ArticlePDF AvailableLiterature Review

Sustainable veterinary medicine for the new era

January 2004
Revue Scientifique et Technique de l OIE 22(3):949-64

DOI:10.20506/rst.22.3.1451

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PubMed

Authors:

Krishna Kaphle

Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science

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Sustainability aims to harmonise life on Earth without compromising the essential natural resources that should be the birthright of future generations. 'Sustainable medicine' (SM) is just one component of the wide range of possible sustainable approaches to peaceful co-existence. Sustainable medicine envisions an uncomplicated system of maintaining the health of people and animals, both now and for many years to come. This type of medicine is based on ancient wisdom, knowledge and healing arts, combined with the advantages and technical achievements of modern science and other areas of medicine; it is an integrated approach to preventive, safe and affordable healing. The term sustainable medicine also implies that the main therapeutic materials used in the course of practising this type of medicine can be replaced or replenished with minimal environmental damage after harvesting. The aim of sustainable medicine is to maintain the balance of nature, allowing an estimated 7 to 100 million species of life forms to co-exist and reproduce, and to sustain the long-term future of this planet. The world is in the midst of an environmental crisis: anthropogenic environmental damage in the last century was greater than in any previous century. One of the major concerns is the misuse of medicines, and the resulting immune depletion in people and animals. Many traditional medical systems have taught that appropriate adaptation by, and of, an effective defence system is the key to health and survival. This is only possible if priority is given to a preventive rather than a curative approach to health care; the very same approach that is advocated by proponents of SM: an approach based on proper diagnosis and the use of personalised, tailor-made medicine. The authors propose SM (the combination of the advantages of modern, traditional and complementary medical systems) as the best approach to providing better health care services for people and animals. The article presents a brief history of traditional medicines and outlines strategies for developing SM. The authors highlight some important factors in the development of SM in animal health care and attempt to encourage veterinarians to adopt a sustainable approach to treating animals.

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Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 2003, 22 (3), 949-964

Summary

Sustainability aims to harmonise life on Earth without compromising the essential

natural resources that should be the birthright of future generations. ‘Sustainable

medicine’ (SM) is just one component of the wide range of possible sustainable

approaches to peaceful co-existence. Sustainable medicine envisions an

uncomplicated system of maintaining the health of people and animals, both now

and for many years to come. This type of medicine is based on ancient wisdom,

knowledge and healing arts, combined with the advantages and technical

achievements of modern science and other areas of medicine; it is an integrated

approach to preventive, safe and affordable healing.

The term sustainable medicine also implies that the main therapeutic materials

used in the course of practising this type of medicine can be replaced or

replenished with minimal environmental damage after harvesting. The aim of

sustainable medicine is to maintain the balance of nature, allowing an estimated

7 to 100 million species of life forms to co-exist and reproduce, and to sustain the

long-term future of this planet.

The world is in the midst of an environmental crisis: anthropogenic environmental

damage in the last century was greater than in any previous century. One of the

major concerns is the misuse of medicines, and the resulting immune depletion in

people and animals. Many traditional medical systems have taught that

appropriate adaptation by, and of, an effective defence system is the key to health

and survival. This is only possible if priority is given to a preventive rather than a

curative approach to health care; the very same approach that is advocated by

proponents of SM: an approach based on proper diagnosis and the use of

personalised, tailor-made medicine.

The authors propose SM (the combination of the advantages of modern,

traditional and complementary medical systems) as the best approach to

providing better health care services for people and animals. The article presents

a brief history of traditional medicines and outlines strategies for developing SM.

The authors highlight some important factors in the development of SM in animal

health care and attempt to encourage veterinarians to adopt a sustainable

approach to treating animals.

Keywords

Acupuncture – Alternative – Complementary – Conventional – Environment –

Herbal – Sustainability – Traditional – Veterinary medicine.

Sustainable veterinary medicine for the new era

J.H. Lin

(1, 2)

, K. Kaphle

(1, 3)

, L.S. Wu

(1)

, N.Y.J. Yang

(2)

, G. Lu

(4)

, C. Yu

(4)

H. Yamada

(5)

& P.A.M. Rogers

(6)

(1) Department of Animal Science, National Taipei China University, Taipei 106, Taipei China

(2) China Institute of Technology, Nangang 115, Taipei China

(3) Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal

(4) College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100094, People’s Republic of China

(5) Oriental Medicine Research Centre, Kitasato Institute, Tokyo 108, Japan

(6) National Beef Research Centre, Teagasc, Grange, Dunsany, Co. Meath, Ireland

Submitted for publication: 13 March 2001

Accepted for publication: 24 October 2003

Introduction

Animal and veterinary sciences are changing rapidly. Many new

diagnostic techniques and therapies have been developed in the

last few decades. In the search for better results, scientific

advances – from genomic levels to simultaneous consideration

of their multiple interacting factors - have helped diagnostic

investigation. The need to cope with the complications of

newer diseases and emerging complex pathological conditions

remains the main driving force behind diagnostic progress at

molecular level and in gene therapy. Science has tried to use

available knowledge and resources to develop animal

production so that it is capable of meeting human needs.

However, newer host-shifting diseases like Sever Acute

Respiratory Syndrome (27) have highlighted the knowledge-

gap and the practical difficulties in combating rapidly mutating

pathogens.

Conventional science has been misused and has failed many

times; the attempts of conventional science to prevent and treat

many common diseases, especially chronic diseases, have been

almost futile. Public and health professionals realise this, and

they also know that, to a large extent, science has been hijacked

by political, military and commercial interests. These power-

groups have little interest in an effective health system, one

which is based on affordable methods of disease-prevention for

all people and their animals. Therefore, the public has started

to reject the attempts by conventional science, its proponents,

and those with vested interests, to control and dominate the

choice of treatment options (8, 13). Consequently, public

demand for the ancient arts of healing has increased markedly,

as has the number of people seeking professional training in

these areas.

Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is the best

term to describe a new modality that lies outside, or beside,

conventional medicine. More recently, the terms holistic

medicine, or complementary and integrative medicine, have

been used. These terms indicate that these other methods are

used in addition to conventional therapies. Complementary

and alternative medicine includes acupuncture (AP),

acutherapy, chiropractic and physical therapy, massage therapy,

homeopathy, botanical medicine and nutraceutical medicine.

Holistic medicine is the integration of conventional medicine

with some or all of the CAM modalities.

As CAM gains acceptance in human medicine, veterinary

professionals are beginning to look at how complementary and

alternative treatments could be incorporated into veterinary

medicine. In 1996, the American Veterinary Medical

Association (AVMA) revised the guidelines for the use of CAM

in veterinary medicine. These guidelines reflect the current

status of the role of these emerging modalities within the

parameters of veterinary medicine. The AVMA agreed that

sufficient clinical and anecdotal evidence exists to suggest that

there are real benefits from some unconventional approaches.

The AVMA accepted veterinary acupuncture (VAP) – in their

words ‘use of needles’ – as an integral part of veterinary

medicine. The shifting attitudes of animal owners to

complementary and alternative veterinary medicine (CAVM)

and the global acceptance of the use of this type of medicine in

providing a comprehensive approach to animal health care are

encouraging. Pressure is growing to incorporate CAM into

mainstream medicine (2, 8).

A large subset of CAM includes traditional medicine (TM) or

natural therapies that are cultural or ethnic in origin. These

include nutritional, herbal and manual therapies.

Conventional medicine (‘western medicine’ [WM], ‘scientific

medicine’ or ‘modern medicine’), was popular in the past

because of clinical success in treating many acute diseases,

especially those that required intensive care or rapid

suppression of symptoms. Colonised indigenous peoples called

such medicine ‘the white man’s pill’; WM won their confidence

because it gave them instant relief from the effects of malaria

and other infections that were less responsive to traditional

methods. Other undisputed successes for WM included safe

anaesthetics for surgery, sedatives and psychotropic drugs for

acute mental states, potent analgesics for severe pain, antibiotics

for life-threatening bacterial infections, and steroids for acute

inflammation. There was no turning back after that. Driven by

commercial interests and the need to produce more and

cheaper food, the era of intensive animal production followed

inexorably (2, 26). That system is based on routine heavy

inputs of vaccines, antibiotics, anthelmintics, pesticides,

agrochemicals and artificial fertilisers.

In this text, the authors describe an approach that integrates the

best of both conventional and traditional medicine; an

approach that is often termed ‘sustainable medicine’ (SM). The

authors wish to introduce veterinarians to the philosophy,

scientific basis, clinical applications and development of SM.

The broad scope of their training equips veterinarians to

understand the delicate balance of nature, and to appreciate the

human-animal relationship and the need for harmony with

nature. Veterinarians who increase their knowledge by studying

the principles of SM and incorporating them into their day-to-

day practice will enhance their clinical success rates, improve

animal health and well-being, and play an important role in

reducing environmental damage.

Sustainable medicine

Sustainable development is an idealistic concept, which

originated from ‘Our Common Future’, the 1987 report by the

United Nation’s World Commission on Environmental

Development. The term ‘sustainability’ has been interpreted in

different ways, but the popular and appropriate definition is

950 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3)

‘meeting the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. Thus,

sustainable development is a process of redirection,

reorientation and reallocation

. It is a fundamental redesign of

economic, technological and sociological processes; a redesign

with the aim of affecting change which will ensure a better

future for all. Sustainable medicine is a new approach to

practising medicine, one that meets not only our current needs

but will also meet the needs of succeeding generations.

The concept of SM derives from the concept of sustainable

agriculture (SA), which has been practised for several decades.

One definition of SA is agriculture which balances concern for

environmental soundness with economic viability and social

justice among all sectors of society (1). Sustainable medicine is

a system that aims to maintain the health and well-being of

people and animals well into the distant future. Sustainable

medicine defines sustainability in terms of resource availability

and functional integrity, i.e., retaining the capacity of each of the

component parts to function normally (20). The concept of

sustainable medicine fits well into the vision of the Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), which

defines sustainable development as ‘the management and

conservation of the natural resource base, and the orientation of

technologies and institutional change in such a manner as to

ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human

needs for present and future generations’. The SM approach is

a holistic approach, which aims to attain better treatment

results that will eventually minimise or exclude further

complications. It is likely that SM will eventually integrate the

best of WM, TM and CAM so as to provide affordable and

better care for people and animals. Sustainable medicine could

rightly be called a ‘medicine of love’ because its core philosophy

revolves around an approach based on love, respect and

wisdom. By extending the principle beyond the patient to the

global environment, the ethical core of SM extends the

Hippocratic principle of ‘Primum, non nocere – First, do no

harm’.

We are in an ironic position in the new millennium. Because

our sense of ‘chemophobia’ is increasing, we are demanding the

right to better product information (2, 12, 23, 24, 28) and a

more natural system of animal production based on ethical

animal husbandry and welfare. On the other hand, there is an

urgent need to provide basic resources to meet the food

demand of an ever-increasing population (9). It is the task of

SM to deliver solutions which are suitable for both these

situations.

The concept of sustainable medicine for animals challenges the

misconception that animals are mere commodities,

conglomerates of chemicals to be exploited. Developed nations,

particularly the European Union (EU) States, are under

increasing pressure to motivate farming communities to adopt

more humane approaches to animal production (9, 13). In

contrast, many poorer nations are losing the religious and

cultural heritage that taught the need give due respect to

animals. Most complications of WM stem from the misuse of

drugs, especially their widespread use with little or no rational

justification (1, 6, 11, 18, 26, 38, 42). Some, especially those

with commercially vested interests, argue for mass-medication

in intensive animal production units. However, governments

should carefully assess the cost-benefits (and collateral damage)

of such policies.

Though SM is applicable in all countries, the approach is

particularly beneficial in poorer communities and nations

where a few animals represent the total wealth of a family (9,

10). The effectiveness of SM is already beginning to be

recognised and there is greater international acceptance of

holistic approaches in veterinary medicine. Such approaches

include traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which is one of

the most natural and sustainable systems of medicine that there

is, and one which has been practised in the People’s Republic of

China and in Chinese settlements for several millennia.

Traditional Chinese medicine includes herbal medicine (HM)

(19, 20, 28, 43), medicine of animal and insect origin (14, 33),

physical medicine (AP, moxibustion, massage, etc.) and mental

therapy (Qigong, meditation, etc.) (15, 23, 28).

The increasing incorporation of TCM into medical and

veterinary practice signals changing attitudes to SM. The Nei-

ching (the classic text on internal medicine, 221 BC-220 AD) is

the oldest existing medical book in the People’s Republic of

China. It is a seminal text on TCM, attributed to the legendary

Yellow Emperor, Huangdi. The underlying philosophy of the

text is: ‘Superior doctors do not treat disease… they prevent it’.

This indicates the importance in TCM of trying to prevent

disease, rather than waiting to cure it (19, 28). From the

viewpoint of the Nei-ching, SM is a preventive medical system,

based on effective, safe, readily available, inexpensive and

renewable natural products. The need for good clinical

medicine still remains because modern circumstances do not

permit sole reliance on preventive medicine (8, 15, 28, 31, 36,

37). The authors propose SM as the best way to address the

shortcomings of existing medical approaches. Sustainable

medicine combines the advantages of WM, TCM and CAM to

provide better health care for people and animals by doctors

and veterinarians in the 21st Century.

Appendix 1 discusses strategies for developing SM, including

the following:

a) strategies to merge traditional Chinese veterinary medicine

(TCVM) and modern veterinary medicine

b) the role of personal effort in advocating SM

c) the role of societies and organisations in promoting SM

d) co-operation between TCM and TCVM

e) university training and research

f) government and private support.

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3) 951

The role of traditional medicine

All great civilisations (African, Amerind, Arabian, Chinese,

Egyptian, European, Indian, Japanese, Lapp, Sumerian, Tibetan

etc.) evolved their own forms of TM. These unique practices

were developed by indigenous peoples by centuries of trial and

error. Though the approach differed between cultures, all of

them had one thing in common: they recognised nature as a

supreme force; they observed the natural cycles and they knew

the importance of living in harmony with nature. Until the early

20th Century, TMs were the only systems of medicine that were

practicable for most people and their animals. Even today, in

many communities, TM still constitutes the sole approach to

medicine. Traditional medicine provides many cheap, safe and

effective remedies for people and animals; its integration with

the best of WM would inevitably improve clinical result (8).

Some people say that TM is unsustainable, or accuse it of

promoting ignorance and superstition and of being a major

factor in the extinction of certain plant and animal species (25,

32). However, rather than TM per se, it was human carelessness

and greed that caused such extinction. Paul Ehrlich, a Stanford

University ecologist, stated that habitat destruction – the

inevitable result of expanding human population and human

activity – is the main cause of extinction. In the 20th Century,

in the name of progress, man-made environmental destruction

has been catastrophic. A major mission for the 21st Century is

to preserve our natural resources and human heritage as much

as possible. Traditional medicine is an important part of human

heritage and any attempt to completely replace it with WM will

devastate the environment further and will only increase the

misery and suffering of the world’s poor. However, to achieve

maximum long-term benefits, TM needs to be studied, verified

and integrated with existing systems.

Though every TM system has its strengths and weaknesses,

TCM is the oldest, most complete and most well documented

system around, and the one which has achieved the most

widespread recognition. Traditional Chinese medicine is a

natural medicine, based on experiences gained over thousands

of years and on the ideas of harmony, balance and change.

Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) and AP are important parts of

TCM. They help the normal adaptive and defensive functions

of the body to confer therapeutic and prophylactic effects to

other areas of the body which may be suffering from functional

and organic diseases. The guiding philosophy of TCM is that all

living creatures need to be in harmony with their environment.

They need a balance of hot and cold, work and play,

wakefulness and sleep, laughter and tears, etc. All the methods

in TCM (herbs, AP, moxa, massage, exercises, etc.) aim to

induce a change from the undesired to the desired situation,

thereby restoring balance and harmony. The effects of TCM are

transmitted via the natural adaptive responses of the body.

Because of its natural philosophy, its ancient reputation and its

excellent clinical success, TCM has gained international

attention. It is highly respected not only in poor countries, but

also in wealthy societies, such as Japan, Korea, and the

industrialised parts of Southeast Asia, Northern Europe, North

America and Oceania.

Yi-Ching (

The book of changes), circa 1000 BC, is a treatise of

ancient Chinese philosophy. It defines the following two

categories of change:

a) no change, which means that the principle or activity must

be maintained

b) change, which means that the principle or activity may be

changed or adjusted, depending on the situation.

The development of veterinary medicine by integrating

traditional and modern concepts should be a combination of

these two approaches: change and no change. Traditional

Chinese medicine is the most obvious partner for WM to help

establish SM for animals. There are thousands of experts

devoted to preserving, developing, integrating and teaching

TCM. Many nations and some commercial companies have

started to invest in TCM research. For these and many other

reasons, TCM offers the greatest prospect for integrating

traditional and modern systems of medicine. The Indian

subcontinent contributes much in the field of Ayurvedic HM.

German investment to develop homeopathy is also

praiseworthy. There are many other examples of combined and

independent strategies to develop different components of TM.

Sustainable medicine aims to integrate the best of TM with the

best of WM to establish treatments of optimum safety and

efficacy.

Traditional Chinese veterinary

medicine

Traditional Chinese veterinary medicine (TCVM) includes

CHM and AP; it dates back to the era of the Three Emperors,

approximately 10,000 years ago. According to Chinese legend,

Emperor Fusi founded animal husbandry and veterinary

medicine, taught fishing and the art of domesticating animals,

and brought civilisation to the primitive society that existed in

China at that time. As agriculture was the main occupation,

animals were important in Chinese society. As civilisation

spread and flourished, Chinese peoples were constantly at war.

Horses were especially important for military purposes. The

need to care for animals, and horses especially, contributed to

the development of TCVM. The armies needed animal doctors,

who initially used the more developed ideas of human

medicine. However, over time, TCVM progressed and the

experiences gained were recorded. These records became

sources of information for later generations.

952 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3)

Chinese herbal medicine is a phytotherapy, with a strong

therapeutic reputation in the East. Plants, long known to have

therapeutic (and poisonous) effects, have been used as

medicines for millennia. Today, about 75% of the earth’s

population rely for their basic health needs on plants, plant

extracts, and other tools of TM.

Chinese herbal medicine uses a complex combination of

medicinal plants and other natural products, including extracts

from living or dead tissue (animal, reptile, insect, venom, shell,

coral, etc.) and minerals (mineral salts, certain types of

pulverised rocks and soils, etc.). Chinese herbal medicine uses

TCM theory and a TCM diagnosis of the pathological condition

of the patient. The Nei-ching contains the basic theories and

clinical uses of HM and AP for humans. It discusses the theory

of Yin/Yang (passive and active), Xu-Wing (Five Phases, or

Elements), Qi-Xue (vital energy and blood), Zang-fu (solid

organs and hollow organs), AP points, aetiology, diagnostic

methods, and the differentiation of disease syndromes. Many

treatises on HM and AP follow the Nei-ching (19, 20).

Acupuncture literally means needle (acus) puncture, but it also

includes moxibustion, a type of point cautery. The first written

report of VAP may be from the West Zhou dynasty (1111-771

BC). This report referred to jugular phlebotomy to treat some

febrile diseases of horses. During the Qin and Han dynasties

(221 BC-220 AD), medical science flourished as communication

became more efficient. Sun Yang, a veterinarian in the Qin

dynasty, published the first book on VAP. Many veterinary

books followed in the next centuries. The most famous was

Yuan Heng Liao Ma Ji (a treatise on horses, by Yu Ben-Yuan and

Yu Ben-Heng in 1608 AD). This book describes procedures for

use in horses, cattle and camels. The influx of western ideas into

the People’s Republic of China in the 19th and early 20th

Century demolished much traditional Chinese culture and

science; concepts of WM almost made TCM extinct. However,

in the past thirty years, there has been renewed interest in the

techniques of TCM. In the People’s Republic of China and

elsewhere, research and development into TCM in humans and

animals have become popular again.

Science and traditional Chinese

medicine

The main constraints against the wider international acceptance

of TCM are as follows:

a) TCM is perceived as a threat to the multi-trillion dollar

industry that is WM (6), its hospitals and related services

b) there is a lack of scientific validation because of an

insufficient amount of high-quality controlled research (23,

36).

The problems of validating TCM are similar to those of other

clinical modalities that use highly personalised treatments.

In western ‘evidence-based medicine’, the most respected way

to test the safety and efficacy of a drug is to use double-blinded

randomised controlled trials (DB-RCTs) of a small number of

(usually two to four) standardised treatments. In contrast to

WM, it is almost impossible to design and run meaningful DB-

RCTs for the highly personalised treatments that TCM uses.

Other factors compound the difficulty of testing TCM by

standards acceptable in WM. These include the fact that TCM

uses a very close doctor-patient interaction: the doctor’s Yi

(focused intention), positive reinforcement, and advice on

lifestyle, dietary, mental, physical and environmental

adaptation. The main constraint in validating TCM, however, is

inadequate funding for the large-scale trials needed to study the

effects of personalised treatments in a statistically meaningful

way.

Because of these constraints, it has often been impossible to

conduct TCM research that satisfies the exacting standards of

WM. However, many high-quality scientific trials have been

reported recently. The following section summarises some of

the results obtained by the authors and reviews relevant

research by other workers.

Clinical and experimental

acupuncture

Acupuncture and moxibustion (Chen-chiu [Zhen-jiu] – Needle

and Fire) are specialised types of physiotherapy derived from

TCM. They stimulate specific points or zones of the body to

obtain a therapeutic or analgesic effect. Used properly, AP is

very safe.

Control of pain, shock, collapse, treatment of alcohol and

narcotic addiction and induction of surgical analgesia in

humans and animals are the best known uses of AP. Few people

know that AP is effective in a much wider variety of human and

animal diseases. Some therapeutic effects of AP have been

studied experimentally in animals and humans.

Experimentally, many factors negate the effects of AP. These

include: local anaesthesia of the points, nerve section, nerve

block, spinal block, experimental lesions of the midbrain, or

use of opiate antagonists or other receptor-activating or

blocking-drugs. Other chemicals enhance AP effects,

for example, diphenylalanine (a serotonin precursor),

L-tryptophan and domosedan. This suggests that AP is a

physical therapy, operating via reflex neural (peripheral, spinal,

central, autonomic), neuroendocrine and endocrine pathways

that activate homeostatic, adaptive and defence systems of the

body.

Published research has confirmed that AP activates the body’s

defence systems. It influences specific and non-specific cellular

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3) 953

– and humoral – immunity. It activates cell division, including

that of blood cells, reticuloendothelial cells and traumatised

cells. It activates leucocytosis, microbicidal activity, antibodies,

globulin, complement and interferon. It modulates

hypothalamic-pituitary control of the autonomic and

neuroendocrine systems, microcirculation, response of smooth

and striated muscle and local and general thermoregulation.

The effects of AP in stimulating the body’s defence systems are

involved directly in its therapeutic effects. Applications of AP

include inflammation, trauma, tissue healing, burns, ulcers,

indolent wounds, ischaemia, necrosis, gangrene, infections,

post-infection sequels, fever, autoimmune disease, allergy,

anaphylaxis and shock. Acupuncture treats or prevents the side

effects of, or sequels to, cerebrovascular disease, coronary heart

disease, general anaesthetics, parturition, surgery, cytotoxic

chemotherapy and ionising radiation. It has widespread

applications in clinical disorders of the respiratory,

cardiovascular, digestive, gastrointestinal, urogenital,

musculoskeletal and cutaneous systems. Because of the effects

on the immune system, AP may inhibit neoplastic cells and can

be a useful CAM therapy in acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome (AIDS).

Acupuncture at acupoint GV26 (Ren Zhong, Man Middle,

located in the midline, in the philtrum, between the nostrils

(15)) can resuscitate humans and animals in shock or collapse.

In acute emergencies, the needle is inserted 0.5 cm to 1.0 cm

deep, and stimulated strongly. Acupuncture is used widely to

treat spinal pain and/or paralysis in cervical – and

thoracolumbar – disc disease in dogs. Many affected animals

that had failed to respond to WM recovered after AP treatment.

The AP effect involves the autonomic and peripheral nervous

system and improves local circulation and muscle function.

Acupuncture is commonly used to treat reproductive disorders

(including anoestrus and cystic ovaries), dystocia, prolapsed

uterus and retained placenta in sows, cows, bitches and mares.

A needle implanted at Pi-Kao (between the nostrils) can end

broodiness in domestic hens. The effect occurred in 2 ±

1.8 days, compared with 14 ± 9.2 days in controls and 14 ±

9.8 days in hens treated with clomiphen citrate (a hormone

treatment) (21).

Acupuncture stimulation of points historically associated with

reproduction altered blood levels of luteinising hormone (LH),

follicle-stimulating hormone, oestradiol and progesterone.

Activation of the central control system, mediated by the

hypothalamus and pituitary, may explain these phenomena.

The short-term effect of electro-acupuncture (EA) at acupoints

Baihui and Weiken in sows, lowered plasma LH levels in 1 to 2

hours. Endorphins depress LH, whereas naloxone can induce

an LH surge. Endorphins may mediate the EA effect. In the

long-term, EA increased the frequency and amount of the

pulsatile release of LH and increased plasma progesterone

levels; in some cases this occurred only 4 to 6 hours after

stimulation, but in most cases the changes occurred the next

day.

The authors evaluated the pituitary responsiveness of gilts

treated with EA in response to injection of gonadotrophin-

releasing hormone (GnRH). Electro-acupuncture treatment at

reproductive-related AP points had diverse effects on pituitary

function in response to GnRH stimulation: pituitary

responsiveness decreased (reducing LH release) in the hours

post-EA but the pituitary became more sensitive after some

days and then triggered a new situation for trophic hormone

stimulation. Many researchers confirmed the role of AP in the

treatment of female infertility in humans and animals. It was

thought that the mechanisms of action were the

neuroendocrine effect on the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian

axis and increased blood flow to the uterus (4, 5, 21, 34). A

second hypothesis is that AP has direct effects on gonadal

paracrine and autocrine control of steroidogenesis by

stimulating the release of epinephrine, catecholoestrogens,

oxytocin and prostaglandin. Acupuncture (at the Baihui and

Weiken acupoints) increased epinephrine levels in the semen of

boars. In female animals the released epinephrine and

catecholoestrogens can stimulate ovarian steroidogenesis.

Electro-acupuncture treatment decreased concentrations of

nerve growth factor and corticotropin-releasing factor in

ovaries, possibly via inhibition of the sympathetic nervous

system. Though the mechanisms remain obscure, AP may affect

reproductive function by central control pathways from the

endocrine system of the hypophyseal-pituitary-gonadal axis

and by the peripheral control pathways via peripheral and

segmental reflexes. Acupoint stimulation in somatic segments

related to the innervation of the ovaries and the uterus triggers

central, peripheral and segmental effects. The action of EA on

the brain and pituitary gland is complex and needs more

research. No one medical approach is complete in itself and

that also applies to AP, which needs support from other systems

to maximise its potency (21).

In the 1970s, western research confirmed the analgesic effect of

AP. Since then, the study and clinical use of AP have increased

rapidly throughout the world. Veterinary acupuncture is also

becoming accepted in veterinary science, and international

journals report clinical and basic VAP research more frequently

now than in the past.

Clinical and experimental herbal

medicine

Chinese herbal medicine always uses formulas (multiple

ingredients) rather than a single herb. A formula usually has

four to ten herbs with a complex guideline of treatment theory

that is mainly aimed at maintaining the harmony of body

functions and expelling pathogens. Some ingredients are

included to enhance the effects of (or act as antidotes to)

unwanted effects of other ingredients. The formulas are

packaged in different ways: dried and shredded (like tea for

home-decoction), ready-to-use decoctions, pills, powders,

capsules, pastes, ointments, balms and injections (19, 20, 35).

954 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3)

Documentation of TCM is more than 3,000 years old. There are

extensive data and cumulative experiences on the use of CHM.

For example, the treatise Shang Han Lun by Chang Chung-

Ching (142-220

AD) recorded the use of Koken-Huanglien-

Huangchin-Tang (KHHT). It contains pueraria (Koken), coptis

(Huanglien), scute (Huangchin) and licorice (Kantsao) in a

ratio of 6:3:3:2. Koken-Huanglien-Huangchin-Tang is a

common formula for dysentery and gastroenteritis in children.

It also controls symptoms of influenza, fever, erysipelas,

measles, some eye disorders, headache, and toothache.

Experimentally, gentamycin and KHHT were highly (and

equally) effective (88% and 85% respectively) in treating piglet

diarrhoea. However, this does not mean that KHHT works like

an antibiotic. Its mechanism of action is holistic. Besides

antimicrobial and other desired effects, it enhances the body’s

defence system and improves gastrointestinal function (19).

Clarification of the active principle(s) and/or mode(s) of action

of HM may contribute to a better understanding of their modes

of action at molecular levels. It may also help to evaluate

therapeutic efficacy, to maintain herbal quality and to develop

novel drugs. This may provide remedies for diseases that

modern chemotherapeutics cannot cure. Herbs have active low

(alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins, flavonoids) and high (protein,

tannin, polysaccharide) molecular weight substances with

wide-ranging effects: insect repellents, immunomodulators,

and agents with hypoglycemic, sedative, anticancer, anti-

inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial, antiprotozoal,

antioxidant, heart-protective, liver-protective, kidney-

protective, and other valuable biological activity (19, 28).

Table I lists examples of natural medicinals with clinically

useful effects.

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3) 955

Table I

Examples of medicaments from the Herbal Materia Medica with clinically useful effects

Effects Medicaments from the Herbal Pharmacopoeia

Adaptogenic (anti-stress) Araliae Rz+Rx, Arctii Rx, Asini Corii Colla, Astragali Rx, Berberidis Fr, Biotae Hb, Boraginis Fm, Centellae Hb, Cervi Cornu Parvum,

Chionanthi Cx-Rx, Cimicifugae Rz, Cinchonae Cx, Codonopsitis Rx, Cordyceps, Curculiginis Rz, Dioscoreae Rx/Rz, Echinacea,

Eleutherococci Rx, Fumariae Cacumen+Fl, Galii Cacumen+Fl, Ganoderma, Glycyrrhizae Rx, Gynostemmae Hb, Iris Rz, Lavendulae Fl,

Lentinus, Leonuri Hb, Longan Arillus, Morindae Rx, Ocimi Sancti Hb, Panacis Ginseng Rx, Panacis Notoginseng Rx, Panacis Quinquefolii

Rx, Poria, Primulae Fl, Ranae sinensis Oviductus, Rhamni Cx, Rhodiolae roseae Rx/Rz, Rumicis Rx, Saniculae Hb, Saponariae Rx+Fm,

Sassafras Cx-Rx, Schizandrae Fr, Scrophulariae Rx, Shilajit, Smilacis Rz/Rx, Solani Hb, Stachys Betonica, Stillingiae Rx, Terminaliae Fr,

Trifolii Pratensis Fl/Hb, Uncariae Rml+Uncis, Violae Fm+Fl, Withania Somnifera, Zanthoxyli Fr/Pc, Zizyphi S

Antimicrobial and Allii Fistulosi B, Andrographitis Hb, Chrysanthemi Indici Fl, Coptidis Rz, Forsythiae Fr, Gentianae Longdancao Rx, Houttuyniae Hb, Ilicis

anti-febrile Sinensis Fm/Fr, Isatidis Fm/Rx, Lonicerae Fl, Moutan Cx-Rx, Oldenlandiae/Hedyotidis Hb, Paeoniae Rubrum Rx, Phellodendri Cx,

Picrorhizae Rz, Portulacae Hb, Pulsatillae Rx, Sargentodoxae Caulis, Scrophulariae Rx, Scutellariae Rx, Sophorae Flavescentis Rx,

Taraxaci Hb and Violae Hb

Antioxidant Agaricus, Allii B, Amethystum, Angelicae Sinensis Rx, Apocyni Hb/Fm+Rx, Aralia mandshurica, Bupleuri Rx, Calendulae Fl/Rx,

Camelliae Fm, Cervi Cornu Parvum, Chrysanthemi Morifolii Fl, Citri Reticulatae Pc, Clinanthium S, Coicis S, Cordyceps Coriandri

Fr/S/Hb, Crataegi Fr/S, Curcuma longae Rx, Cuscutae S, Cynanchi Rx, Dioscoreae Rx/Rz, Eleutherococci Rx, Emblicae Fr, Epimedii Hb,

Erodii/Geranii Hb, Eucalypti Fm, Ganoderma, Ginkgonis Fm/S, Glycyrrhizae Rx, Gynostemmae Hb, Hippocampus, Hyperici Hb, Lentinus,

Leonuri Hb, Ligustri Fr, Lycii Fr, Panacis Ginseng Rx+Rz, Panacis Notoginseng Rx, Panacis Quinquefolii Rx, Perillae Frutescentis Fr/S, Pini

Cx, Pini Fm, Polygoni Rx/Rz, Pruni Mume Fr, Rehmanniae Rx, Rhodiolae roseae Rx/Rz, Rhois Galla, Rubi Fr Immaturus, Schizandrae Fr,

Schizonepetae Hb, Shilajit, Silibi Mariani S, Sophorae Japonicae Fl, Tabebuiae Impeteginosae Cx, Tannic Acid (many plants),

Terminaliae Fr, Theae Sinensis Fm, Tremella, Tribuli Terrestris Fr, Trifolii Pratensis Fl/Hb, Tritici Sativae Hb, Uncariae Rml+Uncis,

Vaccinii Fr, Valerianae Rx, Visci Hb, Vitis spp., Ziziphi Fr

Immunostimulant Acanthopanacis Rx+Hb, Agaricus, Algae Thallus, Allii B, Amydae Carapax, Andrographitis Hb, Angelicae Rx, Apocyni Hb, Aristolochiae

Debilis Rx, Asini Corii Colla, Astragali Rx, Atractylodis Rz, Bufonis Venenum, Cervi Cornu Parvum, Choerospondiatis Fr, Codonopsitis Rx,

Coicis S, Coptidis Rz, Cordyceps, Coriolus, Crataegi Fr/S, Cucumis Melonis Pedicellus, Curculiginis Rz, Cuscutae S, Cynomorii

Hb/Caulis, Cyperi Rz, Dioscoreae Rx/Rz, Dolichoris S, Echinaceae Hb, Eleutherococci Rx, Elscholtziae/Moslae Hb, Epimedii Hb,

Eucommiae Ulmoidis Cx, Ganoderma, Garciniae Resina, Gastrodiae Rz, Gecko, Gentianae Rx, Glycyrrhizae Rx, Gynostemmae Hb,

Gypsum, Hericium, Hippophae Fr, Houttuyniae Hb, Hydrastis Rx, Hyperici Hb, Inulae Rx, Isatidis Rx, Ledebouriellae Rx, Lentinus, Ligustri

Fr, Longan Arillus, Lonicerae Fl, Lycii Fr, Maitake/Grifola, Meretricis Concha, Mori Fr, Morindae Rx, Moschus, Myrrha, Oldenlandiae Hb,

Ophiopogonis Rx, Ostreae Concha, Paeoniae Rx, Panacis Ginseng Rx, Panacis Notoginseng Rx, Panacis Quinquefolii Rx, Polygonati Rz,

Polygoni Rx, Polyporus/Grifola, Poria, Pruni S, Pruni Mume Fr, Pyrolae Hb, Rhodiolae roseae Rx/Rz, Sargassi Hb, Schizonepetae Hb,

Shilajit, Sophorae Rx, Stichopus, Tabebuiae Cx, Taraxaci Hb, Testudinis Carapax, Tremella, Tripterygii Wilfordii Rx/Caulis, Tritici Sativae

Hb, Uncariae Rml+Uncis, Valerianae Rx, Verbenae Hb, Viticis Fm, Withania Somnifera, Zedoariae Rz, Zizyphi S

Anticancer Achyranthis Rx, Aconiti Rx, Adenophorae/Glehniae Rx, Agaricus, Agrimoniae Hb, Allii B/Hb, Aloe Hb/Fm, Alpiniae Fr, Amydae Carapax,

Andrographitis Hb, Angelicae Duhuo Rx, Arctii Lappae Rx/Fr/S, Arisaematis Rz Prep, Arnebiae Rx, Arsenolitum, Asparagi Rx, Asteris

Rx+Rz, Astragali Rx, Atractylodis Rz, Berberidis Rx, Bletillae B, Bombyx Batryticatus, Bruceae Fr, Bungarus, Camptothecae Hb,

Canavaliae S, Carthami Fl, Catechu, Catharanthi Hb, Celastri Rx, Cephalotaxi Rml+Fm, Cervi Cornu Parvum, Chaenomelis Fr, Chelidonii

Hb, Cicada, Cissampelotis Hb, Citri Aurantii/Ponciri Fr, Coicis S, Coptidis Rz, Cordyceps, Coriolus, Cremastrae B, Crotalariae Hb,

Cucumis Melonis Pedicellus, Cudraniae Rx/Hb, Curcuma longae Rx, Cuscutae S, Dichroae Rx, Dictamni Cx-Rx, Dioscoreae Rx/Rz/Tuber,

Dryopteridis Rz, Eriobotryae Fm, Erodii/Geranii Hb, Euphorbiae Lathyridis S, Euphorbiae Rx, Fici Fr, Foeniculi Fr, Fritillariae B, Galii

Cacumen+Fl, Garciniae Resina, Gelsemium, Gleditsiae Fr, Glycyrrhizae Rx, Gossypii Rx, Graviola Muricata, Hericium, Houttuyniae

Hb+Rx, Humuli Hb, Hyperici Hb, Iridis S, Isatidis Rx, Junci Ma, Laggerae Hb, Lobeliae Hb/Cacumen+Fl, Longan Arillus, Lonicerae Fl,

Lumbricus, Lysimachiae Hb, Mahoniae Caulis, Manitis Squama, Meretricis Concha Pulv, Mylabris, Myrrha, Oldenlandiae/Hb, Olibanum,

Ostreae Concha, Paeoniae Rx Rubrum, Paridis Rz, Pinelliae Tuber, Polygalae Rx/Cx+Rx, Polygoni Rx/Rz, Prunellae Spica, Pruni S,

Many poor nations are rich in herbs, thus, HMs are being used

to generate national income. Research into HM is focusing on

finding ways to treat and prevent certain diseases that respond

poorly to WMs. Herbal ingredients have hundreds of known

uses in the successful treatment of human and animal diseases.

For example, there are increasing reports about the efficacy of

many plant compounds in cancer therapy, and much research

is ongoing in that area. The quest for effective cancer therapy

has highlighted the role of citrus pectin in preventing metastatic

cancer, of green tea polyphenols in the treatment of human skin

– and prostrate – cancer, and of mushroom glucans and

proteoglycans in other cancer treatments. American ginseng

(for the treatment of mammary cancer), taxol, and many other

natural products, are also being studied. Apart from anticancer

effects, mainly via the immune system, some herbs offer great

potential for use as part of cancer therapy; they are used after

chemotherapy or radiotherapy to counter the side-effects of

those therapies (vomiting, nausea, alopecia, weakness,

depression, appetite-loss, anaemia, leukopenia, etc.). Table I

lists examples of medicinals used in that way.

Some herbs have antibiotic-like actions. Sustainable herbal

antibiotics are preferable to synthetic ones from an

environmental perspective but there is little evidence to date

that any herbs have immediate antimicrobial effects that are

anything like those of antibiotics. However, herbs with

antimicrobial action also have antifebrile effects. Table I lists

some of these herbs. Such herbs have compounds like

phytoalexins, diterpenes, protoberberines, limonoids, matrines,

and flavonoids, which are active compounds that possess

antimicrobial action (19). Traditional Chinese medicine

classifies conventional antibiotics as bitter and cold agents; their

tendency is to move downward and they are used to clear heat

in hot/febrile diseases. Conventional antibiotic treatment often

gives unsatisfactory results. Antibiotics act to kill or inhibit the

bacteria whose toxins or pyrogens cause the symptoms of

infection, including fever. In attacking the organisms only,

antibiotics do not address the underlying factors that allowed

the infection to take hold in the first place; the subject often

subsequently develops the same, or other infections. TCM

explains this phenomenon as cold agents (antibiotics)

successfully acting to clear heat (fever) initially, but leaving some

heat unexpelled (constrained heat) as a side effect; this may

manifest as other symptoms later. In contrast, a good selection

of herbs for the initial problem not only acts to clear and disperse

heat, but acts simultaneously to release the surface and expel

exogenous pathogenic factors.

This means to evoke sweating and

also to

guard the surface from further invasion by pathogenic

influences. Herbs counter the pathogenic changes and the

complex nature of heat better than conventional antibiotics.

Therefore, they are more efficient in reducing fever and

controlling infection (43, 44).

Herbal medicine is another branch of TM that is likely to make

as big a contribution to international veterinary practice as AP;

it may even have a greater impact. This will occur only if there

is a lot of research to verify the efficacy and safety of HM.

Recently, increasing numbers of western veterinarians have

become interested in using HM. There are increasing numbers

of research projects throughout the world which are assessing

the pharmacological, physiological and toxicological aspects of

HM and which are strengthening the already strong research

which supports the use of this type of medicine. The problem

with this new interest in HM is that many veterinarians are

beginning to use these techniques without adequate training, or

by trial and error, rather than strict scientific investigation.

Attempts are under way to identify and isolate the active

compounds involved and to understand the underlying

mechanism of action.

The authors have screened more than 100 herbal extracts

during investigations into steroidogenesis and were able to

understand the possible mechanism of action for some of the

more potent herbs. They found that some herbal extracts can

act as a partial replacement for gonadotropic hormones and

their synthetic analogues and can be employed to manage

956 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3)

Table I (contd)

Effects Medicaments from the Herbal Pharmacopoeia

Psoraleae Fr/S, Rabdosiae Hb, Rhei Rx+Rz, Ricini S, Rumicis Rx, Sanguinaria Canadensis, Sanguisorbae Rx/Rx+Rz, Sappan Lignum,

Sarcandrae Hb, Sargassi Hb/Thallus, Scolopendra, Scutellariae Hb, Selaginellae Hb, Senecionis Hb, Smilacis Rz/Rx, Solani Fr, Sophorae

Hb, Stellerae Rx, Stephaniae Dielsianae Rx, Strychni Nux-Vomicae S, Syngnathus, Tabebuiae Cx, Taraxaci Hb, Testudinis Carapax,

Trachycarpi Petiolus/Fm, Trichosanthis Fr, Trifolii Pratensis Fl/Hb, Tripterygii Wilfordii Rx/Caulis, Urticae Fm, Vespae Nidus, Violae

Hb+Rx, Visci Fm+Rml, Withania Somnifera, Zingiber Nigrum, Ziziphi Fr, Zosterae Thallus

Support chemotherapy Amethystum/Fluoritum, Aralia mandshurica, Asini Corii Colla, Shilajit, Berberidis Rx, Cardamomi Fr/S, Cinnamomi Cassiae Cx, Cnidii

and/or radiotherapy Fr/S, Corni Fr/Arillus, Hominis Placenta, Juglandis S, Ligustici Rz, Milletiae Rx+Caulis, Panacis Quinquefolii Rx, Pruni Mume Fr,

and counter their Pyrrosiae b/Fm, Rubiae Rx, Sepiae Os, Silibi Mariani S, Sophorae Fl

adverse effects

Both of the above effects

Acanthopanacis Senticosi Rx+Hb, Algae Thallus, Angelicae Rx, Bombycis Mori Faeces, Bufonis Venenum, Bupleuri Rx, Cactus opuntiae

Caulis/Rz/Fr, Camelliae Fm, Codonopsitis Rx, Curcumae aromaticae Rx, Echinaceae Hb, Fagopyri Rz/Fm+Fl, Ganoderma, Gynostemmae

Hb, Indigo Naturalis, Lentinus, Ligustri Fr, Lycii Fr, Lycoridis B, Maitake/Grifola, Ophiopogonis Rx/Tuber, Panacis Ginseng Rx, Panacis

Notoginseng Rx, Periplocae Cx-Rx, Polyporus/Grifola, Polystictinum, Poria, Rhodiolae roseae Rx/Rz, Salviae Rx, Scutellariae Rx,

Sophorae Rx, Sparganii/Scirpi Rz, Stephaniae Tetrandrae Rx, Stichopus, Tremella, Trichosanthis Rx, Uncariae Rml+Uncis, Zedoariae Rz

reproductive disorders in animals (22). The hope is that these

findings will contribute significantly to a reduction of the

economic impact of reproductive disorders in farm animals and

the cost and side effects of hormonal therapy. Research data

suggest that the effects of herbal extracts and active compounds

in boosting endogenous gonadal steroidogenesis work at the

level of the pituitary-gonadal axis. An active ginseng saponin,

ginsenoside-Rb1, has been shown experimentally to stimulate

LH in rats by acting directly on the cells of the anterior pituitary

(40). Likewise, extracts of Cordyceps sinensis and Tribulus

terrestris

can increase testosterone production in isolated mice

Leydig cells by acting at the genomic and cytoplasmic level

(16).

There are many other recent papers that support HM, but

which cannot be reviewed in this short paper. Scientific

research on the mechanism of action of HM extracts is reported

regularly in the literature. The widening field of HM research

will contribute to better understanding and will eventually

support an integrative approach.

Conclusion

If funding can be found for the widespread research,

development and use of TCM and CAM, the annual savings in

the international cost of conventional drugs could be billions of

dollars. This would force a major change in the western

pharmaceutical industry and would, initially at least, have

serious effects on investment and jobs; antibiotics are already

beginning to be used less and less and many other drugs could

also fall out of use in the future (6). The conventional western

pharmaceutical industry, which has a vested interest in

maintaining the status quo, will of course fiercely resist any

major advancement in TCM/CAM. However, it may be possible

to tempt the major pharmaceutical industries to slowly

diversify into this movement and to convince the scientific

community of the benefits of TCM/CAM by in-depth study and

clinical trials. In this way, many old jobs could be saved and

new jobs created, and two isolated groups of people could be

brought closer together for mutual benefit. New areas of work

would include biological research, growing, refining, tending,

processing and replenishing the herbs, researching the active

principles, upgrading quality control, refining the combinations

of medicines to eliminate any risk of toxicity or adverse side-

effects, etc. Poor countries could develop by harnessing their

ability to produce medicinal plants as a source of raw material

for the allied industries. The countries in the Himalayan range,

South East and Central Asia, South America and Africa, could

be encouraged to produce medicinal plants in marginal lands

unsuitable for other agricultural purposes, thereby creating

opportunities for employment and economic stability.

Investment from richer nations should prioritise areas that

contribute directly to sustainability, which includes

components of TM.

With rapid development and diversification, veterinary

medicine could experience revolutionary changes. Some

integration of traditional veterinary medicine (TVM) and

CAVM with conventional medicine appears to be inevitable, so

why not plan now for a really effective integration? The only

questions that remain are when and how this can be achieved.

For the sake of future generations, it is the duty of this

generation to try to integrate the best of every medical system

to achieve a SM. Veterinarians in some nations are entrusted

with the added responsibility of national security by guarding

against bio-terrorism (7). Their first struggle should be to

eliminate the defects in current veterinary practices and to try

to bring about a positive change.

Veterinarians take risks every day in handling and using WMs;

they are obliged to minimise those risks for their own sake and

for the sake of their clients, their patients and the future

generations of veterinary professionals. The opportunity to

develop SM is an opportunity to make great changes which will

benefit the environment, and thereby enhance human – and

animal – well being. The motto of the International Veterinary

Acupuncture Society (IVAS) reflects the outlook that the

authors believe modern veterinarians should possess:

‘It matters not whether medicine is old or new, so long as it

brings about a cure. It matters not whether theories are eastern

or western, so long as they prove to be true.’

This paper has summarised the philosophical and scientific

basis for the need to develop SM. Many other topics, which

could play a crucial role in this development, could have been

included in this discussion (Ayurvedic, African and South

American TMs for example), but because of the authors lack of

proper knowledge about many of these other forms of TM, the

paper has focused on TCM, in an attempt to explain what a

vibrant SM could entail. Sustainable medicine for animals is a

revolution that began with Homo sapiens, the first animal ever

domesticated; to expand the concept to include all

domesticated animals, it need only be guided in the right

direction and given momentum. Science and nature are not

competitors; they are two factors that have equal importance in

assuring a safer future for the planet. Ultimately, love, respect

and wisdom are the three crucial factors that must drive our

transition to an SM – ‘the medicine of love’.

Acknowledgement

The initial draft of this paper was presented at the 25th World

Veterinary Conference in Yokohama, Japan, in 1995. Many

colleagues have encouraged us to develop the concept further

by commenting constructively on the original text. We thank all

those who have helped us to rewrite the paper in its current

form.

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3) 957

■

Appendix 1

Strategies for developing sustainable medicine

Strategies to merge traditional Chinese veterinary medicine and modern

veterinary medicine

Western veterinary medicine and TCVM derive from different backgrounds: the former is objective and

scientific, while the latter is subjective and empirical. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages.

The attempt to integrate systems into a unified SM will be difficult. However, the struggle will be

worthwhile if it can produce sustainable benefits. The need for such an approach is greater now than ever

before: the ancient knowledge and art of TM is under threat of extinction (many TMs have already been

confined to the history books), and manufacturers of WM are continually having to develop more potent

drugs because the old ones have ceased to work; drug resistance is creating a vicious circle. Meanwhile,

drug development has become increasingly more expensive and time-consuming. Unless we cease to be

totally reliant on WMs for managing disease, the costs and adverse environmental impact will inevitably

spiral.

The best option is to develop SM, which emphasizes disease prevention rather than its cure. However,

certain diseases, mostly parasitic, infectious and chronic diseases, are hard to control and cure with TM

alone. On its own, TVM has limited efficacy; on its own, WM has undesirable aspects. The weaknesses of

both systems are what make it necessary to create treatments that are a combination of the two; treatments

which provide the very best way of counteracting each disease. The challenge is to identify the best aspects

and combinations of TVM and then to see how best to use them with the best aspects and combinations

of WM. It has been seen already that AP treatment of reproductive disorders in animals is more efficient

when selected herbs are used concurrently (21). It remains to be seen how this combined approach may

enhance the existing treatment of complicated cases by WM. Bovine clinical mastitis responds better to a

combination of WM and herbal ointments (37). Gastroenteric, respiratory and immune-mediated diseases

also respond better to combined treatment with TM and WM. Reliance on only one method of controlling

ticks has proved unsuccessful in achieving sustainable and long-term control. At an estimated annual cost

of US$6.5 million, Zimbabwean efforts to control bovine heartwater by the use of acaricides failed to

achieve its objective. Recent experience of controlling tick and tick-borne disease (TTBD) in Africa

provides an excellent example of the concept of SM. Intensive research concluded that if TTBD is to be

overcome, a combined approach must be considered; an approach that includes acaricides, immunisation,

management, biological control, enhanced genetic resistance in the host and ethno-veterinary medicine (3,

30).

Strategies to integrate WM and TVM can be adapted to meet the demands of individual cases. There is no

doubt that SM will be more efficient than either of the independent approaches. The main problems to be

addressed are as follows:

a) what can be integrated and in which conditions?

b) are the integrated methods safe?

c) do the integrated methods interfere adversely with the actions of each other?

The capacity to affect change in the current approaches to animal health care is restricted by limited

knowledge and reluctance to try new methods. However, the Indian subcontinent provides an excellent

example of the integration of HM and WM for animal treatment. Similarly, AP and CHM are often

combined with great success in the People’s Republic of China.

Traditional veterinary medicine can help to replace or reduce the need for large doses of antibiotics, anti-

parasitic agents, hormones, steroids and other drugs. Traditional veterinary medicine can also be an

excellent substitute for WM in treating some chronic diseases, especially diseases in companion animals.

Western medicine can be used to support TVM in conditions where TVM alone is less effective, such as in

serious infections, parasitism, and some specific pathological conditions. Traditional veterinary medicine,

for example, adaptogens, immunostimulants, tonics, and post-treatment support therapy, can be used to

minimise the adverse effects of WM. Good examples are the use of AP and/or CHM to reduce the adverse

958 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3)

effects of cytotoxic chemotherapy in cancer treatment (Table I). Many other good examples are available

to support the enhanced success achieved by integrating WM and TM (21, 23). However the best

approach is to prevent the need to use medicine in the first place. Therefore, as part of the attempt to merge

the art, knowledge and drugs of WM and TVM, the emphasis in SM is to create a more natural

environment in which animals may need fewer drugs, or if they need medication, to use effective, cheap

and safe treatments derived from a sustainable system. Personalised medicines are an emerging concept in

new drug discovery (17, 29), but TM has always advocated and practised therapeutics ‘tailored’ to

individual patients.

Recent development in biotechnology has shown that the main factors needed to develop any science are

personal and group effort, involvement of interested organisations, teaching and training at university level

and financial support from governments. Successful development and implementation of SM will require

support at all these levels, as described below.

Personal effort

Although personal effort may seem the least powerful force in the development of SM for animals, nothing

worthwhile can occur without such effort. It is essential to encourage veterinarians and students to become

involved by arousing their sense of responsibility and reminding them of their important role in creating

a sustainable habitat. We must encourage veterinarians in poor nations to use SM to provide a less costly

service to their people. This can also contribute to national economies by keeping money at home, instead

of spending it on expensive WMs when much cheaper TMs may be just as effective. Also, veterinarians in

poor nations could revive the effective aspects of local TVM so that it can eventually support SM in having

a wider impact. Regardless of their profession and background, people everywhere have the absolute right

to know of the threat posed by the uncontrolled use of WM and commercial agrochemicals in animal

production, and to learn and implement ways to minimise the use of these products. People in ecologically

and economically fragile areas of poor nations can be mobilised to use SM in animals (9). Individual

experiences raised in relevant forums or published reports can provide the basis for further investigation

and reference.

Societies and organisations

In 1974, the late H. Grady Young and his colleagues founded the International Veterinary Acupuncture

Society (IVAS). Through the efforts of IVAS, and of other Societies, many countries have accepted AP as a

valid therapeutic modality. Today, VAP is available in more than 40 countries.

Interested societies may promote TVM by offering professional training courses, publishing journals and

organising symposia. Individual veterinarians can contact their National Veterinary Acupuncture Society

by consulting the International Veterinary Acupuncture Directory (http://www.komvet.at/ivadkom/

vapsocs.htm), or IVAS (http://www.ivas.org, E-mail: ivasoffice@aol.com). Other groups run professional

email discussion lists and arrange courses and symposia on CAVM. They include the following:

– the Complementary and Alternative Veterinary Medicine List (CAVM-L@listerv.petplex.com)

– the Chinese Herb Academy (ChineseHerbAcademy@yahoogroups.com)

– the Professional Veterinary Acupuncture List (PVA-L@yahoogroups.com)

– the Veterinary Botanical Medicine Association (VBMA@milepost1.com).

Other national, regional and global societies and associations work to preserve, investigate and disseminate

knowledge of TVM. Some are thriving, while some need support to continue their mission. Biased

governmental attitudes and lack of funding explain the sorry state of many of the societies and

organisations that advocate TVM. A revival of interest and increasing markets for TVMs are attracting

investors, who may be persuaded to support these societies and organisations for mutual benefit. It will

take a lot of effort to match the strength of the conventional veterinary societies and organisations, which

enjoy the support of pharmaceutical companies and allied industries. However, as SM cannot and does

not wish to exclude WM, it must pursue a cohesive and careful approach. A good example of such an

approach was at the 11th Federation of the Asian Veterinary Association at Taipei in 2000, where a TVM

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3) 959

forum was provided for the Chinese Society of Traditional Veterinary Science. This society is dedicated to

the development of TVM, through conferences, veterinarian training, and the publication of journals. The

authors thank those organisations and societies, especially colleagues working at grass-root level, for their

efforts. Distance learning, e-mail discussion groups and the World Wide Web have made it easier to

disseminate ideas on a wider scale. However, free availability of technical papers in hard copy still remains

the preferred and most effective source of ideas in less developed regions.

Co-operation between traditional Chinese medicine and traditional Chinese

veterinary medicine

Throughout history, TCM has been much more advanced than TCVM. Veterinarians should be

encouraged to seek frequent contact with medical doctors and to conduct joint experiments on animals in

an ethical way that would provide vital information for the development of SM. The mutual exchange of

information between the two fields improves clinical results and both sides benefit from the shared

experience. Some national VAP societies have excellent contact with medical AP experts and benefit from

this co-operation. Such mutual co-operation between veterinarians and doctors is recommended in all TM

systems. All those interested in TVM need to co-operate in a combined effort to counter the heavy

influence of WM and the active efforts of commercial interests to exclude TM from serious consideration.

University training and research

Advancement of TCM, and especially research in TCM, needs wholehearted support within medical and

veterinary universities. Unfortunately, university courses that integrate WM and TCM at undergraduate or

postgraduate level are rare. Those universities solely dedicated to the study of TM are falling behind the

rest. Only a few veterinary schools in Europe, America and Australia offer basic AP classes. Guest lecturers

from national or regional groups of IVAS give most of the AP classes. Western veterinary schools should

send faculty members to study AP in the People’s Republic of China, or invite experts in TCM to teach.

Also, relevant research must be funded. The veterinary curriculum in poor nations is based on WM.

Reasons for this include the lack of a locally developed TM curriculum, poor availability of TM literature,

and lack of qualified TM teachers. Also, veterinarian schools in many countries teach only in English, and

it is advocates of WM who write most veterinarian textbooks.

Very few veterinarians study TVM and most of those trained in TVM are in private practice. Successful

TVM-trained practitioners usually have excellent incomes. If universities want such practitioners to teach,

they must offer realistic salaries. Also, in societies where veterinarians have yet to receive due respect,

veterinarian students hesitate to learn and advocate TVM for fear of being ridiculed. Conventional

veterinarian curricula deserve criticism for their bias against TVM; the current system aims to produce

graduates equipped only with the art and knowledge to earn a living. The ethics of service to society,

humane relationships in treating animals, and the role of veterinarians in contributing to sustainable

systems are rarely discussed. It is encouraging that a few universities and institutions teach such topics, but

all veterinarian schools should consider the usefulness of including the science of TVM and other aspects

of sustainable animal husbandry in their curricula.

Government and private support

Biopiracy – the theft of ‘green gold’ (indigenous medicinal herbs) and traditional knowledge – is a new

development in the commercial race for patent rights. In an attempt to protect indigenous rights, the 1992

Convention on Biological Diversity states that: ‘a country owns the biological resources within its borders’.

The Convention urges governments to intervene to ensure that the rights of the traditional communities

concerned are upheld. The aim is to improve the economic conditions of indigenous peoples as an

incentive for them to preserve their natural habitats. Government investment is essential to develop and

modernise TVM. Governments should initiate ways of recording information about local TMs, research

their efficacy, and preserve and promote those that are safe and effective. While attempting to modernise

agricultural systems, governments in poor nations should regulate and monitor the misuse of chemicals

and drugs and emphasise a sustainable approach. It has only been through the efforts of governments that

subtherapeutic use of some antibiotics has recently been restricted in some countries of the EU (39, 41).

960 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3)

In formulating policies to safeguard the future of local livestock industries against the full implementation

of free trade, an approach oriented towards SM should be reviewed and implemented. Governments

should also seek support from farsighted pharmaceutical companies and give incentives for their

investment in research into, and development of, TVM. Adequate funding for research and training will

accelerate the achievement of results. Sponsored activities like seminars, workshops, and publications

should go beyond serving as advertisements of specific brands by promoters of SM.

Ultimately, the best hope may be that even if some governments do not yet understand, veterinarians

throughout the world appreciate the urgent need for SM in the 21st Century. If this understanding is to be

exploited, large-scale action must be taken now. If interested individuals interact with other interested

parties, and join and support the various organisations which have organised workshops and created web

sites to answer queries, information about the benefits of TMs can be disseminated to more and more

people, more research and development will take place, and, hopefully, a more peaceful life can be created

for the future.

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3) 961

Une médecine vétérinaire durable pour une ère nouvelle

J.H. Lin, K. Kaphle, L.S. Wu, N.Y.J. Yang, G. Lu, C. Yu, H. Yamada &

P.A.M. Rogers

Résumé

La durabilité vise à créer des conditions de vie harmonieuses sur terre sans pour

autant menacer les ressources naturelles essentielles qui devraient revenir de

droit aux générations à venir. La « médecine durable » n’est que l’une des

nombreuses démarches possibles pour garantir cette durabilité et la coexistence

pacifique. Cette forme durable de médecine propose un système peu compliqué

pour préserver la santé de l’homme et des animaux, que ce soit aujourd’hui ou

dans un avenir plus éloigné. Elle fait appel à la sagesse, au savoir et à l’art de

guérir des Anciens, qu’elle associe aux avantages et aux progrès techniques de

la science moderne et des autres disciplines médicales, et constitue une

approche intégrée de la guérison fondée sur des moyens préventifs, fiables et

abordables.

En outre, le terme de « médecine durable » sous-entend que les principaux

produits thérapeutiques utilisés dans sa pratique peuvent être remplacés ou

reconstitués en causant un minimum de dommages à l’environnement après leur

récolte. La médecine durable a pour but de maintenir l’équilibre naturel,

d’autoriser la coexistence et la reproduction des quelque 7 à 100 millions

d’espèces vivantes présumées et d’assurer l’avenir à long terme de notre

planète.

La planète est en proie à une crise écologique : l’environnement a subi plus

d’effets anthropogènes préjudiciables au cours du dernier siècle qu’aux siècles

précédents. L’usage abusif de médicaments et l’épuisement concomitant du

système immunitaire chez l’homme et les animaux suscitent une vive inquiétude.

Comme l’enseignent de nombreuses médecines traditionnelles, la faculté d’un

système de défense efficace à évoluer sous la pression des facteurs endogènes

et exogènes s’avère déterminante pour l’état de santé et la survie. Une telle

adaptation ne peut s’envisager qu’en privilégiant une approche préventive plutôt

que curative des soins de santé. Les partisans de la médecine durable

■

962 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3)

préconisent cette même démarche, qui repose sur un diagnostic correct et un

traitement médicamenteux personnalisé et adapté.

Selon les auteurs, la médecine durable, qui conjugue les avantages des

médecines moderne, traditionnelle et complémentaire, représente la démarche

idéale pour la prestation de services de santé de meilleure qualité à l’homme et

aux animaux. Ils retracent rapidement l’historique des médecines traditionnelles

et proposent des stratégies pour assurer un développement durable de la

médecine. Ils soulignent également quelques facteurs importants dans

l’élaboration d’une médecine durable destinée aux animaux et encouragent les

vétérinaires à adopter une telle approche dans le traitement des animaux.

Mots-clés

Acupuncture – Classique – Complémentaire – Durabilité – Environnement – Médecine

vétérinaire – Parallèle – Phytothérapie – Traditionnel.

■

Medicina veterinaria sostenible para la nueva era

J.H. Lin, K. Kaphle, L.S. Wu, N.Y.J. Yang, G. Lu, C. Yu, H. Yamada &

P.A.M. Rogers

Resumen

El concepto de sostenibilidad puede resumirse en el objetivo de armonizar la vida

en la Tierra sin poner en peligro los recursos naturales esenciales que deberían

constituir el patrimonio inalienable de las generaciones venideras. La ‘medicina

sostenible’, que no es sino una de las vertientes en que puede declinarse y

materializarse la coexistencia pacífica, preconiza un sencillo sistema para

conservar la salud de personas y animales, ahora y en los muchos años por venir.

Esta clase de medicina reposa en una combinación de sabiduría, conocimiento y

artes curativas ancestrales y de las ventajas y los logros técnicos dimanantes de

la ciencia moderna y de otras áreas de la medicina. Se trata de un sistema

integral de curación preventiva, segura y asequible.

La expresión ‘medicina sostenible’ implica asimismo que las principales

sustancias terapéuticas utilizadas en su ejercicio pueden ser sustituidas o

repuestas con un mínimo de perjuicios ambientales después de la recolección.

Su objetivo se cifra en mantener el equilibrio de la naturaleza y hacer así posible

que entre 7 y 100 millones de especies de seres vivos, según las estimaciones,

coexistan y se reproduzcan, y que el planeta tenga asegurado su futuro a largo

plazo.

La Tierra se encuentra en plena crisis ambiental: las agresiones ambientales de

origen antrópico fueron mayores en el último siglo que en cualquiera de los

anteriores. Uno de los grandes motivos de preocupación es el uso incorrecto de

los medicamentos y la pérdida de defensas inmunitarias que ello provoca en

personas y animales. Muchos sistemas de medicina tradicional enseñan que la

clave de la salud y la supervivencia reside en el sistema de defensa y su

capacidad de adaptación eficaz, y ello pasa necesariamente por un tipo de

atención médica en que la prevención prime sobre la curación. Este

planteamiento es exactamente el mismo que defienden los partidarios de la

Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 22 (3) 963

medicina sostenible, basado en el diagnóstico correcto y la utilización de una

medicina personalizada, adaptada a las características de cada cual.

Los autores postulan que la medicina sostenible (combinación de las ventajas

respectivas de los sistemas médicos modernos, tradicionales y

complementarios) es el método idóneo para atender mejor la salud de personas

y animales. En este artículo repasan brevemente la historia de las medicinas

tradicionales y esbozan estrategias para que la medicina sostenible se

desarrolle. Tras hacer hincapié en una serie de factores importantes para que

este sistema se vaya incorporando a la atención sanitaria, tratan de alentar a los

veterinarios a que adopten métodos sostenibles de tratar a los animales.

Palabras clave

Acupuntura – Alternativa – Complementario – Convencional – Herbolaria –

Medicina veterinaria – Medio ambiente – Sostenibilidad – Tradicional.

■

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Effect of acupuncture on intraocular pressure and tear production in healthy horses

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Acupuncture is an ancient Chinese form of therapy that involves needle stimulation of specific points on the body for therapeutic and homeostatic effects. In ophthalmology, acupuncture helps as a conventional or adjuvant therapy for numerous eye disorders, including myopia, strabismus, dry eye, and cataracts. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of acupuncture on tear production (TP) and intraocular pressure (IOP) in horses. Ten healthy horses, females and males with ages varying between eight months and nine years, were used. Schirmer’s I test and applanation tonometry were used to evaluate the basal TP and IOP of both eyes. The measurements were taken immediately before (T10) the insertion of the needles and 5 (T5), 15 (T15), 30 (T30) and 60 (T60) minutes and 24 (T24) hours after a 20-minute acupuncture session. Mean values of both eyes were analyzed over time. TP increased in 50% of the animals at T5, T15 and T24, in 30% at T30, and in 40% at T60, with an increase of up to 8.5 mm/min at T15 and T60. In addition, there was a significant difference between T24 and T30, with a 14.1% increase in TP at T24. Meanwhile, IOP decreased in 50% of the animals at T5 and T30, in 20% at T15, in 60% at T60, and in 70% at T24. Thus, we suggest that acupuncture is a technique that can benefit horses with diseases that alter these parameters, either alone or as an adjunct in conventional therapeutic protocols.

Ethnoveterinary practices of medicinal plants among the Zemmour and Zayane tribes, Middle Atlas, Morocco

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S AFR J BOT

The widespread usage of medicinal plants in native nations' healthcare practices is a foundation for creating natural drugs. The current study sought to establish thorough ethnoveterinary knowledge of medicinal plants utilized for therapeutic reasons. The field investigation was carried out from January 2016 to Decem-ber 2020 in the Zemmour and Zayane tribes (Middle Atlas). Three hundred local informants were interviewed , using open-ended and semi-structured interviews. The advantages, coverage, and significance of ethnoveterinary were quantified using a variety of parameters such as informant consensus factor, fidelity level, relative popularity level, rank-order priority, and Jaccard index. A total of 150 species and subspecies belonging to 129 genera and 56 families were employed in ethnoveterinary preparations. The study area's most commonly used ethnoveterinary plant species was Allium sativum L. (16.7%). Leaves are the most frequent plant part used (46.5%). The highest factor informant consensus value was 0.9 for digestive diseases. Artemisia herba-alba Asso and Asparagus officinalis L. Both show a 100% fidelity level for diarrhea and rabies, respectively. Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (rank-order priority = 74) was shown to be the most preferred plant species for fever remedies. The present study demonstrates that local communities in the Middle Atlas have consistent knowledge of ethnoveterinary plants. In this inquiry, we invite the attention of chemists and phar-macologists to further phytochemical and pharmacological studies of medicinal plants having high rank-order priority, fidelity level, and factor informant consensus significance.

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New Drug Delivery Mechanism in Combating Livestock Diseases

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The advancement of drug delivery systems in veterinary medicine, particularly the amalgamation of antimicrobial agents with nano-carriers, represents a burgeoning field. Nano-carriers, comprising liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and metallic nanoparticles, present a paradigm shift with merits including heightened drug stability, solubility, and targeted delivery. This review encompasses the multifaceted landscape of nano-carrier-based drug delivery in veterinary medicine, exploring their potential to augment antimicrobial drug safety and efficacy while mitigating side effects and enhancing bioavailability. Delving into nano-carrier types, such as liposomes, nanoparticles, micelles, and nanofibers, their diminutive scale proves advantageous for efficient drug encapsulation and traversing biological barriers. The benefits of nano-carrier-based drug delivery encompass amplified bioavailability, targeted drug delivery to specific tissues, sustained release, and minimized side effects. Noteworthy case studies spotlight liposomal formulations for targeted delivery of antimicrobial peptides, inhalable liposomal aerosols for respiratory infections, polymeric nanoparticles for sustained release in oral delivery, targeted nanoparticle delivery to joint tissues, micellar systems for intracellular infections, and nanofiber matrices in wound care. However, challenges persist, including understanding biodistribution, scalability, cost-effectiveness, and ensuring biocompatibility and safety. Customization for diverse veterinary species, integration of diagnostic technologies, and ongoing research are pivotal for translating nano-carrier technologies into practical veterinary applications.

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Plants and Their Derivatives as Promising Therapeutics for Sustainable Control of Honeybee (Apis mellifera) Pathogens

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The most important pollinator for agricultural crops is the Western honeybee (Apis mellifera). During the winter and summer seasons, diseases and stresses of various kinds endanger honeybee numbers and production, resulting in expenses for beekeepers and detrimental effects on agriculture and ecosystems. Researchers are continually in search of therapies for honeybees using the resources of microbiology, molecular biology, and chemistry to combat diseases and improve the overall health of these important pollinating insects. Among the most investigated and most promising solutions are medicinal plants and their derivatives. The health of animals and their ability to fight disease can be supported by natural products (NPs) derived from living organisms such as plants and microbes. NPs contain substances that can reduce the effects of diseases by promoting immunity or directly suppressing pathogens, and parasites. This literature review summarises the advances that the scientific community has achieved over the years regarding veterinary treatments in beekeeping through the use of NPs. Their impact on the prevention and control of honeybee diseases is investigated both in trials that have been conducted in the laboratory and field studies.

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Implementation of biosecurity measures by hoof trimmers in Switzerland

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SCHWEIZ ARCH TIERH

Biosecurity in livestock farming includes all measures preventing pathogen introduction onto a farm (external biosecurity) and pathogen transmission on the farm itself (internal biosecurity). An important risk factor for the dissemination of infectious diseases are specialised external persons working on numerous farms, such as professional hoof trimmers in Switzerland. In the present study, 49 hoof trimmers, participating in the Swiss claw health programme and working as professionals, were questioned regarding their biosecurity measures and observed by two veterinarians during hoof trimming in order to assess the implementation of biosecurity measures by hoof trimmers. Data were processed using a scoring system, in which points were allocated to the different working methods taking into account their assumed transmission potential for infectious diseases such as digital dermatitis (DD) and Salmonellosis. The working method, which complied with the ideal biosecurity measure, was always given a whole point, whereas less optimal working methods were only given an intermediate value or no point. The scoring system helped identify precisely the strengths and weaknesses of the hoof trimmers in terms of biosecurity. The level of implementation of biosecurity measures by hoof trimmers was overall quite low (53 %=average of the overall biosecurity scores of the 49 hoof trimmers). Hoof trimmers which attended specialised training courses tended to have a higher level of implementation of biosecurity measures. The answers given by the hoof trimmers and the observations made by the veterinarians were compared, whereby it was found that hoof trimmers generally evaluated themselves better in regard to biosecurity than veterinarians assessed them. In summary and based on the results of this study, the dissemination of pathogens, such as DD associated treponemes and salmonella is possible during hoof trimming performed by external persons working on numerous farms. Thus, future training and continuing education courses should place emphasis on biosecurity.

Ethnoveterinary medicinal plant knowledge and practice among the Zemmour and Zayane tribes in the Middle Atlas region of Morocco.

Conference Paper

Full-text available

Dec 2022

The widespread use of medicinal plants in healthcare practices among indigenous communities provides the basis for natural drug discovery development. The present research aimed to document detailed ethnoveterinary knowledge of medicinal plants used for medicinal purposes. The field study was carried out from January 2016 to December 2020 in Zemmour and Zayane tribes (Middle Atlas). In total, 300 local informants were interviewed using open-ended and semi-structured interviews. The benefits, coverage, and importance of ethnoveterinary were expressed through several quantitative indices, including Informant Consensus Factor (FIC), Fidelity Level (FL), Relative Popularity Level (RPL), Rank Order Priority (ROP), and Jaccard Index (JI). A total of 150 plant species belonging to 129 genera and 56 families were found to be used in ethnoveterinary practices. The most commonly used ethnoveterinary plant species in the study areas was Allium sativum L. (16.7%). Leaves were the most frequent plant part used (46.5%). The highest FIC value was 0.9 for digestive disorders. Artemisia herba-alba Asso and Asparagus officinalis L. show a 100% fidelity level for diarrhea and rabies, respectively. Rank Order Priority (ROP) results showed that Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (ROP=74), was the most preferred species for the treatment of fever. The present study showed that local communities in the Middle Atlas consistently know ethnoveterinary plants. We invite the attention of chemists and pharmacologists for further phytochemical and pharmacological investigations of medicinal plants having high ROP, FL, and FIC values in this study.

Sustainable Livestock Production Safeguarding Animal and Public Health in Post-COVID Nepal

Chapter

Nov 2022

Agriculture and livestock sectors remain one of the mainstays of Nepalese economy and contribute nearly one-fourth to the gross domestic product. Livestock sector, particularly poultry and goat farming, is continuously growing in Nepal. Milk, meat, and egg production have substantially increased over the past decade. Livestock production can be catalytic in achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of ending poverty and reaching to zero hunger in Nepal. Nepal is being self-reliant on various livestock products as this industry has been gradually shifting from traditional subsistence farming to commercialization. Nevertheless, Nepal is heavily dependent on import of raw materials and animal health supplies. Emerging and reemerging infectious diseases pose severe impact on the sustainable development of livestock sector. Importantly, more than 60% of emerging diseases are zoonotic. Thus, prompt identification and management of infectious diseases in animals are not only important for welfare and health of animals but also to protect public health. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic negatively impacted all aspects of livestock sector including production, processing, transport, sales, and consumption in Nepal. The objective of this study is to review the current trend of livestock production, its contribution to achieve SDGs, zoonotic diseases of importance, and the impact of COVID-19 on livestock sector in Nepal. Methodology followed included review of the published research and review articles, and reports from the governmental and relevant non-governmental organizations available online. This pandemic has reemphasized the importance of interconnectedness of animal-human-environmental health. To prevent future epidemics or pandemics and to safeguard veterinary and public health from emerging and reemerging pathogens, institutionalization, and implementation of One Health, a collaborative, multidisciplinary, and multisectoral approach is necessary. This article provides recommendations for the sustainable development of livestock sector to protect both animal and human health in Nepal.KeywordsCOVID-19Infectious diseasesLivestock productionOne HealthZoonoses

Clinical Acupuncture: Scientific Basis

Book

Jan 2001

There is a large increase in interest in acupuncture by health care consumers. The three main reasons for this are medical effectiveness, cost effectiveness and the credibility that clinical trials and physiological research have provided. Acupuncture is rapidly moving out of the arena of "alternative" medicine, in large part again because it is grounded more firmly than other alternative treatments in research. The book provides the reader with the up-to-date information on the clinical bases of acupuncture.

Herbs That Release the Exterior

Chapter

Jan 2017

Can we tame wild medicine?

Article

Jan 1998
NEW SCI

Sustainable ticks and tick-borne disease control in livestock improvement in developing countries

Article

Jan 1997
VET PARASITOL

J. de Castro

Selecting different drug combination for the control of bovine clinical mastitis

Article

Jan 2002
J ANIM VET ADV

Food Fears

Article

Oct 2003

Daniel G. Dupont

A review on the threat of agricultural terrorism spurs calls was presented. From farm crops and animals through the processing system to the grocery store, the food supply chain provided numerous opportunities for attack. It was specified that response to an agricultural bioterrorism attack could require significantly more resources than the attack on the World Trade Center.

Veterinary Acupuncture: Ancient Art to Modern Medicine

Article

Jun 1994

Clinical acupuncture: scientific basis

Article

Jun 2001

Colin Lewis

The 'Livestock Revolution' and its impact on smallholders

Article

Leah Garces

BIOMEDICINE: medical consequences of antibiotic use in agriculture

Article

Feb 1998

Wolfgang Witte

Besides hospitals animal husbandry represents a large reservoir of transferable antibiotic resistance genes. Via food products resistant bacteria can easily reach humans. The current debate is above all concerning antibiotic use as growth promoters which can be gradually phased out by better animal performance.