknown.
In this study, we hence investigated at the individual level how feeding performance (i.e. seed processing time and success rate) relates to both beak kinematics (i.e. beak tip speed, acceleration, frequency) and skill (i.e. seed handling tactics and cracking techniques) in the Canary Serinus canaria . To do so, high‐speed videos during feeding were recorded and subjected to automated tracking of beak tip movements.
Better skills, that is accurate positioning of the seed for being split in half, reduced total seed handling time compared to more random positioning and crushing the husk into multiple, scattering fragments. Surprisingly, individual variation in beak speed, acceleration or frequency generally did not relate to differences in performance.
Thus, our data suggest that seed positioning precision, and hence the control of coordinated beak and tongue movement, is critical to minimize feeding durations in songbirds. Further studies are needed to explore whether this develops via a positive feedback between behaviour, learning and increased efficiency or if it relates to intrinsic differences.
Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.
... For example, a common image, drawn on by both psychologists and sociologists (and not without foundation), is of coaches settling on skill/drill based practices, with lots of instructional behaviours (e.g. Williams & Hodges, 2005), or, when the problem is recognised, just 'playing' at more 'contemporary' alternative approaches (e.g. use of questioning with athletes) without a comprehensive understanding (Cushion, 2013). ...
UK Coaching Applied Research Journal
... In a coaching context, learning skills, orientations towards learning and motivations shape how coaches learn. The historical and cultural context in which they operate will influence what coaches want to learn about (3,4). Whilst there is evidence of a recent shift towards learner-centred processes (5), mediated learning programmes (e.g., coaching courses and clinics) and research often fails to recognise the learning demands of coaches (3,6, 7) by failing to consider context (8). ...
Introduction:
This study explored contextual factors which influence coach learning of an international cohort of endurance sports coaches.
Methods:
Following ethical approval, 839 coaches, 612 coached athletes and 8,352 non-coached athletes participated in the research. A critical realist research philosophy was adopted, in which self-completion surveys were developed in consultation with coaches and industry end-users.
Results and discussion:
The context was dominated by remote coaching practices and digital technology which shaped how coaches learn and thus, what it meant to be a coach. Unmediated learning sources were biophysically biased and largely delivered through marketised platforms designed to sell products. The study findings have broader implications within sport and education, in which it is suggested that remote coaching and learning platforms may sometimes create a sense of psycho-emotional detachment in which capacity for learning can be limited.
... For example, certain developmental strategies may allow for the avoidance of preempted risk factors detrimental to the attainment of excellence (i.e. recognising, and then avoiding, potential injury predispositions that could impede development) (Williams & Hodges, 2005). ...
This book is a contemporary analysis of one of the most popular sports in Australia. An assembled expert group of researchers and practitioners provide an exceptional book on Australian football (AFL). The book is unique in that it covers a broad range of important topics in the scientific, coaching and social domains.
... Further, as discussed, added variability has been shown to improve generalizability (transfer) which better prepares performers for the novel conditions that will be presented in competition. 3 These beneficial effects of increasing variability, however, come at the expense of short-term performance improvements during practice 31 and this tradeoff has been explained using the notion of desirable difficulties forwarded by the challenge point framework discussed in the previous section. 16,23 Accordingly, increased difficulty associated with variable practice promotes more effortful processing of the available information in the practice environment which stimulates learning but can decrease performance levels during training. ...
We explore the problem of variability of practice from an applied perspective. Different types of variability, i.e., numerosity, heterogeneity, situational diversity, and scheduling are presented from the motor learning perspective, including theories, models, and concepts. We present the implications of applying variability into practice, the advantages, and problems arising while varying the practice. Finally, we propose a pragmatic model of applying variability in motor practice to assist coaches in designing effective training programs. Answers to three simple questions guide coaches to different methods of introducing variability in the practice. We present also key principles, coaches have to follow, in order to apply variability appropriately.
... Por isto, a HTE pode representar melhor as demandas do futebol do que ações isoladas descontextualizas, como avaliações de passe em alvos ou chutes estáticos sem que haja reconhecimento de situações, ajustes dinâmicos e tomadas de decisões 8 . Jogadores habilidosos são os que aprendem a selecionar e desempenhar a correta técnica de acordo com a demanda situacional, e a essência desse ponto de vista é o componente cognitivo, caracterizado pela tomada de decisão 3,4,8 . Portanto, a utilização do LSPT em superfície específica à modalidade pode representar ganho relevante no que diz respeito à avaliação da habilidade técnica de passe no futebol. ...
Objetivou-se verificar a reprodutibilidade teste-reteste do Loughborough Soccer Passing Test (LSPT) em quadra coberta e campo gramado. Ademais, buscou-se comparar e correlacionar os resultados de jovens futebolistas. Para isso, dez participantes com média de idade de 14,7±0,5 anos, 173,4±9,1 cm de estatura, e 61,5±9,0 kg realizaram duas medidas de avaliação, separadas por sete dias, do protocolo do LSPT em campo gramado e quadra coberta. Como resultados, os valores de Coeficiente Correlação Intraclasse, Coeficiente de Variação, Erro Padrão de Medida e Nível de Concordância sugerem que o LSPT seja protocolo reprodutível para o campo gramado. Na quadra coberta, o Tempo Limpo (TLim) foi de 47,8±4,4s, o Tempo de Penalidades de 21,4±9,9s e o Tempo de Desempenho (TD) de 65,7±13,3s. Já no campo gramado foi de 49,3±4,2s, 29±7,4s, e 76,6±12s para Limpo, Penalidades e Desempenho, respectivamente. Não foi encontrada diferença estatística significativa para Tempo Limpo e Tempo de Desempenho (TLim: t = 0,10; p = 0,36; TD: t = 0,31; p = 0,17). No entanto, para o Tempo de Penalidades (TPenal) houve diferença entre os valores obtidos (TPenal: t = 0,14; p = 0,02). Não foram identificadas correlações estatisticamente significantes para as variáveis de TLim (r = 0,59; p = 0,07) e TPenal (r = 0,49; p = 0,15), mas, para o TD houve correlação (r = 0,64; p = 0,04). Conclui-se que o LSPT é ferramenta de avaliação de habilidade específica de passe em superfície específica à prática de futebol. Ainda, não houve diferença estatisticamente significativa no desempenho do LSPT entre superfícies distintas, embora mais penalidades foram verificadas no campo gramado. A correlação de TD no LSPT entre as diferentes superfícies sugere que os protocolos apontam para o mesmo objetivo de avaliação.
... Diversos autores apontam que os jogadores de futebol respondem de maneira diferente aos jogos propostos de acordo com a comunicação realizada pelo treinador, verificando que o tipo e a quantidade de instruções e feedbacks influenciam nas respostas fisiológicas, bem como, no desempenho técnico-tático dos atletas (Batista et al., 2019;Brandes & Elvers, 2017;García et al., 2021;Rampinini et al., 2007). Além disso, as evidências científicas vêm apontando que a comunicação do treinador e da treinadora também tem um papel fundamental no desenvolvimento em longo prazo dos jogadores e jogadoras, haja vista que pode estimular ou limitar a autonomia e o entendimento de jogo (Cushion et al., 2012;Williams & Hodges, 2005). ...
O objetivo da presente revisão teórica foi descrever os instrumentos encontrados na literatura científica para avaliar a comunicação de treinadores e treinadoras de futebol. A comunicação dos treinadores e treinadoras influencia diretamente os comportamentos dos jogadores e jogadoras. Portanto, torna-se necessário avaliar como é realizada a comunicação durante as sessões de treinamento e competições. Para identificar e categorizar cada informação emitida pelos treinadores na sua prática tem sido utilizado o método da observação sistemática. Diversos instrumentos de observação sistemática foram apresentados na literatura ao longo dos anos. Nota-se uma evolução dos instrumentos com o passar do tempo e com os avanços tecnológicos, o que permitiu uma avaliação mais detalhada acerca da comunicação de treinadores e treinadores de futebol. Dessa forma, para escolher um instrumento de observação sistemática é importante levar em consideração suas características particulares, as necessidades do contexto e as reais possibilidades de aplicação. Palavras-chave: Educação Física e Treinamento. Futebol. Comunicação.
... Consequently, we suggest that it is the expert's ability to employ pragmatic nuanced forms of knowledge that are contingent to coaching if they are to demonstrate high levels of PJDM . For example, a youth gymnastics coach may employ directive coach behaviours (Mosston & Ashworth, 2004) alongside blocked and constant practices (Abraham & Collins, 2011a;Williams & Hodges, 2005) when teaching a 5-year-old how to perform a somersault safely. The same coach may also employ constraint-led theory within a practice by adapting the height of uneven bar to exaggerate the difficulty of a full routine for a 14-year-old gymnast preparing for a competition (Tan, Chow, & Davids, 2012). ...
A growing body of literature identifies the importance of conditionality in coaching and coach education. In simple terms, the complexity and hyperdynamic nature of many coaching environments makes it increasingly unlikely that any one approach, tool or even paradigm will be appropriate to every situation. Accordingly, in this paper, we critically consider the use of Professional judgment and Decision-Making (often referred to as “it depends” coaching) as a valid approach to coaching, using three exemplar constructs backed by both literature and practical challenges. We conclude by comparing the underpinnings and logic of this approach and presenting implications for coaching practice. Our intention is to stimulate debate amongst coaches, coach developers and researchers.
... First, Swann et al. ( 2015) conducted a systematic review aimed at defining elite athletes and considering their working definition, these studies have inappropriately labelled players as elite. • Second, the use of these testing batteries largely assesses technical competence in rugby-specific skills, without contextual interference from the game ( Williams & Hodges, 2005), such as opponents, consequences and affective factors ( pressure, anxiety, fatigue). They test isolated technique, rather than skill and limited transfer is noted in performance. ...
Youth rugby players are often organised into (bi)annual-age groups to create equal competition and development opportunities for all players. However, the variability in kinanthropometry (i.e., the size, shape, proportion, composition and maturation) that exists between players of a similar chronological age can affect injury risk, physical performance, and talent identification. This chapter aims to review the research on the kinanthropometry of youth rugby players and presents a range of practical implications for coaches, sport scientists and practitioners working with young rugby players to consider in relation to kinanthropometry and grouping strategies within youth rugby development programmes. These practical implications include understanding and assessing growth and maturity, considerations for training and competition, talent identification and development strategies, and stakeholder communication.
... Nevertheless, developing a profile of performance metrics is difficult in refereeing, where the skills required are many and continually evolving . Researchers are challenged to develop appropriate testing methods that measure referee's multifactorial performance and potential at certain time points, allowing more specific and better training interventions ( Renshaw & Gorman, 2015 ;Williams & Hodges, 2005 ). ...
Referees in sport are required to have specific perceptual-cognitive skills in order to make correct and consistent decisions. The current article explores those skills and describes the literature regarding perceptual-cognitive skills and decision making of referees in association football. First, we describe the importance of perceptual-cognitive skills in sports including pattern recall and recognition, postural cue usage, and the ability to understand situational probabilities and anticipate future events. Second, we discuss the state of the art on perceptual-cognitive skills in officiating including the concept of accurate versus adequate decision making, talent development in refereeing, training opportunities, embodied officiating, and the use of video technology. Finally, we discuss several directions for future research using representative decision-making task designs, considering contextual and psychological information, implementing training studies, and applying a multifactorial and longitudinal approach.
... Various reasons for this have been put forward. Designing training regimens is still very much considered a craft, rather than a science, putting a premium on intuition and tradition (Porter et al., 2010;Williams and Hodges, 2005). Also, for motor learning theory to make its way to practice typically takes some time (Porter et al., 2010). ...
... Hence, the 'functional' aspect of the FS training laid focus on guiding players to expand and stabilize their own functional task-solutions rather than practicing 'ideal techniques' . Based on the generally accepted recommendations for motor-skill practice from both movement science literature (e.g., Davids, Button, & Bennett, 2008;Hossner, Kredel, & Franklin, 2020;Williams & Hodges, 2005) and football coaching literature (e.g., Daniel, Peter, & Vieth, 2014), players were confronted with representative tasks and given instructions in terms of the intended movement effects, i.e., towards desired states (e.g., to bring the opponent off-balance). Given multiple attempts in each situation, players were encouraged to explore different-though still functional-ways to solve the task at hand. ...
Creative actions are considered decisive in team sports. In most empirical studies on the topic so far, creativity has been understood as a player’s divergent thinking (DT) ability. Sport-specific DT has been assessed by the number, variety and originality of ideas a player is able to generate in response to game situations. Numerous studies indicate that DT can be improved with training. However, the fundamental assumption that enhanced DT transfers to creative on-field actions has yet to be examined. Alternatively, we argue that players’ potential to perform creative actions is foremost rooted in their motor-skill repertoire rather than in DT. In a field-based experiment, predictions deduced from both explanations were put to test. Elite youth football players participated in training interventions to enhance either football-specific DT (DT group) or their motor-skill repertoire (functional skills; FS group). Before and after the interventions, we assessed players’ football-specific DT as well as the functionality and creativity of actions performed on-field using expert ratings. As expected, in DT, the DT group improved more than the FS group. On the field, however, improvements in DT did not manifest in more creative actions. Rather, the FS group showed more pronounced improvements not only in the functionality but also in the creativity of on-field actions. This pattern of results challenges the so far predominant theoretical framework for creativity in sports. For sports practice, our findings suggest that on-field creativity is better fostered by enhancing players’ motor skills—and thus expanding their own action repertoire—than by improving DT.
... High-demand sports such as football, where sudden turnovers and acute accelerations are essential, and the athletic ability to reach relatively high levels of strength and maximize its transfer to performance are the critical elements [1], [2]. Training to enhance a high acceleration power output increases the risk of injuries and fatigue; many sports scientists and trainers have focused on developing effective and healthy Conditioning Programmers (CP). ...
BACKGROUND: The sequence of exercise-induced hormonal changes demonstrates the quantification of training and competition loads and developing a sport-specific conditioning program. AIM: The present study investigates the impact of ballistic exercises on biochemical variables and the muscular ability of soccer players. METHODS: Participants were assigned randomly to two groups, including ten participants in each group, and underwent a pre- post-intervention test, including growth hormone, somatomedin hormone, triple jump, and wide jump. RESULTS: The experimental group showed a significant increase in Growth by 43.56%, somatomedin by 6.99%, Triple jumps by 18.65%, and Wide jump by 15.68% compared to the control group. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, ballistic exercises improved growth and somatomedin hormone, triple jump, and wide jump and thus enhancing biochemical variables and muscular ability.
... By perfecting and applying science in sport, with the advent of modern technologies of training and use of information systems, a need for quantifying football game occurs, both in the psycho-motor, functional, morphological, biomechanical, and the tactical-technical manifestation of players during the game. We can draw conclusions on applying complex cognitive abilities only from the changes in behavior over time and continuous monitoring of activities of football players during the very game (Williams & Hodges, 2005). By monitoring and analysis of standard situations in a football game, it is possible to note various football game factors and characteristics of elite football players. ...
Purpose: The aim of study was to determine the scope of difference in successfully and unsuccessfully formed zonal defenses in modern football (high, medium-central, mids-laterals, deep-central and deeps-laterals zones) with the their entire specifics.
Methods: The analyzed is a six matches, i.e., three matches of “Jelen Super League” and three matches of “Premier League” for the season 2015 / 2016. The data were collected by observing the video tapes, with personal presentation of selected variables. The descriptive statistics is determined by the frequency distribution in the form of nominal statistical scale (mean, SD, cV, and standard variance), while in comparisons were used parametric and nonparametric discriminant procedures.
Results: The results shows greatest differences in favor of the teams „PL“ of England in variables unsuccessfully established medium-laterals zones (32.6), unsuccessful high zones (25.0) and unsuccessful medium-centrals zones (23.0). The minimal statistical differences were found in the variables successful medium-centrals zones with a duel game and lower-laterals zones with a sliding in favor of the teams „JSL“ of the Serbia, values (0.6 and 1.0) as well as lower-centrals zones with a ball interruption in favor of the teams „PL“ of England (1.0).
Conclusions: The analyzed teams had a major problem in the areas of high and mediums-centrals-laterals zones to cease the opponent’s attack and when in fact they could not do that, they defend with the available methods in central and lower central`s zone, with the models of duels, interruptions and slidings as the lowest use parameter in the tactics of defense.
... Presently, imagery training is often designed in a way that corresponds with a traditional skill acquisition approach, emphasizing more direct instructional styles and linear pedagogy (Chow et al., 2016;Morris et al., 2005;Tan et al., 2012). Such approaches focus on practice that involves structured, prescriptive, repetitive, drill-based practice to reproduce a specific movement pattern (Williams & Hodges, 2005). Learning follows a linear pattern with a gradual progression of task difficulty and improvement. ...
This chapter explores the applied models, review research on motor imagery training for closed skills, and provide evidence-based practical recommendations on designing and delivering motor imagery training from skill acquisition and performance perspective. Motor imagery, then, is essentially a simulation state where a mental representation of movement is used as a form of practice to improve skill acquisition and performance of motor skills. The characteristics of the skill being practiced appear to influence the imagery perspective that is more effective for skill acquisition and performance. Motor imagery is effective in enhancing skill acquisition and performance of a broad range of motor skills encompassing open, reactive motor skills performed in complex movement environments, through to repetitive closed self-paced motor skills such as gymnastics, dart throwing, resistance training, diving, field events in athletics, and golf. Individual factors, such as skill level, imagery ability, and perspectives are potential moderators of imagery training effectiveness.
... It is also possible that the rotations between goalkeepers in training leads to longer rest periods for each of them individually. Altogether, these findings suggest that coaches should consider having goalkeepers perform more dynamic tasks while they are not involved in the play to mimic the reality of matches [28,29]. There is currently limited evidence on the efficiency of coaching strategies in water polo to develop goalkeeper abilities, and further research is needed to explore alternative training methods. ...
Background
Training volume can be estimated for players in team sports using inertial measurement units. Specific variables such as jumps and jump intensity have shown correlation with fatigue markers in players at the goalkeeper position. Therefore, the goal of this study was to explore the feasibility of analyzing training volume and intensity for water polo goalkeepers using IMU variables.Methods
Three senior national water polo team female goalkeepers were recruited for this study. Data from seven training sessions and seven international matches were recorded. Training volume was calculated and specific events were counted (jumps and kicks). Activity intensity score was calculated as a proportion of time spent in high-intensity activities. A paired t test was performed to compare training and match conditions.ResultsThe mean duration of training sessions was significantly shorter than matches (74.4 ± 14.4 min vs 91.4 ± 5.4 min, p < 0.01). The mean activity intensity score was also significantly lower in training sessions vs. matches (47.9 ± 3.5% vs 58.6 ± 3.8%, p = 0.04). Acceleration rate of change per minute was not different between training and matches (p = 0.10).Conclusion
This study showed the feasibility of using IMU to provide meaningful training and match metrics in a small sample of female water polo goalkeepers. This type of analysis can be used to describe both volume and intensity of training in future studies.
... However, the effectiveness of the motor learning process of gymnastic tasks is influenced by many factors, including complexity of motor skills, the learner's level of advancement, as well as internal and external factors. We should agree with the authors Williams and Hodges [45], who showed that the effectiveness of learning may depend on how feedback is provided, and Wulf and Shea [46], who noticed that the principles used in teaching less complex tasks cannot be transferred directly to complex tasks. Laguna [47] shows that the selection of the most effective types of feedback is specific to each task. ...
The main purpose of this study was to systematically review the effects of feedback on motor skill acquisition in gymnastic skills. A systematic literature search was conducted in the electronic databases MEDLINE (EBSCO), Scopus, SPORTDiscus (EBSCO), and Web of Science. Of the initial 743 search articles, 13 studies were included in the quantitative analysis. Studies were included if they met the following criteria: (a) healthy subjects, (b) studies with gymnastic, artistic gymnastic, or trampoline elements in the study protocol, (c) verbal feedback intervention, (d) the study compared verbal feedback intervention with other forms of feedback, instructional intervention , or with a control intervention, and (e) task performance evaluation. Methodological quality was identified using the PEDro scale. Combining verbal instructions with different forms of feedback is beneficial when learning complex gymnastic skills. Verbal feedback may be useful to improve the technical performance of a gymnastic element; in particular, information regarding the errors committed in a key element of the performance seems to be effective in the motor learning process.
Coaches utilise augmented feedback to help channel learning and skill acquisition in sports. However, the rationale and pedagogical approaches underpinning feedback (and technology) strategies employed by coaches remain poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to explore cricket coaches understanding towards the role of feedback, and how feedback (and technology) strategies are enacted within practice settings, viewed within pedagogical frameworks. An online questionnaire (Qualtrics) consisted of fixed-text and free-text questions. Fixed-text responses were analysed exploring associations (frequencies, chi-square) or differences (Mann-Whitney U) between coaching groups, with free-text questions examined through reflexive thematic analysis, exploring approaches to presenting athletes with feedback (and technology use). Overall, 134 coaches (94% male, 6% female) aged 18–69 years from 12 countries responded to the questionnaire. Following silhouette and k-modes cluster analysis, results were explored for two coaching groups: community cricket coaches ( n = 84, 63%) and higher-performance coaches ( n = 50, 37%). Significant differences showed greater coaching experience, qualifications, and time spent coaching per week for the higher-performance coaching group ( p < 0.0125), in addition to higher self-efficacy around feedback, albeit with a small effect size ( p < 0.001, r = 0.29). Community coaches showed a significant difference in manipulating feedback strategies on motivational factors ( p < 0.0125). Reflexive thematic analysis identified different rationales for the perceived role of feedback and use of technology across coaching groups, underpinned by contrasting pedagogical approaches (coach-centred versus athlete-centred). Responses highlighted the co-adaptive properties of coach-athlete dyads (evident in how/why feedback was manipulated). Overall findings present opportunities to further coach education to improve understanding and operationalisation of feedback (and technology).
Soccer coaches are critical to academies as they are central to identifying players with the potential to succeed (i.e., talent). Research suggests coaches perceive skill as determining player's potential. Regardless, researchers only broadly explored their views and quantified player's skill using objective measures, which is problematic as coaches still rely on their subjective intuition. A plausible reason is that skill assessments do not meet coach's needs. So, this study explored academy soccer coaches' perspectives on skilfulness. Participants required a minimum B-level AFC/FA Pro Coaching Licence and five years' experience for inclusion. Australian soccer coaches (n = 4) and academy directors (n = 7) (Mage = 35.90 ± 8.36 years; Mexperience = 14 ± 7.02 years) participated in semi-structured interviews (Mtime = 50.73 ± 7.33). We analysed coaches' responses using reflexive thematic analysis, generating four themes describing skilful players as i) technically proficient, ii) adaptable, iii) effective decision-makers, and iv) influential to their team's success. We produced three themes on the situational and contextual nature of their views, perceiving skill through a v) developmental lens, relying on their vi) experiential knowledge and their views were vii) context-specific. Additional research is needed to create a refined conceptual model for assessing soccer skill.
The purpose of this research was to determine if the training design of an elite Australian Rules football team replicated match conditions for inside-50 entries. Notational analyses of one professional Australian Rules football club's training and match footage were conducted for every disposal that entered the inside-50 during either game-based training or matches. Analysed variables included how the ball was received, time in possession and location. Statistical analyses were undertaken using Mann–Whitney tests, a multivariate analysis of variance and a decision tree analysis. Significant differences were identified between game-based training and competition matches for 34 of the 54 inside-50 entry variables. Of these 34 variables, 10 showed a strong effect between session types. When examining the efficiency of inside-50 entries, only effective disposals produced a significant difference between training and matches, with no differences for neutral and ineffective disposals. The session type, how the ball was received, decision (e.g., kick vs. handball) and pressure acts were the most important contributors to effective inside-50 entry disposal efficiency. The results suggest this professional Australian Rules team does not participate in training sessions that reflect inside-50 match conditions. This study may provide a framework for elite Australian Rules teams on which to structure their inside-50 training.
We revisit an agenda that was outlined in a previous paper in this journal focusing on the importance of skill acquisition research in enhancing practice and instruction in sport. In this current narrative review, we reflect on progress made since our original attempt to highlight several potential myths that appeared to exist in coaching, implying the existence of a theory-practice divide. Most notably, we present five action points that would impact positively on coaches and practitioners working to improve skill learning across sports, as well as suggesting directions for research. We discuss the importance of practice quality in enhancing learning and relate this concept to notions of optimising challenge. We discuss how best to assess learning, the right balance between repetition and practice that is specific to competition, the relationship between practice conditions, instructions, and individual differences, and why a more "hands-off" approach to instruction may have advantages over more "hands-on" methods. These action points are considered as a broad framework for advancing skill acquisition for excellence (SAFE) in applied practice. We conclude by arguing the need for increased collaboration between researchers, coaches, and other sport practitioners.
The aim of this study is to examine the effect of 6 weeks of rope training on the gross skills among Children Aged 10–12 Years-Focused Boy Students. The study has been done in semi-experimental method. A recent study statistical society includes all boy students of elementary schools in which are learning Tanavarz National Project n in 117 schools in babul city. Statistical society has been selected randomly (cluster-stage) and in the first stage 3 schools and in the second stage in any school one class and in any class, about 18 students has been selected randomly and divided in three groups of control (n=15), fast (n=15) and demonstrations (n=15). Statistical datum has been analyzed by one-directed analysis and non-parametric test of Kruskal–Wallis and post-hoc test of Tukey by SPSS22 software and in the meaningful level of p≤0.05. Findings showed participants do have the mean height of 1.4±0.16 meter and the weight of 37.75±11.4 kg. Datum results showed Tanavarz Project from a statistical view in the two groups of fast and demonstrations does have a meaningful effect on balance, bilateral coordination, power, and growth of gross motor skills than to the control group. However, its effect on run speed and agility in the three groups were not meaningful. On the other hand, there is no meaningful difference among balance growth and two-directed coordination and the growth of gross motor skills in the group of fast-demonstrations Rope Training (p>0.05). Furthermore, there is the meaningful difference among the growth mean in children’s power in the group of fast-demonstrations Rope Training (p=0.001). On the other hand, fast Rope Training does have a meaningful improvement in children’s power growth in fast Rope Training to showing one. Rope Training could be a suitable program for the development of the gross motor skills of boys.
Los entrenadores de tenis enseñan las habilidades técnicas y de movimiento desde temprana edad. Frecuentemente, enfatizan el “qué” entrenar y no el “cómo” hacerlo. Las investigaciones actuales ofrecen desafíos al entrenamiento convencional y sugieren que el “cómo” del aprendizaje motriz es más importante. Este artículo describe diferentes conductas que podrían aumentar y mejorar el aprendizaje motriz enfatizando la práctica específica del tenis.
Çalışmamızın amacı genç futbolcularda (U14) dar alan oyunlarının teknik beceri ve fiziksel özelliklerin gelişimine etkisi var mı? (Filistin örneği) sorusunun incelenmesidir. Filistin’in Batı Şeria eyaletine bağlı Kültürel Tulkarem Spor Kulübünde alt yapı sporcularının oluşturduğu 40 erkek futbolcu (20 denek ve 20 kontrol grubu) katılmıştır. Çalışmaya katılan futbolculardan 8 hafta boyunca 30x42 mt’lik saha ölçülerine sahip 5x5 dar alan oyunları oynatılmıştır. Antrenman öncesi ve 8 hafta sonrası teknik ve fiziksel ölçümler alınmıştır. Araştırmada toplanan veriler SPSS 22.0 V istatistik programında analizleri hesaplanmıştır. Verilere öncelikle normallik varsayımı için Shapiro-Wilk testi uygulanmış ve normal dağılım gösteren verilere grupların ön-son test farklılıkları için Paired Sample T testi kullanılmıştır. Analiz sonucunda çalışmaya katılan futbolcuların dar alan oyunları (8 haftalık) önce ve sonrası fiziksel parametre farklarının karşılaştırılmasında, zikzak testi, t çeviklik testi, otur eriş testi, durarak uzun atlama, dikey sıçrama, yoyo mesafe ve MaxVO2 parametrelerinde denek grubunun kontrol grubunda daha yüksek artışların olduğu ve dar alan oyunlarının fiziksel ölçüm parametrelerine etkisinin olduğu görülmüştür. Çalışmaya katılan futbolcuların teknik test sonuçlarının karşılaştırılmasında ise, kafa ile top saydırma ve teknik puan hariç diğer ölçümlerde anlamlı artış hesaplanmıştır. Denek grubundaki artışın kontrol grubunda daha fazla olduğu hesaplanmıştır (p
Giménez, J.V.; Requena, A.; Onetti-Onetti, W.; Castillo-Rodríguez, A. (2022). Análisis de la salida del balón en jugadores alevines de futbol: un estudio de caso. Trances, 14(6):921-946. Resumen: La enseñanza de la salida de balón jugado desde atrás para llegar con buenas opciones a la zona de finalización en la etapa alevín es una realidad en escuelas y clubes de fútbol con el fin de establecer la iniciativa en el juego. El propósito del presente estudio de casos consistió (i) en analizar la eficacia de salida de balón estableciendo como criterio de eficacia si supera o no la línea del centro del campo y (ii) establecer una propuesta de mejora para la fase inicio del juego usando la metodología observacional. Se registraron 50 observaciones de salida de balón frente a rivales ranking similares para determinar las fortalezas y debilidades en zona de iniciación del juego. Los resultados mostraron que el 56% de las salidas de balón (28 observaciones) no terminaron llegando a la zona de canalización, en contraste el 44% (22 jugadas) consiguieron llegar con buenas opciones a dicha zona. Los hallazgos mostraron que para mejorar la eficacia de la iniciativa en el juego hay que dotar
Background and Aims Education in school is a key element of health and helps to freshness and vitality of the community through the promotion of the physical activity. In this regard, some practitioners try to be effective in community health through linear or non-linear training methods. Thus, this study tried to determine which educational method (linear, nonlinear) is effective in promoting perceived and real motor competence in children. Methods In this study, two boy schools were selected whose education in the physical education class was linear in one and non-linear in the other. Therefore, 50 children from each school were selected as a sample randomly (Mean±SD age: 8.47±1.14 ). Motor proficiency was assessed by the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test, and perceived motor competence was assessed by the Incentive Motivation Questionnaire. Results The results of the analysis of covariance by eliminating the effect of the pre-test showed that the nonlinear group in motor skills (P=0.00) and perceived motor competence (P=0.02) scored significantly higher than the linear group Conclusion The results emphasize the importance of using nonlinear training in physical education with manipulation of the environment and task without direct instructions and feedback. Nonlinear methods as new methods in schools can replace traditional methods. In this method, by manipulating the constraints, children can be helped to grow in various dimensions, including real and perceived motor skills. The results of this study are useful for teachers who teach basic motor skills in school.
There is a controversy about the benefits of variable practice on motor learning. This study aimed to analyze the effect of variable practice after the learner stabilized their performance. Thirty-two healthy adults performed a computer-simulated discrete accuracy task in which they had to release a virtual ball to try to hit a target. After a pre-test, the participants were distributed into three training groups: constant practice, variable practice and a group that started practicing in constant conditions, and when their performance stabilized, changed to variable practice. The participants performed 44 sets of 10 repetitions of the task. A post-test and two retention tests were carried out. Variable practice did not show a significant improvement compared to constant practice. Variable practice did not show higher benefits even when performance was stabilized through constant practice, but its effects seem to be modulated by the initial variability of the learners.
Background and aim The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of sensory-motor integration on gross motor skills in children with developmental coordination disorder. Material and Methods Target population was all male students in grade two of special elementary schools in three regions of Tehran. Among them, 30 students with developmental coordination disorder were recruited using practical tests of MABC and clustering sampling method. To assess the children's gross motor skills, second version of Ulrich’s Gross Motor Test (TGMD-2) was used. After the pre-test assessment, participants were randomly assigned into control and experimental groups (20 participants per each goup). The experimental group performed sensory-motor integration training in 50 sessions (6 days a week, each for 45 minutes), while the control
group did their usual activities in their schools. Analysis of covariance was used in order to analyze the data. Results The results indicated that sensory-motor integration program had a significant effcet (P<0.05) on improving manipulative and displacement skills in experimental group in comparison to the subject in control group; however, there was no significant effect on hopping, sliding, striking, dribbling, rolling the ball and kicking
between the study groups (p>0.05). Conclusion The exercise program used in the currect study could be appropriate motor experiences for children with DCD, so it is recommended to be used at schools to improve students’ gross motor skills.
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 years. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning.
The role of acquired error-detection capabilities in skill learning was investigated by manipulating the delay of knowledge of results (KR). Compared with delayed feedback, instantaneous KR should be detrimental to the learning of error-detection capabilities because it should tend to block spontaneous subjective evaluation of response-produced feedback. Weaker error-detection capabilities should then be evident on delayed no-KR retention tests. During acquisition, one group of subjects received KR after a delay of a few seconds while another group received KR instantaneously; then both were evaluated on several retention tests. Using a timing task with two reversals in direction (Experiment 1) and a coincident-timing task (Experiment 2), we found that, relative to delayed feedback, instantaneous KR degraded learning as measured on delayed retention tests. Although the KR-delay interval has traditionally been considered of minor importance for skill learning, the present findings suggest that very short KR-delays interfere with learning, perhaps by degrading the acquisition of error-detection capabilities.
This study examined the relative contribution of visual, perceptual, and cognitive skills to the development of expertise in soccer. Elite and sub-elite players, ranging in age from 9 to 17 years, were assessed using a multidimensional battery of tests. Four aspects of visual function were measured: static and dynamic visual acuity; stereoscopic depth sensitivity; and peripheral awareness. Perceptual and cognitive skills were assessed via the use of situational probabilities, as well as tests of anticipation and memory recall. Stepwise discriminant analyses revealed that the tests of visual function did not consistently discriminate between skill groups at any age. Tests of anticipatory performance and use of situational probabilities were the best in discriminating across skill groups. Memory recall of structured patterns of play was most predictive of age. As early as age 9, elite soccer players demonstrated superior perceptual and cognitive skills when compared to their sub-elite counterparts. Implications for training perceptual and cognitive skill in sport are discussed.
72 college students learned 3 motor tasks under a blocked (low interference) or random (high interference) sequence of presentation. Retention was measured after a 10-min or 10-day delay under blocked and random sequences of presentation. Subsequent transfer to a task of either the same complexity or greater complexity than the originally learned tasks was also investigated. Results showed that retention was greater following random acquisition than under changed contextual interference conditions. Likewise, transfer was greater for random acquisition groups than for blocked acquisition groups. This effect was most notable when transfer was measured for the transfer task of greatest complexity. Results are considered as support for W. F. Battig's (1978) conceptualization of contextual interference effects on retention and transfer. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study investigated the generalizability of results of contextual interference effects by extending previous laboratory research to a field setting. Thirty female subjects (N = 30) learned three badminton serves in either a blocked (low interference), serial (mixed interference), or random (high interference) practice schedule. The subjects practiced the serves three days a week for three weeks. On the day following the completion of practice the subjects were given a retention and transfer test. Results replicated previous findings of contextual interference research by showing a significant group by block interaction between acquisition trials, retention, and transfer. The random group performed better on both retention and transfer than the blocked group. The significant trial block by contextual interference interaction also supports the generalizability of contextual interference effects, as posited by Shea and Morgan (1979), to the teaching of motor skills.
Research to date provides two approaches to assessing coaching expertise. The first is behavioral assessment and the second is to assess coaches' knowledge base. However, we contend that both approaches are flawed due to their inability to adequately improve coach development by failing to answer three fundamental questions: What knowledge should be taught to novice coaches? What is the optimal method for teaching this knowledge? And how should we assess to encourage learning? Cognitive psychology has demonstrated that someone with expert cognitive skill is characterized as having expert declarative and procedural knowledge. Experts are further characterized by having greater organization of this knowledge. Thus the expert is able to apply expert knowledge in a more expert manner to solve complex problems in a specific domain. Properly exploiting ideas such as these can help direct future research to provide answers to the questions posed above. © 1998 National Association for Physical Education in Higher Education.
Examined whether response selection (RS) accuracy could be improved without sacrificing a male 22-yr-old football linebacker's RS speed by practicing his RS skills in relation to various offensive plays that were seen via videotape from an angle similar to what he would see in a game. The S responded to the cues of the tight end and backfield play by manipulating a joystick as accurately and quickly as possible. There was an improvement in RS accuracy without sacrificing RS speed. Training using a videotape can be an effective method for improving the perceptual skills needed for RS accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The role of acquired error-detection capabilities in skill learning was investigated by manipulating the delay of knowledge of results (KR). Compared with delayed feedback, instantaneous KR should be detrimental to the learning of error-detection capabilities because it should tend to block spontaneous subjective evaluation of response-produced feedback. Weaker error-detection capabilities should then be evident on delayed no-KR retention tests. During acquisition, one group of subjects received KR after a delay of a few seconds while another group received KR instantaneously; then both were evaluated on several retention tests. Using a timing task with two reversals in direction (Experiment 1) and a coincident-timing task (Experiment 2), we found that, relative to delayed feedback, instantaneous KR degraded learning as measured on delayed retention tests. Although the KR-delay interval has traditionally been considered of minor importance for skill learning, the present findings suggest that very short KR-delays interfere with learning, perhaps by degrading the acquisition of error-detection capabilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies tested the theory of deliberate practice (K. A. Ericsson et al, 1993) and contrasted results with the sport commitment model (T. K. Scanlan et al, 1993a, 1993b). In Part I, international (mean age 25.6 yrs), national (mean age 24.0 yrs), and provincial (mean age 25.4 yrs) soccer and field hockey players recalled the amount of time they spent in individual and team practice, sport-related activities, and everyday activities at the start of their career and every 3 years since. In Part II, these activities were rated in terms of their relevance for improving performance, effort and concentration required, and enjoyment. A monotonic relationship between accumulated individual plus team practice and skill level was found. In contrast with Ericsson et al's findings for musicians, relevant activities were also enjoyable, while concentration became a separate dimension from effort. The viability of a generalized theory of expertise is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Argues that although a number of closed-loop postulations to explain motor skills learning and performance phenomena have appeared recently, each of these views suffers from either (a) logical problems in explaining the phenomena or (b) predictions that are not supported by the empirical evidence. After these difficulties are discussed, a new theory for discrete motor learning is proposed that is considered to be capable of explaining the existing findings. The theory is based on the notion of the schema and uses a recall memory to produce movement and a recognition memory to evaluate response correctness. Some of the predictions are mentioned, research techniques and paradigms that can be used to test the predictions are listed, and data in support of the theory are presented. (89 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The theoretical framework presented in this article explains expert performance as the end result of individuals' prolonged efforts to improve performance while negotiating motivational and external constraints. In most domains of expertise, individuals begin in their childhood a regimen of effortful activities (deliberate practice) designed to optimize improvement. Individual differences, even among elite performers, are closely related to assessed amounts of deliberate practice. Many characteristics once believed to reflect innate talent are actually the result of intense practice extended for a minimum of 10 yrs. Analysis of expert performance provides unique evidence on the potential and limits of extreme environmental adaptation and learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The learning benefits of contextual interference have been frequently demonstrated in different settings using novice learners. The purpose of the present study was to test such effects with skilled athletic performers. Scheduling differences for biweekly additional (“extra”) batting-practice sessions of a collegiate baseball team were examined. 30 players (ns = 10) were blocked on skill and then randomly assigned to one of three groups. The random and blocked groups received 2 additional batting-practice sessions each week for 6 wk. (12 sessions), while the control group received no additional practice. The extra sessions consisted of 45 pitches, 15 fastballs, 15 curve-balls, and 15 change-up pitches. The random group received these pitches in a random order, while the blocked group received all 15 of one type, then 15 of the next type, and finally 15 of the last type of pitch in a blocked fashion. All subjects received a pretest of 45 randomly presented pitches of the three varieties. After 6 wk. of extra batting practice, all subjects received two transfer tests, each of 45 trials; one was presented randomly and one blocked. The transfer tests were counterbalanced across subjects. Pretest analysis showed no significant differences among groups. On both the random and blocked transfer tests, however, the random group performed with reliably higher scores than the blocked group, who performed better than the control group. When comparing the pretest to the random transfer test, the random group improved 56.7%, the blocked group 24.8%, and the control group only 6.2%. These findings demonstrate the contextual interference effect to be robust and beneficial even to skilled learners in a complex sport setting.
As the adult game has increased in popularity, youth soccer has also seen significant expansion in recent years. The popularity of the youth game is set to continue. Young boy and girl players wish to emulate professional soccer stars and the professional game, often with long-term financial rewards in mind, is increasingly keen to develop young talent. Applied sports science is now a well-established feature of the adult game but the sports science that supports modern football does not translate directly into the youth game. The coaches of young players need specific information about children. Themes explored in this text include: growth of physiological systems development of motor and perceptive skills paediatric environmental physiology prevention of injury diet and nutrition youth fitness and skills training effective teaching and coaching of juniors the role of football academies. Youth Soccer: From Science to Performance blends current child-focused sports science theory with youth-specific coaching practice to help create soccer development strategies for children. It promotes knowledge and understanding in all these areas and will further professional expertise amongst coaches who wish to develop the all year round potential of youth soccer players and train the stars of the future. © 2004 Gareth Stratton, Thomas Reilly, A. Mark Williams and Dave Richardson. All rights reserved.
Information presented from an external source to a learner following a practice response is commonly termed 'knowledge of results' (KR). The importance of KR can be demonstrated by observing the influence on learning of interval length or activity conditions following the receipt of KR during the post-KR interval. The traditional view is that if interval conditions lead to an increased likelihood of forgetting KR or sensory feedback, or of disrupting strategy formation for the next practice response, then poorer learning should result than if more optimal conditions prevailed. Two experiments are presented that argue against this view. Results indicate that conditions involving post-KR activity or a 20-sec empty interval lead to no worse retention than a 5-sec no activity interval. Even more striking is that post-KR activity and a 20-sec empty interval facilitate novel response transfer. This benefit cannot be due to experiencing response Variations, contrary to schema theory predictions, since practising goal task variations during the post-KR interval did not lead to more accurate transfer performance than practising responses not related to the goal task. These results indicate the need to rethink current hypotheses relative to the influence of post-KR interval conditions on motor skill learning.
This study used participants from the marital arts (karate) to examine the influence of context in the acquisition of novel motor sequences and the applicability of Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer's (1993) theory of deliberate practice in this athletic domain. The presence of context did not benefit recall performance for the experts. The performance of the novice group was hindered by the presence of context. Evaluation of the role of deliberate practice in expert performance was assessed through retrospective questionnaires. The findings related to the relationship between relevance and effort, and relevance and enjoyment diverged from Ericsson et al.'s (1993) definition of deliberate practice, suggesting that adaptations should be made if it is to be considered a general theory of expertise.
Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Römer (1993) have concluded from work with musicians that expertise is the result of ≪deliberate practice≫, so how valid is this conclusion in sport? Four groups of male amateur wrestlers (n = 42); 2 international and 2 club (current and retired) recalled the number of hours they had spent in wrestling and everyday activities since beginning wrestling. All groups had begun wrestling at a similar age (M = 13 yrs) and had been wrestling for 10 years or more. Data were examined as a function of age and years spent wrestling. Contrary to Ericsson et al. practice alone activities did not differentiate between the groups, only practice with others. At 6 years into their careers, the international group practised 4.5 hrs/week more than the club wrestlers. At 20 years of age the international wrestlers had accumulated over 1000 more hours of practice with others compared to the club wrestlers. Evaluations of wrestling related activities showed that activities judged to be relevant were also rated high with regards to concentration and enjoyment. Diary data were collected from current wrestlers to validate the retrospective reports. The time spent in all wrestling related activities was comparable for the club and international wrestlers, however, the international wrestlers spent longer travelling to practice, which reflected the necessity to train at a club with the best sparring partners. Practice with others yielded high correlations between estimates for a typical week and the diary data for the international wrestlers. In conclusion Ericsson et al.'s definition of ≪deliberate practice≫ needs to be considered, especially as ≪relevancez≫ correlates highly with ≪enjoyment≫. It is recommended that future studies focus on what it is that motivates people to spend the necessary hours of practice to achieve expertise.
In this chapter, I develop the interpretation of coordination, control and skill sketched by Kugler, Kelso and Turvey (1980, 1982). The orientation promoted here is primarily descriptive with the focus being the development of a framework for a useful operational distinction between the three terms. 1 believe one can draw on the interpretation of coordination, control and skill outlined by Kugler and colleagues without necessarily invoking the theoretical position advanced by this group, although it will become clear as this chapter unfolds, that I am sympathetic to this theoretical position.
Examines some critical definitional and experimental-design problems that underlie the principles of knowledge of results (KR) and learning, the KR literature, and how newer principles of KR lead to notions of how KR works in human motor-learning situations. KR is defined as augmented feedback, where the KR is additional to those sources of feedback that are naturally received when a response is made. Transfer tests, usually under no-KR conditions, are essential for unraveling the temporary effects of KR manipulations from their relatively permanent learning effects. When this is considered, the literature reveals findings that produce reasonable agreement, although there are a number of inconsistencies in studies examining the same variables. When learning vs performance effects of KR are separated, a number of contradictions occur; new principles that emerge include the notion that KR acts as guidance, that it is motivating or energizing, and that it has a role in the formation of associations. It is suggested that KR may guide an S to the proper target behavior, with other processes (e.g., simple repetition) being the critical determinants of learning. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
This chapter presents a conceptual synthesis of some related, and perhaps, previously unrelated empirical research. The impetus for this chapter arises primarily from our recent explorations of the so-called "contextual" "interference" effect (Lee & Magill, 1983a, 1983b; Lee, Magill & Weeks, 1984; Magill & Lee, 1984) and specifically, the inability of current theories of motor learning to explain why this effect occurs.
This paper addresses the contextual interference hypothesis, which was originally formulated by Battig (1966) and later adapted to motor learning by Shea and Morgan (1979). The hypothesis has generated much research, and its application has been readily suggested to practitioners. According to the hypothesis, high contextual interference (random practice) impairs acquisition but enhances retention and transfer, whereas low contextual interference (blocked practice) has the opposite effects. The empirical basis for the hypothesis—from laboratory-oriented and field-based settings—is examined. The generalizability of the hypothesis is also assessed. Recommendations are made for practitioners for optimal use of the contextual interference effect.
Although the effects of specialized training in visual analysis of skills are well documented, whether the effects are lasting is not. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the effect a visual skills training program in volleyball had on participants one year after the completion of a training intervention. Subjects received either traditional performance instruction supplemented with visual training or traditional performance instruction in volleyball only. All subjects remaining in the teacher education program from a previous study were given a visual test on diagnosing errors in three different volleyball skills (the forearm pass, the overhead pass, and the overhead serve). Subjects exposed to visual training remained significantly better at diagnosing errors for the three volleyball skills one year later as compared to those subjects who had not received visual training.
This paper describes experiments performed with 40 subjects wearing an eye-tracker and watching and imitating videos of finger, hand, and arm movements. For all types of stimuli, the subjects tended to fixate on the hand, regardless of whether they were imitating or . just watching. The results lend insight into the connection between visual perception and motor control, suggesting that: 1 people analyze human arm movements largely by tracking the hand or the end-point, even if the movement is performed with the entire arm, and .2 when imitating, people use internal innate and learned models of movement, possibly in the form of motor primitives, to recreate the details of whole-arm posture and movement from end-point trajectories. q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.