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Antioxidant Capacity and Phenolic Content of Spinach As Affected by Genetics and Maturation
Abstract
Spinach leaves harvested at three maturity stages from eight commercial cultivars (CC) and eight advanced breeding lines (ABL) were evaluated for oxygen radical absorbing capacity (ORAC), total phenolics, and flavonoid composition and content. ABL had higher levels of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and ORAC than CC. Midmaturity spinach leaves had higher levels of total phenolics, total flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity than immature and mature leaves. The contents of individual flavonoids varied in response to maturation, with the predominant glucuronated flavones decreasing and patuletin and spinacetin derivatives increasing. Both total phenolics and total flavonoids correlated well with ORAC (r(xy)() = 0.78 and 0.81, respectively) demonstrating that flavonoids were major contributors to antioxidant capacity. Our results indicate that spinach genotypes should be harvested at the midmaturity stage for consumers to benefit from elevated levels of health promoting flavonoids present in the leaves. Additionally, plant breeders can select for increased phenolic content to increase antioxidant capacity of spinach genotypes.
... Flavonoids are secondary metabolites contributing to the pigmentation of flowers (aiding in pollination), quenching UV light in leaves, and protection against environmental biotic and abiotic stress (Takahashi and Ohnishi, 2004;Griesbach, 2005). Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) produces a remarkable concentration of flavonoids with varying reports between 82 -224 mg/100 g fresh weight (Gil et al., 1999;Pandjaitan et al., 2005). Spinach-derived flavonoids, with reported antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, have been associated with a reduced risk of developing certain cancers, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular diseases (Lomnitski et al., 2000;Edenharder et al., 2001;Nyska et al., 2001;Takahashi and Ohnishi, 2004;Grosso et al., 2017;Singh et al., 2018b;Hamsalakshmi et al., 2022). ...
... Current extraction methods tend to be time-consuming, and more efficient methods are needed to profile larger populations. Quantification of spinach flavonoids is generally done by reverse phase liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), although other less sensitive approaches have also been implemented such as photodiode array detector (Howard et al., 2002;Pandjaitan et al., 2005;Singh et al., 2018b). Through 1 H and 13 C NMR, as well as mass spectrometry, over 40 flavonoid species have been identified in spinach (Ferreres et al., 1997;Singh et al., 2018b). ...
... Additionally, we compared both the traditional extraction method with our highthroughput approach by profiling a genetically diverse population of spinach. Published spinach flavonoid values are sparse and infrequently use multiple genotypes (Howard et al., 2002;Pandjaitan et al., 2005;Cho et al., 2008;Schlering et al., 2020). ...
Introduction
Spinach produces an array of unique flavonoids not commonly found in other fruits and vegetables. These molecules likely serve as defense agents against biotic and abiotic stress and may have health beneficial properties for humans. Current methods to analyze spinach flavonoids are incomplete and only capture a portion of this uncharacterized pathway. A comprehensive analysis method is needed to determine how genetics, environmental conditions, and other factors influence spinach flavonoid biosynthesis.
Methods
We developed and validated a high-throughput extraction and ultra high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method to separate and quantify 39 spinach flavonoid species in 11.5 minutes. Spinach flavonoids without authentic standards were putatively identified using MS/MS fragmentation experiments, precursor scans, and matches to high-resolution MS literature reports.
Results
Our extraction method enables up to 48 samples to be extracted in 60 minutes with recovery estimates between 100.5 – 107.8%. To assess the suitability of our method and generate benchmark estimates for 39 spinach flavonoids, we grew a panel of 30 genetically diverse spinach accessions and compared quantification data generated with a traditional or our high-throughput approach. Data generated by either approach were comparable, estimating total flavonoid averages of 75.1 – 170.1 or 93.1 – 187.26 mg/100 g fresh weight for the high-throughput and traditional method, respectively.
Discussion
Many estimates generated by our analysis method represent the first quantitative literature reports of these compounds. These experiments indicate that our extraction and analysis method is efficient, robust, and an important tool needed to study the biosynthesis and biological role of spinach flavonoids.
... Flavonoid acids in spinach plants were found to contain anthocyanins, glucuronide, flavone, myricetin, methoxy flavone, methylenedioxy derivatives of 6-oxygenated, and the isolated flavonol structure of patuletin (Dehkharghanian, Adenier & Vijayalakshmi 2010;Naczk & Shahidi 2003;Pandjaitan et al. 2005). ...
... The interest in bioactive antioxidant component from vegetable sources are mainly associated with its free radical scavenging effect and the potent antioxidant properties that are highly reactive as hydrogen or electron-donating agents are significantly related to the reduction potential (Afanas'ev et al. 1989;Ligor, Trziszka & Buszewski 2012). Flavonoids in spinach act as a vital secondary metabolite plant phenolic in the antioxidant and chelating properties to induce desirable health effects (Pandjaitan et al. 2005). ...
In recent years, overwhelming studies have recognized the excellent functional and nutritional properties of green leafy vegetables that can be gained through a proper human diet. Among the vegetables studied, Spinacia oleracea Linn or commonly known as spinach is widely being acknowledged for having a diverse range of nutritional composition and bioactive phytochemical compounds. Spinach, which is grouped under the Amaranthaceae family, contains various beneficial effects owing to their nutritional compositions, such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fibre, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive constituents that are directly linked to various bio-functional properties. The valuable bio-constituent of polyphenols that exist in spinach contributes to its effective antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Therefore, the antioxidant from spinach extract is a promising source of natural antioxidants to replace the harmful effect of synthetic antioxidants. Moreover, it can inhibit cellular oxidative damage, increase storage stability, and restrict the growth of a wide range of pathogenic bacteria, which offers a huge prospect for potential food application. Therefore, the main attention of this review was to highlight the effective antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of phytochemical compounds in spinach extract. Additionally, this review provided a comprehensive description of the wide range of food applications with regards to the use of spinach extract.
... Дослідження фітохімічного складу показали, що антиоксидантний потенціал шпинату вищий, ніж у цибулі, селери і томатів [6]. Він накопичує антиоксиданти, такі як лютеїн, бета-каротин, кумарова та ферулова кислоти, а також поліфеноли, що мають антимутагенні, протизапальні та омолоджувальні властивості [4,[7][8][9][10][11][12]13]. Листки шпинату виявляють виражену протипухлинну активність за різних видів раку, включно рак легень, простати, молочної залози, товстої кишки та яєчників [3,9]. ...
... Листки шпинату виявляють виражену протипухлинну активність за різних видів раку, включно рак легень, простати, молочної залози, товстої кишки та яєчників [3,9]. Відповідно до низки досліджень [3,7,11,13] основну роль у антиоксидантному ефекті шпинату відіграють флавоноїди, зокрема глюкозиди патулетин, спинацетин і жасеїдин. ...
... However, significant negative quadratic effect (p < 0.001) was observed which represents higher response at the centre value of length of leaves. According to Pandajaitan et al. [38], mid leaves had much higher levels of total phenolics and total flavonoids than immature and mature leaves. These compounds are responsible for scavenging activity hence, DPPH scavenging activity is higher in mid-mature stage. ...
... Length of leaves showed significant negative quadratic effect (p < 0.05) representing higher response at the centre value of length of leaves. Obtained results are similar to the result of Pandajaitan et al. [38] who reported that leaves should be harvested at mid maturity stage for consumes to benefit from the elevated levels of health promoting flavonoids. Similar studies are reported by Wongsen et al. [42]. ...
Research on waste valorization and utilization of food by-products are increasing day-by-day. This trend not only protect the environment from pollution but also gives good value of food industries wastes and by-products. In this study, optimization of harvesting stage and storage conditions of radish leaves has been done by using response surface methodology. Different packaging materials such as paper, cling film and LDPE (low density polyethylene) were tried for storage. Among all, better retention of all quality parameters was observed in the leaves stored in LDPE. Maximum quality retention in terms of moisture content (94.44%), ascorbic acid (35.37 mg/100 g), DPPH scavenging activity (45.32%), total phenols (684.025 mgGAE/100 g), total flavonoids (1041.066 mg quercetin/100 g) and chlorophyll (48.795 mg/100 g) was observed with 9.55 cm length of leaves and 4 °C storage temperature on 24 h. The applied model was found suitable for current study with 94% of anticipated values.
Graphical Abstract
... In addition, the results of histopathological examination revealed that animal tissue treated with DOX together with tomato extract or lycopene at higher doses were characterized by the lower susceptibility of heart cells to necrosis compared to heart tissue sections from mice who were administered DOX only [24]. Alternative approaches have demonstrated the ability of lycopene to protect heart tissue affected by DOX [53]. During these experiments, rats were treated with DOX (10 mg/kg i.p.) or DOX with lycopene in two schemes. ...
... Histopathological examination indicated, among other effects, a reduction in interstitial edema and degenerative states in the rats treated with lycopene and DOX as compared with hearts from rats treated with DOX only. These results suggest that lycopene and tomato extract may protect the heart muscle against DOX toxicity [53]. According to Karimi et al. [24], such beneficial properties result from the neutralization of free radicals and inhibition of lipid peroxidation. ...
Cardiotoxicity is a frequent undesirable phenomenon observed during oncological treatment that limits the therapeutic dose of antitumor drugs and thus may decrease the effectiveness of cancer eradication. Almost all antitumor drugs exhibit toxic properties towards cardiac muscle. One of the underlying causes of cardiotoxicity is the stimulation of oxidative stress by chemotherapy. This suggests that an appropriately designed diet or dietary supplements based on edible plants rich in antioxidants could decrease the toxicity of antitumor drugs and diminish the risk of cardiac failure. This comprehensive review compares the cardioprotective efficacy of edible plant extracts and foodborne phytochemicals whose beneficial activity was demonstrated in various models in vivo and in vitro. The studies selected for this review concentrated on a therapy frequently applied in cancer, anthracycline antibiotic—doxorubicin—as the oxidative stress- and cardiotoxicity-inducing agent.
... Based on studies conducted in Europe and the USA (BOARI et al. 2000;MANSOUR et al. 2005;SHINOHARA 2008), artichoke appears to be a high water requirement crop compared to other vegetable crops, in part due to its large foliage biomass and longer production cycle, which can be up to 6-7 months when grown as an annual production cycle. As SHINOHARA et al. (2011) reported irrigation was more effective than N management to optimize artichoke yields, however as in other crops was connected with phenolics content decrease (PANDJAITAN et al. 2005). The most efficient system of watering is drip irrigation, resulting in significant herb yields increase (KOSZAŃSKI et al. 2006). ...
Artichoke is a source of caffeolquinic acids and flavonoids for pharmaceutical industry as their concentrations in the leaves tend to be very high. A three-year field experiment was conducted in Poland to estimate the effects of irrigation and various plantation modalities on the concentrations and productions of these substances. In the experiment four methods of plantation establishment (single-grain direct seeds sowing, seeds sowing with covering with nonwoven polypropylene film, seedlings produced in a plastic tunnel transplantation, seedlings produced in multicell trays in a plastic tunnel transplantation) as well as drip irrigation on the background of unwatered plots were used. Generally, supplemental irrigation was connected with better developed plants, that produced greater number of longer leaves and as a result higher above ground parts weight, whereas during the second cut (performed in October) significantly higher yields of better quality artichoke leaves were obtained. Both, with and without irrigation, yield was lower in the case of transplantation of seedlings with bare roots and at a less degree in the case of direct sowing without covering. The concentration of CQA and flavonoids were higher without irrigation and much lower in direct sowing than in transplantation. Thus, studies showed that direct sowing (even though with crops covering) resulting in lower yields of worse quality of artichoke raw material. Seedlings produced previously in plastic tunnel transplantation could be indicated as better method of artichoke plantation establishment for pharmaceutical purposes.
... In addition, it activates caspase-3 and -9 in HepG2 cells, raises the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and results in p53 expression through cell death. [14] In addition, resveratrol (when paired with matrine) inhibits cell proliferation by (a) triggering cell death by activating caspase-3 and caspase-9, (b) restricting survivin, (c) generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), and (d) modifying the mitochondrial membrane potential. ...
The anticancer activity of resveratrol is well known. But because of its limited water solubility and lowbioavailability, resveratrol (RES) is a BCS class II medication with research potential. The current work createsa new copolymer from Lipoid S-75 and chitosan and tests the RES-loaded micelles it produces for varieddelivery properties. In addition to efficiently loading the drug, the nanometric micellar carriers also regulatedthe rate of RES release. The discoveries using a novel polymer-based carrier show promise for improvedmedication delivery in the future. Aim: The aim of the study was to synthesize and characterize the lipoid S-75conjugated chitosan-based micelles for improving biopharmaceutical parameters of resveratrol. Methods: Thepreparation and characterization of a copolymer of CS and lipoid S-75 were done by using S-75 100 mg andDCC 700 mg which is followed by preparation and characterization of CS-lipoid S-75-conjugated resveratrolmicelles. And evaluation of the formulation done by the parameters such as particle size, polydispersityindex zeta potential, % encapsulation efficiency and drug loading, drug loading capacity, and differentialscanning calorimetry. Results: In the present study, development of polymeric micelles using the flavonoidin multifaceted applications, entailing therapy, diagnostics, in-suit imaging, and on-demand drug delivery,resveratrol, polymers such as chitosan, and lipoid S-75 show significant potential. The fundamental formationmechanisms are then analyzed, focusing on the inherent physicochemical qualities like solubility andbioavailability that control the drug release. Conclusion: The development of resveratrol-loaded chitosanbasedS-75 micelles demonstrates considerable potential for multifaceted biomedical applications, includingtherapy, diagnostics, in-situ imaging, and on-demand drug delivery. The combination of resveratrol, chitosan,and lipoid S-75 results in a polymeric micellar system with enhanced solubility and bioavailability, addressingthe challenges associated with the poor aqueous solubility and rapid metabolism of resveratrol. The analysisof the micelle formation mechanisms highlights the crucial role of the inherent physicochemical propertiesin controlling drug release. This innovative micellar platform offers promising avenues for optimizing thetherapeutic delivery of resveratrol and broadening its application scope in pharmaceutical and biomedicalfields.
... It comes to the forefront, especially with its high Fe content, vitamin A, B2, and C contents, and low calories. Spinach also contains large quantities of bioactive compounds (Pandjaitan et al., 2005). Spinach has a short vegetation period. ...
Salinity poses a significant abiotic stress that limits plant productivity, thereby posing a serious threat to agricultural sustainability and worldwide food security. Techniques that can overcome this problem are needed. Recent focus has been placed on employing organic substances like humic acid (HA) and amino acids, including L‐tryptophan (L‐TRP), to mitigate the negative effects of salt stress on cultivated plants. Accordingly, in this research, the impact of foliar applications of HA and L‐TRP, both separately and combined, on the growth parameters and biochemical properties of spinach subjected to salt stress was investigated. In the present study, eight treatments (1. control, 2. salt (NaCl), 3. HA, 4. L‐TRP, 5. HA + NaCl, 6. L‐TRP + NaCl, 7. HA + L‐TRP, and 8. HA + L‐TRP + NaCl) were investigated. The study showed that salt stress markedly reduced several growth properties in spinach, including plant height, number of leaves, leaf dimensions, and both fresh and dry weight. Additionally, it significantly lowered contents of chlorophyll (a, b, and total), carotenoid, polyphenol, lutein, anthocyanin, polyphenol oxidase, glycine betaine, relative water content, and the antioxidant enzyme activities (ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase). On the other hand, significant increases were observed in sodium, chlorine, potassium, sulfur, zinc, nickel, proline, malondialdehyde, and hydrogen peroxide levels of spinach with salinity. Individual and combined applications of HA and L‐TRP positively influenced plant growth, relative water content, activities of antioxidant enzyme, chlorophyll, and mineral contents of spinach under both normal and saline conditions. In conclusion, the combined use of HA and L‐TRP under salt stress conditions is promising in mitigating the negative impacts of salinity and can be suggested as an effective alternative approach for cultivating spinach in saline environments.
... Moreover, TPC also increased for other vegetables during storage; for example, the TPC of Coolguard lettuce harvested at three stages of maturity were higher in the immature and mature stages (0.13 and 0.14 mg*g − 1 , respectively) than in the over-mature stage (0.11 mg g − 1 ) (Couture et al., 1993;Chutichudet et al., 2011). Moreover, Pandjaitan et al. (2005) found the highest level of TPC and total flavonoids in the middle leaves of spinach plants, suggesting that these compounds were synthesised in leaves at early stages of maturity, decreasing during final maturity. The increase in TPC is due to the interaction of phenolic components with PPO and POD enzymes during fennel cutting, thereby causing an increase in ΔE, as mentioned in the previous paragraph. ...
... Polyphenolic compounds known as favonoids, which have a basic C 6 -C 3 -C 6 structure (Figure 2(a)) [26], are abundant in foods like green tea and chocolate [27]. Apples [28,29], plums, cherries [28,30], berries [31,32], olives [33], onions [34], beans [35], spinach [36], and shallot [37] are also rich sources of favonoids. Flavonoids have demonstrated anticancer efects by downregulating the cell cycle process, cell proliferation, and invasiveness behavior of tumor cells. ...
Background
Janus-activated kinase 2 (JAK2) plays a pivotal role in numerous essential biological processes, including proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis in human cells. Prior studies have indicated that inhibiting JAK2 could be a promising strategy to mitigate cell proliferation and induce apoptosis in tumor cells.
Objectives
This study aimed to estimate the binding affinity of 79 herbal compounds, comprising 46 flavonoids, 21 anthraquinones, and 12 cinnamic acids, to the ATP-binding cleft of JAK2 to identify potential herbal inhibitors of JAK2.
Methods
The binding affinities between ligands and JAK2 were calculated utilizing AutoDock 4.0 software in conjunction with the Cygwin environment. Cross-validation was conducted using the Schrödinger tool. Molecular dynamics simulations were employed to evaluate the stability of docked poses for the most significant JAK2 inhibitors. Furthermore, the Discovery Studio Visualizer tool was utilized to elucidate interactions between the top-ranked JAK2 inhibitors and residues within the JAK2 ATP-binding site.
Results
Twelve flavonoids, two anthraquinones, and three cinnamic acids demonstrated substantial binding affinities to the protein kinase domain of the receptor, with a criterion of ΔGbinding < −10 kcal/mol. Among the studied flavonoids, anthraquinones, and cinnamic acid derivatives, orientin, chlorogenic acid, and pulmatin emerged as the most potent JAK2 inhibitors, exhibiting ΔGbinding scores of −14.49, −11.87, and −10.76 kcal/mol, respectively. Furthermore, the docked poses of orientin, pulmatin, and chlorogenic acid remained stable throughout 60 ns computer simulations. The average root mean square deviation values calculated for JAK2 when complexed with orientin, chlorogenic acid, and pulmatin were 2.04 Å, 2.06 Å, and 1.95 Å, respectively.
Conclusion
This study underscores the robust inhibitory potential of orientin, pulmatin, and chlorogenic acid against JAK2. The findings hold promise for the development of novel and effective drugs for cancer treatment.
... Kenaf leaves are excellent sources of antioxidant phenolics, especially after the developmental stage (S3), and exhibit stronger AA than the stems at all stages. Different plant species with various organs have exhibited distinct influences on the accumulation of phenolics during development, exhibiting complex patterns including increasing, decreasing, maintaining, and fluctuating [23][24][25][26] patterns. However, since the specific changes in phenolic content in kenaf leaves and stems during plant development have still remained unclear, our results indicate that phenolic content in both kenaf leaves and stems increases during plant growth and contributes to the enhancement of AA. ...
Apart from being utilized as a commercial fiber at maturity, kenaf shoots have potential as a food and feed source because of their diverse bioactivities. Previous studies have focused on mature stems because of their high biomass, whereas the antioxidant activities (AA) and the destination of AA contributors of kenaf stems and their high-yielding byproduct leaves during the growth stage have rarely been studied. Therefore, we investigated changes in AA and its relative components in kenaf leaves and stems during the four vital growth stages. Higher ABTS radical cation and DPPH radical scavenging abilities and ferric reducing antioxidant power, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, and total polysaccharide content were observed at all leaf stages and in the late stem stages. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) and kaempferol glycosides, especially kaempferitrin (Kfr), were identified as representative phenolic acids and flavonoids in both kenaf leaves and stems. The content of CGA in both leaves and stems increased corresponding to the plant’s growth stage, whereas kaempferol glycosides were enhanced in leaves but declined in stems. The highest correlation was observed between TPC and AA in all organs. Further evaluation of CGA and Kfr verified that CGA was the predominant contributor to AA, surpassing Kfr. These findings suggest that kenaf leaves increase antioxidant levels as they grow and can be a useful source of stem harvesting byproducts.
... Asian nations, particularly China, emerge as the predominant suppliers ( 1 ). Apart from its bountiful harvest, spinach has gained recognition for its high abundance of essential minerals, vitamins A, C and E, as well as flavonoids (2)(3)(4)(5). Given the economic and nutritional value of this leafy green, there has been a pressing demand for clarifying its genetic characteristics ( 6 ). ...
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is an important leafy crop possessing notable economic value and health benefits. Current genomic resources include reference genomes and genome-wide association studies. However, the worldwide genetic relationships and the migration history of the crop remained uncertain, and genome-wide association studies have produced extensive gene lists related to agronomic traits. Here, we re-analysed the sequenced genomes of 305 cultivated and wild spinach accessions to unveil the phylogeny and history of cultivated spinach and to explore genetic variation in relation to phenotypes. In contrast to previous studies, we employed machine learning methods (based on Extreme Gradient Boosting, XGBoost) to detect variants that are collectively associated with agronomic traits. Variant-based cluster analyses revealed three primary spinach groups in the Middle East, Asia and Europe/US. Combining admixture analysis and allele-sharing statistics, migration routes of spinach from the Middle East to Europe and Asia are presented. Using XGBoost machine learning models we predict genomic variants influencing bolting time, flowering time, petiole color, and leaf surface texture and propose candidate genes for each trait. This study enhances our understanding of the history and phylogeny of domesticated spinach and provides valuable information on candidate genes for future genetic improvement of the crop.
... En los estudios que realizamos en colaboración con el Prof. Howard de la Universidad de Arkansas evaluamos la influencia del estado fisiológico de la espinaca en el contenido en compuestos antioxidantes (Pandjaitan et al., 2005). Para ello estudiamos 16 variedades de espinaca, 8 tradicionales y 8 selecciones obtenidas a partir de líneas de mejora genética, en tres estados de madurez. ...
... Además, su aplicación no se limita a plantas modelo, sino que se puede utilizar con cualquier especie, incluidas las de importancia agrícola y económica. El alto contenido total de flavonoides en la espinaca (1.000 mg/kg), en comparación con otras verduras, ofrece numerosas propiedades farmacológicas, antioxidantes, antiinflamatorias, antimutagénicas y anticancerígenas (Vázquez, 2013;Howard 2002;Pandjaitan, 2005). Abdelgawad (et al., 2022), investigaron las acti- vidades potenciales antileucémicas de cincuenta y seis plantas medicinales cultivadas y utilizadas en Egipto, siendo el extracto hidroetanólico al 75% de las hojas de espinaca el que presentó una actividad antileucémica prometedora y activa contra la línea celular de leucemia mieloide crónica K562. ...
Spinach belongs to the taxonomic family Amaranthaceae. It is an annual, fast-growing leafy vegetable considered to havehigh nutritional value. Its international production according to FAO estimates was 14 million tons, with China being thefirst producer (85%), followed by the United States (2.6%), Japan (2.2%) and Turkey (1.6%); while, in Mexico, in 2020 it was49,313 tons (+27.3% compared to 2019) obtained from 2,853 ha harvested (+16.6%), so the national average yield was 17.3ton/ha ( +9.2%). The main phytochemical constituents of spinach predominantly associated with the quality of spinach aretotal flavonoids, total phenolics and total carotenoids, due to their antioxidant activity (Bergquist, 2006). Its valuablemedicinal properties include anticancer, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, anticancer, antibacterial,hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, and suppressors of the Central Nervous System. The present work is a review on theorigin, medicinal properties, agronomic profile, profile of biosynthesized primary and secondary metabolites, in vitro cultureof Spinacea oleracea and data on the phytochemical composition of the secondary metabolites of spinach detected byanalytical techniques
... [10] showed that spinach has a high concentration of natural antioxidants (carotenoids and (poly)phenols) and high antioxidant capacity. In addition, an increase in phenolic compounds in fennel leaves has also been shown after a disinfection process using vermicompost [11,12]. Antioxidants protect living cells against the harmful effects of free radicals and other reactive oxygen species. ...
Solar radiation and the incorporation of compost into soil is a practice for disinfecting soil that could have some other effects on spinach cultivation. The quality of spinach leaves after two types of soil disinfection, non-amended soil (NAS) and compost-amended soil (CAS), was compared in order to find biomarkers of both types of disinfection. These practices did not show significant differences in nutrient composition (N-P-K) compared to the control soil (CS). However, the amount of harmful nutrients such as NO2⁻ was significantly lower in CAS (65.74 mg kg⁻¹ FW) and NAS (49.99 mg kg⁻¹ FW) than in CS (114.39 mg kg⁻¹ FW). In addition, NO3⁻ levels did not exceed the EU-recommended limit (<3500 mg kg⁻¹ FW). Both types of disinfected soils produced higher concentrations of total phenols and more individual flavonoids in spinach leaves than the control. Combined chemometric analysis of the HRAMS data showed different clustering depending on the type of disinfection (NAS and CAS). Fifteen metabolite compounds could be identified, seven of which are beneficial for health and were more abundant in spinach grown in CAS compared to that grown in NAS or CS. Such beneficial metabolites measured with non-target analysis as markers of CAS-grown spinach. However, more studies are necessary in order to determine the differences between the metabolites of spinach grown in NAS or CAS.
... Carassius auratus breeding has become widespread because of its resilience, as it does not require much protein in its diet and depends on natural food sources [16] . Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) is a vegetable rich in vitamins and minerals [17] , as well as antioxidant properties such as vitamins E and C [18,19] . Anti-obesity and lipid-lowering studies in mammalian models have established the effects of S. oleracea on health [17,20] . ...
Chlorophyll is found in plants everywhere and it is a natural biological energy source. Because seaweed and spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) are highly concentrated with chlorophyll, this study evaluated the effect of chlorophyll extracted from seaweeds and S. oleracea as a supplementary food source for goldfish (Carassius auratus) and adult male Wistar Hannover rats. Our results showed significant body weight gain in C. auratus treated with chlorophyll extracted from seaweeds; C. auratus also showed a brighter and more vibrant color. Our study also showed that chlorophyll extracted from S. oleracea caused a significant increase in the cholesterol, TG, and HDL levels in the treated rats compared to the control group. These results indicate that chlorophyll could be a more suitable alternative for feeding C. auratus than commercial foods, and an efficacious agent to improve the rise of lipid and cholesterol levels in people with vascular conditions.
... This may be due to the fact that phenolic compounds are required for the biosynthesis of secondary cell walls and as protective substances. Our data on the increase in the content of phenolic compounds in hop ontogeny are in agreement with the results obtained in various studies [8,15]. ...
Wild hop (Humulus lupulus L.) is a double-headed perennial climbing plant that belongs to the Cannabaceae family. Hops contain many biologically active compounds possessing powerful antimicrobial, antioxidant and antifungal activity, due to which its original use was for medicinal purposes and only later began to be used in beer production. The aim of the work was to identify the effects of growth regulators (hibbersib and epin-extra) and biofertilizer (powder) on the content of soluble phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, carotenoids, vitamins C and B, protein and sugars in plants of common hop (Humulus lupulus L.) during ontogenesis. Root cuttings of hops were planted in the beginning of May 2022 in protected ground under laboratory conditions. In the second variant rootstock were potted in soil with 10 g/kg powders; in the third variant rootstocks were treated with hibbersib (666.6 µg/l) by spraying; in the fourth variant also, rootstocks were treated with epin-extra (500 µl/l) by spraying. After 4 weeks, all variants were transplanted to the open field. The samples for analysis (leaves) were taken 4, 8, 12 and 16 weeks after planting in the open ground, the average night temperatures were +16⁰C, +24⁰C, +14⁰C and +7⁰C, respectively. Phytochemical composition of leaves was determined by spectrophotometric method. In control plants the content of phenolic compounds and vitamin C reached the highest values in the twelfth week after planting. The synthetic growth regulators (epin-extra and hibbersib) and the biofertilizer (pudrete) were shown to change the phytochemical composition of the hop plants to different extents. Powdertet increased the vitamin and protein content to a greater extent whereas growth regulators increased the content of phenolic compounds and sugars, particularly under the influence of hibbersib.
... It should be noted that the level of phenolics significantly depends on the stage of plant development. The increase in phenolic levels during maturation from the 24th to 38th day observed in our study is consistent with data from other authors [52][53][54][55]. The activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), a key enzyme of phenylpropanoid pathway, which is directly involved in phenolic synthesis, was determined at the 24th and 38th days of cultivation at a CH concentration of 0.1 mg/mL (Table 5). ...
Seed priming increases germination, yield, and resistance to abiotic factors and phytopathogens. Chitosan is considered an ecofriendly growth stimulant and crop protection agent. Chitosan hydrolysate (CH) is an unfractionated product of hydrolysis of high-molecular-weight crab shell chitosan with a molecular weight of 1040 kDa and a degree of deacetylation of 85% with nitric acid. The average molecular weight of the main fraction in CH was 39 kDa. Lettuce seeds were soaked in 0.01–1 mg/mL CH for 6 h before sowing. The effects of CH on seed germination, plant morphology, and biochemical indicators at different growth stages were evaluated. Under the 0.1 mg/mL CH treatment, earlier seed germination was detected compared to the control. Increased root branching was observed, along with 100% and 67% increases in fresh weight (FW) at the 24th and 38th days after sowing (DAS), respectively. An increase in the shoot FW was found in CH-treated plants (33% and 4% at the 24th and 38th DAS, respectively). Significant increases in chlorophyll and carotenoid content compared to the control were observed at the 10th DAS. There were no significant differences in the activity of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, polyphenol oxidase, β-1,3-glucanase, and chitinase at the 24th and 38th DAS. Seed priming with CH could increase the yield and uniformity of plants within the group. This effect is important for commercial vegetable production.
... From a nutritional point of view, spinach is regarded as a superfood as it is rich in several minerals especially, iron, vitamins, folate, proteins, and flavonoids (Roberts and Moreau 2016) including a substantial amount of carotenoids vitamin A, lutein, and zeaxanthin (Bunea et al. 2008) and other antioxidant compounds such as vitamin C and vitamin E (Chun et al. 2005;Pandjaitan et al. 2005). Often the nutritive value of spinach is higher than many common leafy vegetables. ...
The nutritious leafy vegetable, spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) having diploid chromosome numbers, 2n = 2× = 12, is a versatile wind-pollinated crop which is rich in health-promoting minerals and vitamins. Majority of the spinach plants are dioecious in nature and it is gaining popularity throughout the world owing to nutrient content of this economically important cool season leafy crop. This crop is effected by several devastating biotic and abiotic stresses which need to be managed using the modern biotechnological tools. In this context, the breeding for overcoming these problems have gained momentum in the post-genomics era. Hence, numerous quantitative trait loci (QTLs), genes, and molecular markers linked with different phenotypic traits like leaf shape, flowering traits, nutritional traits, etc., have been identified in the past decades. But, still there is an urgent need to breed spinach for decreasing the anti-nutritional factors like oxalates, consumption of which can cause health issues. In the post-genomics era, plethora of genomic and sequence resources of spinach have been made available, which have the potential to accelerate spinach breeding program. Development of downy mildew-resistant cultivars of Spinach via introgression of NBS-LRR (nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat) genes from wild allies have been made successful. In the past decade, the genomics have provided insight into sex evolution in spinach and various candidate miRNAs (micro RNAs) related to sex forms in spinach have been identified. In this chapter, we have provided detailed overview of progress made in spinach genetic improvement in the post-genomics era.
... Spinach (S. oleraceae L.), is an economically and nutritionally important crop (Min et al., 2014;Reddy et al., 2014). It has a high nutritional value (Kuti and Konuru, 2004) and notable quantities of secondary chemicals (Nuutila et al., 2002;Bunea et al., 2008;Shohag et al., 2011;Buckley et al., 2021), which protect against chronic diseases (Howard et al., 2005). It is a cold-season crop from southwestern Asia (Candlish et al., 1987), a property we valued because all plant growth experiments were run in the fall and spring seasons, a time of cold weather in Boston, MA. ...
Integrating cities with the surrounding environment by incorporating green spaces in creative ways would help counter climate change. We propose a rooftop farm system called BIG GRO where air enriched with carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) produced through respiration from indoor spaces is applied through existing ventilation systems to produce a fertilization effect and increased plant growth. CO 2 measurements were taken inside 20 classrooms and at two exhaust vents on a rooftop at Boston University in Boston, MA. Exhausted air was directed toward spinach and corn and plant biomass and leaf number were analyzed. High concentrations of CO 2 persisted inside classrooms and at rooftop exhaust vents in correlation with expected human occupancy. CO 2 levels averaged 1,070 and 830 parts per million (ppm), reaching a maximum of 4,470 and 1,300 ppm CO 2 indoors and at exhaust vents, respectively. The biomass of spinach grown next to exhaust air increased fourfold compared to plants grown next to a control fan applying atmospheric air. High wind speed from fans decreased growth by approximately twofold. The biomass of corn, a C4 plant, experienced a two to threefold increase, indicating that alternative environmental factors, such as temperature, likely contribute to growth enhancement. Enhancing growth in rooftop farms using indoor air would help increase yield and help crops survive harsh conditions, which would make their installation in cities more feasible.
... They are synthesized as bioactive secondary metabolites [15] and impart color, taste, and pharmacological activities [24]. There are almost six thousand flavonoids which are responsible for the colorful pigments of medicinal plants, herbs [34], onions [35], spinach [36], and shallot [37] are the richest in flavonoids. Bioactive flavonoids are primarily found in edible parts of plants, although a few of them are also found in non-edible parts (i.e., stem, root, and leaves) of plants. ...
Flavonoids are natural polyphenolic compounds, which are responsible for the taste and colors of medicinal plants, herbs, fruits, vegetables. Fruits (e.g., Berries, cherries, plums, apples, lemons, oranges, and grapes etc) and vegetables (e.g., broad beans, olives, onions, spinach, shallot etc) are the main sources of flavonoids. They also exist abundantly in cocoa products, black and green tea, red wine, red pepper, chamomile, celery, parsley, ginkgo, and mint. Flavonoids derivatives can also be synthesized through esterification, halogenation, alkoxylation, alkylation, aromatic hydroxylation, acylation and conjugation with various organic compounds. Flavonoids can be supplemented in a staple of food as nutraceutical agents and have an important role in human diet. They possess diverse biological activities including anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, anti-obesity, antimutagenic, neuroprotective and also have beneficial effects on oxidative stress, inflammation, insulin resistance, lipid metabolism and neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease). Flavonoids contain a 15-carbon skeleton; the basic structure consists of a flavan nucleus, a combination of two benzene and one pyran rings. Flavonoids are divided into eight important groups i.e., flavones, flavanols, isoflavones, flavan-3-ols, flavanonols, anthocyanidins, chalcones, and flavanones. A structure-activity relationship exists between flavonoids and their antioxidant activities. Flavonoids are effective in chelating metal ions and scavenging free radicals. The antioxidant properties of flavonoids are governed by their –OH groups, differences in hydrophobicity and molecular planarity.
... Examination of total phenolic and flavonoid content showed that methanolic extracts mainly contain higher amounts of these chemical constituents. Total phenol and flavonoids values of spinach leaves varied between 29 and 915 mg GAE/100g and 838 and 1696 mg RTE/g depending on genotypes at three maturity stages (Pandjaitan et al., 2005). While certain researchers (Fan et al., 2011;Galani et al., 2017) published data for phenols and flavonoids in spinach leaves that are comparable to ours, there is a found of an average of 500 mg GAE/100g polyphenols in field-grown orache leaves and an average of 200 mg GAE/100g in greenhouse-grown (Uslu et al., 2020). ...
Amaranthaceae Juss. family encompasses many edible plants with prominent biological activity. This investigation tested the bioactive properties of ethanolic and methanolic extract of three well-known species: spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), chard (Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris), and orache (Atriplex hortensis L.) through the determination of total phenolic and flavonoid content, antioxidant activity, and antibacterial properties. The particular goal was to evaluate the antibiofilm potential of extracts and to demarcate concentration-depending changes in the biofilm-forming category of included bacterial strains. The mass of the chard and orache methanolic extracts gained by maceration are lower in comparison to the mass of ethanolic extracts obtained by the Soxhlet method. In the case of spinach, the results are the opposite. All extracts have an antiradical activity that can be attributed to the established amounts of phenols and flavonoids. Total phenolics in dry leaves ranged from 0.09 to 0.44 mg GAE/g dw, and total flavonoids from 0.42 to 1.9 mg RTE/g dw. All investigated extracts performed inhibitory potential in terms of bacterial growth, while there was no bactericidal effect observed. Values of the
minimum inhibitory concentration ranged from 125 µg/ml to 500 µg/ml. Overall results suggested orache extracts as the strongest inhibitory agents. Antibiofilm assays showed that examined extracts of spinach, chard, and orache caused changes in the biofilm-forming capacity of investigated bacterial pathogens. Fluctuations in observed biofilm-forming categories after application of extracts were concentration-dependent.
... According to the insect morphology and nomenclature, the data is arranged in tabular form from order to species level. To observe the different varieties like abundance and uniformity among insects, the Shannon diversity index was used [7]. ...
Olericulture crops are none woody leafy vegetables that contain high nutrients, vitamins, and iron. Foliage insects show chronological association with their specific host vegetable such as Mustard leaves beat root and kale were the main olericulture crops that were selected to estimate the prevalence and variety of foliage insects. Samples were collected by aerial nets, direct handpicking, and sweep nets and with the help of forceps. Larvae of the many insects were voracious eaters. Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Coleoptera were the major foliage insects order that directly or indirectly affect these vegetables. The result indicates that foliage insects show sequential association with their host vegetable. Maximum dominance and variety of insects were found in kale and the least abundance was recorded in Mustard leaves because mustard leaves secretes some toxins that repels the insects. Common insects among 3 of them were flea beetles.
... Spinach has a substantial total flavonoid content of about 1000 mg/kg green mass, which normally remains relatively stable, although individual derivatives can vary considerably depending on the environmental conditions in the growth period and the post-harvest storage conditions [58,59]. Important flavonoid derivatives in spinach include spinacetins, patuletins, jaceidins, glucuronides and acylated di-and triglycosides of methylated and methylenedioxy derivatives of 6-oxygenated flavonols [60]. The flavonoid-7-O-glucuronide that we were able to annotate in the spinach leaves processed with PAW was identified as methylenedioxyflavone-glucuronide (5,3 ,4trihydroxy-3-methoxy-6:7-methylene-dioxyflavone-4 -βD-glucuronide), which has been described as a major flavonoid constituent in baby spinach leaves [58]. ...
Fresh baby spinach leaves are popular in salads and are sold as chilled and plastic-packed products. They are of high nutritional value but very perishable due to microbial contamination and enzymatic browning resulting from leaf senescence. Therefore, innovative food processing methods such as plasma-activated water (PAW) treatment are being explored regarding their applicability for ensuring food safety. PAW’s impact on food quality and shelf-life extension has, however, not been investigated extensively in vegetables so far. In the present study, a comprehensive metabolomic analysis was performed to determine possible changes in the metabolite contents of spinach leaves stored in a refrigerated state for eight days. Liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry, followed by stringent biostatistics, was used to compare the metabolomes in control, tap-water-rinsed or PAW-rinsed samples. No significant differences were discernible between the treatment groups at the beginning or end of the storage period. The observed loss of nutrients and activation of catabolic pathways were characteristic of a transition into the senescent state. Nonetheless, the presence of several polyphenolic antioxidants and γ-linolenic acid in the PAW-treated leaves indicated a significant increase in stress resistance and health-promoting antioxidant capacity in the sample. Furthermore, the enhancement of carbohydrate-related metabolisms indicated a delay in the senescence development. These findings demonstrated the potential of PAW to benefit food quality and the shelf-life of fresh spinach leaves.
... In the current study, the content of phenolic compounds increased at various intermediate growth stages of cabbage kale leaves (from 85 to 145 days after planting). These data were consistent with the results obtained by Pandjaitan et al. (2005), who investigated the changes in the content of phenolic compounds in spinach leaves at different stages of maturity (juvenile, middle-mature and fullyripened). Further, these researchers reported that phenolic and flavonoids compounds were higher at the middle maturity phase as compared to the full maturity and juvenile leaves. ...
The purpose of this work was to evaluate the specific effects of natural growth hormones (gibberellic acid, 10-6М and brassinolide, 10-6М) and commercial growth bio-stimulator (Novosil, 5 g/ha) on the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants activities of cabbage kale plants, under different growing conditions. The treatment of growth regulators was imposed by soaking cabbage kale plant seed in various growth regulators for 24 hours. The results were recorded at 85, 115 and 145 days after planting, at +80С, 00С and -60С temperature, respectively. Among the studied growth regulators, terpenoidal compounds of Novosil and gibberellic acid improved the antioxidant activity, activating enzymatic antioxidant systems and increasing the content of carotenoids and proline in leaves of cabbage kale. The steroidal compound of brassinolide raises the content of phenolic and flavonoids compounds which increased antioxidant activities. The results obtained from the study indicated that the use of growth regulars increases the synthesis of protective compounds, which developed resistance of cabbage kale plants against adverse environmental factors and improve the biomedical properties of cabbage kale. Further, the results of the study also suggested that freezing temperatures (-60С) enhanced the protective effect of growth regulators against lipid peroxidation and their antioxidant activity.
... Spinach is an important leafy green vegetable that contains large quantities of bioactive compounds and nutrients that are not common to most other vegetables, such as ρ-coumaric acid derivatives that exhibit strong antioxidant activity and glucuronic acid derivatives of flavonoids [9,10,11]. These nutrients make it one of the most commonly grown vegetable in the rural areas. ...
Saline irrigation water is becoming an important water source as fresh water is fast becoming a scarce resource in many areas of the world, including Eswatini, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. A study to test the response of two varieties of spinach (fordhook giant and mustard) to salinity was conducted in a field pot experiment at the Faculty of Agriculture at the Luyengo Campus of the University of Eswatini. The treatments were laid in a randomized block design (RCBD). The experiment consisted of four treatments, each replicated twelve times. Treatments were salinity levels of 0.0 dS/m, 1.5 dS/m, 2.0 dS/m and 3.5 dS/m. All the treatments were subjected to similar agronomic practices. Spinach was grown and observed for a period of five weeks. Plant height was measured and the number of leaves counted weekly throughout the experiment. Significant differences (P < 0.05) between salinity treatments were obtained for plant height beginning in week 2 but were more pronounced in week 3, 4 and week 5. No significant differences were obtained for the number of leaves. There were however, clear significant differences between spinach irrigated with none saline irrigation water compared to saline irrigation water. It was concluded that irrigating spinach with saline water of more than 2.0 dS/m drastically reduce plant growth but not the number of leaves under the conditions of the experiment.
The interaction between advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their RAGE receptor (AGEs/RAGE axis) triggers several signaling pathways that lead to the development of diabetic nephropathy (DN). One of the most studied AGEs is Nε-(1-Carboxymethyl)-L-lysine (CML). Spinacia oleracea is an edible plant with beneficial health properties, but its effect on the AGE/RAGE axis in kidney damage is unknown. Objective: We aimed to investigate the functional role of spinach methanolic extract (SME) on kidney damage in diabetic rats associated with the CML/RAGE axis. Methods: Forty adult male Wistar rats were used in this study and divided into four groups: control rats (CTRL), SME-administered CTRL (400 mg/kg; SME), streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy rats (STZ), and SME-treated STZ (STZ-SME); treatments were administered daily. After 12 weeks, serum AGEs, creatinine in urine, and lipid peroxidation in kidneys were measured. The distribution and expression levels of inflammatory and fibrotic mediators and RAGE signaling were evaluated through immunohistochemistry (NOX4, CML, RAGE, nuclear NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β, TGF-β1, SMAD2/3, CTGF, and a-SMA) and immunolocalization of CML/RAGE. Results: Glycoside flavonoid derivatives, such as patuletin and spinacetin, were primarily identified in the extract. Kidneys from the STZ group showed altered morphology, dead cells in the proximal tubules, and increased oxidative stress markers; notably, these effects were improved by SME treatment (STZ-SME). The STZ-SME group showed a lower staining intensity for CML and RAGE, which was associated with a decrease in the expression of inflammatory and fibrotic factors compared with the STZ group. In all groups, the distribution of these markers varied among proximal tubule, glomerular, and interstitial cells. Conclusions: SME treatment may help to prevent or delay kidney damage in diabetic rats by regulating inflammatory and fibrotic processes associated with the AGEs/RAGE pathway, a mechanism involved in the development of nephropathy.
Tetragonia tetragonioides)-однорічна рослина родини Aizoaceae. На відміну від більшості листкових культур T. tetragonioides витривалий до посухи і високих температур. Показано, що за вирощування на засолених ґрунтах новозеландський шпинат поглинає великі кількості солі та накопичує значну кількість сухої речовини. Цей вид легко культивується за різних кліматичних умов, може давати кілька врожаїв упродовж року (влітку і взимку), має високий вміст мінералів і біологічно активних речовин. Крім цінності як листкового овочу для споживання людиною його можна використовувати також як корм для тварин. Перевагою виду є стійкість до хвороб і специфічних шкідників. T. tetragonioides захищає від ерозії ґрунт, маючи відмінне зчеплення з ним. Вирощування в культурі дає змогу використання доступніших солонуватих і морських вод для стійкого вироб-ництва продуктів харчування у середовищах, де традиційні культури неефек-тивні. За таких умов вирощування рослини забезпечуються макро-і мікро-елементами, які є важливими компонентами цих водних джерел.
In response to the escalating demand for organic commodities, the exploration of non-chemical alternatives such as phytochemicals for plant disease management has gained momentum. This investigation focused on assessing the efficacy of a sustainable compound, Spinach Flavonoid- Rich Extract (SFRE), in mitigating cucumber powdery mildew (Podosphaera fusca) under controlled greenhouse conditions, and its potential in eliciting plant defense mechanisms at both biochemical and genetic levels. The application of SFRE resulted in a significant reduction in P. fusca disease severity, with a decrease of approximately 99%. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) analysis identified spinacetin as the dominant flavonoid in SFRE, with a concentration of 81.97 μg per 100 mg of the extract's dry weight. Furthermore, SFRE was found to induce systemic resistance in the infected seedlings, as evidenced by the upregulation of defense-related enzymes, including β-1,3-glucanase, chitinase, peroxidase, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, and polyphenol oxidase, and the enhanced expression of β-1,3-glucanase, chitinase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase genes. In addition, SFRE application led to an accumulation of flavonoid/phenolic compounds and an enhancement in chlorophyll synthesis. A robust correlation was observed between phenolic compounds and the activities of defense enzymes, as well as the expression of the tested genes. This study substantiates that SFRE, as a reservoir of natural compounds, presents an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to chemical fungicides for P. fusca control, and could be incorporated into a comprehensive approach to managing cucumber powdery mildew through integrated disease management strategies.
This research aimed to study the effect of an active edible coating based on sodium caseinate (SC) and propyl gallate (PG) on the quality of minimally processed (MP) fennel during storage. The respiration rate (RR) of the MP fennel coated with SC of different concentrations (8 %, 10 % and 12 %) and without coating was evaluated at 10 °C to determine the best SC concentration. Thereafter, MP fennel without coating, with 8 % SC coating and with 8 % SC coating enriched with PG (0.13 mg mL−1) was evaluated for their effect on the microbial count and microbiota composition, weight loss, pH, total acidity (TA), total soluble solids (TSS), colour, total polyphenols content and antioxidant capacity during storage (0, 7 and 15 days) at 4 °C. In addition, sensory analysis was performed to discriminate fresh samples from samples at different levels of visual quality. The results showed that 8 % SC coating decreased the RR to 20 %. During storage at 4 °C, weight loss increased up to 2% after 15 days of storage for all samples, whereas the pH, TA and TSS of MP fennels did not change significantly. The presence of the active coating affected the microbiota composition of the MP fennels, inhibiting some Enterobacteria species, thus leading to the predominance of Pseudomonas spp., which agrees with culture-based results. As the active compound has a positive impact on the total polyphenol content and antioxidant capacity, in the absence of the active compound, the coating did not influence these parameters. A ΔE value of 3.7 was found to be the critical level of the quality index for MP fennels, as demonstrated difference from reference sensory test. Moreover, this research highlights that the browning process is the limiting factor for the product's shelf life.
Baby spinach is becoming increasingly popular as a salad ingredient and needs high fertiliser rates to grow well and attain higher-quality leaves (dark green leaves). Chemical fertilisers, especially nitrogen (N), boost yields. There are many risks associated with nitrogen fertilisation. Additionally, spinach contains phenolic compounds and carotenoids. Nitrogen fertilisation affects growth, development, yield and metabolites. This study examined the impact of lower concentrations of N (0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150 mg/L) on yield and colour properties [light intensity (L*) colour coordinates, unique for green colour (a*) and yellow colour (b*)], as well as the impact of varying N concentrations on the total phenolic content and p-coumaric acid, quercetin, ferulic acid, kaempferol, lutein, zeaxanthin, β-carotene and antioxidant activities in the baby spinach varieties ‘Acadia’, ‘Crosstrek’ and ‘Traverse’, and it was established that N fertilisation improves phytochemical bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity. In a split strip plot design, three baby spinach varieties were treated with different N concentrations, including 0, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 150 mg/L. For 40 days, three baby spinach varieties were grown on soilless Mikskaar Professional substrate 300. During both seasons, ’Crosstrek’ had the highest fresh mass (921.4 g/m², 856.3 g/m²) at 120 mg/L N, while ‘Traverse’ had the highest fresh mass at 554.8 g/m² and at 564.3 g/m² at 90 mg/L N and did not differ significantly from 90 to 150 mg/L N during either season. During both seasons, ‘Acadia’ at 90 mg/L N increased fresh mass to 599 g/m² and 557.9 g/m². The variety × N supply interaction significantly affected the leaf colour; chlorophyll content across seasons; the levels of bioactive compounds, p-coumaric acid, quercetin, ferulic acid, kaempferol, lutein, zeaxanthin and β-carotene in spinach varieties; the in vitro bioaccessibility; and the antioxidant activity. Varietal differences influenced the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds and carotenoid components. The appropriate N levels can be used during plant cultivation to optimise the bioaccessibility of this spinach variety. Thus, fertilising ‘Traverse’ with 90 mg/N mL increased the in vitro bioaccessibility of β-carotene (35.2%), p-coumaric acid (7.13%), quercetin (8.29%) and ferulic acid (1.92%) without compromising the yield.
ABSTRAK Radikal bebas merupakan suatu molekul yang sangat reaktif yang dapat mengoksidasi dan mengubah molekul di sekitar. Molekul yang teroksidasi dapat menjadi radikal bebas dan akan merusak jaringan di sekitarnya serta mengancam kelangsungan hidup sel. Antioksidan menyumbangkan elektron kepada radikal bebas dan membantu mempertahankannya dalam tingkat fisiologis. Stres oksidatif terjadi jika terjadi ketidakseimbangan antara radikal bebas dan antioksidan sehingga untuk mengimbangi kekurangan antioksidan tersebut, tubuh memanfaatkan antioksidan dari luar. Bayam merah (Amaranthus sp.) sudah dikenal menjadi salah satu sumber antioksidan eksogen. Pemeriksaan in-vitro dengan eksperimental meliputi uji fitokimia kualitatif (Harborne) dan pemeriksaan bioassay yaitu uji toksisitas dengan BSLT (Meyer). Uji kualitatif fitokimia didapatkan hasil positif pada alkaloid, antosianin, betasianin, kardioglikosida, koumarin, flavonoid, glikosida, fenolik, kuinon, saponin, steroid, terpenoid serta tanin. Pada uji toksisitas didapatkan nilai LC50 sebesar 275,810 µg/mL pada daun bayam merah, sehingga berpotensi memiliki efek antimitotik. Kata kunci: daun bayam merah; Amaranthus sp; uji fitokimia; uji toksisitas ABSTRACT Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that can oxidize and alter surrounding molecules. Oxidized molecules can become free radicals, which can damage surrounding tissues and threaten cell survival. Antioxidants donate electrons to free radicals and help maintain them within physiological levels. If there is an imbalance between free radicals and antioxidants, it will result in a condition known as oxidative stress. To compensate for the lack of antioxidants, the body can utilize external antioxidants. Red spinach (Amaranthus sp.) has been recognized as one of the sources of exogenous antioxidants. Experimental in-vitro examination includes qualitative phytochemical test (Harborne) and bioassay test, namely toxicity test with BSLT (Meyer). Qualitative phytochemical tests were positive for alkaloids, anthocyanins, betasianins, cardioglycosides, coumarins, flavonoids, glycosides, phenolics, quinones, saponins, steroids, terpenoids and tannins. In the toxicity test, the LC50 value of 275.810 µg/mL was obtained in red spinach leaves, so it has the potential to have an antimitotic effect.
This article highlights the health benefits of nutraceutical-rich vegetables. Nutraceuticals are bioactive compounds that have antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and disease-preventive properties. Vegetables are protective foods that are low in calories, high in vitamins and minerals, and can prevent many civilization diseases. Nutraceutical-rich vegetables, containing bioactive compounds like phytochemicals, can prevent and treat various diseases such as gastrointestinal disorders, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and diabetes. Vegetables and fruits have the potential to prevent and cure many diseases and can boost the immune system. The growing interest in these vegetables among nutritionists, chefs, and food enthusiasts is igniting a culinary renaissance.
Flavonoids are a class of polyphenolic compounds that can be classified into six distinct categories, namely isoflavonoids, flavanones, flavanols, flavonols, flavones, and anthocyanidins. These compounds are naturally occurring and can be found in a diverse range of plant species. Flavonoids, a class of bioactive compounds, are mostly obtained through the consumption of vegetables, fruits and plant-derived beverages such as wine, cocoa-based products and green tea. Flavonoids have been demonstrated to exhibit a diverse range of anticancer properties. These include the modulation of activities of enzymes involved in scavenging reactive oxygen species, involvement in cell cycle arrest, induction of apoptosis and autophagy, as well as suppression of cancer cell proliferation and invasiveness. Flavonoids exhibit a dual role in maintaining reactive oxygen species balance. They function as antioxidants in regular physiological conditions, while also demonstrating significant pro-oxidant properties in cancer cells. This prooxidant activity induces apoptotic pathways and downregulates pro-inflammatory signalling pathways. The paper explores the biochemical characteristics, bioavailability, anticancer efficacy, and modes of action of flavonoids.
Leafy greens, especially lettuce, are repeatedly linked to foodborne outbreaks. This paper studied the susceptibility of different leafy greens to human pathogens. Five commonly consumed leafy greens, including romaine lettuce, green-leaf lettuce, baby spinach, kale, and collard, were selected by their outbreak frequencies. The behavior of E. coli O157:H7 87-23 on intact leaf surfaces and in their lysates was investigated. Bacterial attachment was positively correlated with leaf surface roughness and affected by the epicuticular wax composition. At room temperature, E. coli O157:H7 had the best growth potentials on romaine and green-leaf lettuce surfaces. The bacterial growth was positively correlated with stomata size and affected by epicuticular wax compositions. At 37 °C, E. coli O157:H7 87-23 was largely inhibited by spinach and collard lysates, and it became undetectable in kale lysate after 24 h of incubation. Kale and collard lysates also delayed or partially inhibited the bacterial growth in TSB and lettuce lysate at 37 °C, and they sharply reduced the E. coli O157:H7 population on green leaf lettuce at 4 °C. In summary, the susceptibility of leafy greens to E. coli O157:H7 is determined by a produce-specific combination of physiochemical properties and temperature.
Elicitation is used in agriculture as a method of crop protection or a means to enhance nutraceutically or pharmaceutically important metabolites with the help of chemical stimuli known as elicitors. In the present experiment elicitor potential of Salicylic acid has been exploited to induce metabolic changes in spinach plant. Salicylic acid of various concentrations (1-0.01 mg/ml) were applied on spinach leaves through foliar spray and observed for biochemical changes. A multifold increase in the amount of total phenolic and total flavonoid as well as enzyme activity of peroxidase, catalase and superoxide dismutase was observed in a dose dependent manner. An increase in the antioxidant activity was observed and was shown to be correlated with the phenolic compounds. Growth parameters measured in the form of total biomass and total chlorophyll were decreased by high concentrations. Metabolite profile of the control and treated leaves was generated through ESI-MS in the positive and negative ion modes. The results showed an increase in the ion intensity peak of phenolic acids, such as gentisic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid, coumaric acid, ferulic acid and caffeic acid as well as major flavonoids of spinach plant, like kaempferol, quercetin, isorhamnetin and patulitin glycosides. Ferulic and caeffic acids were quantified by HPLC and showed an increase in their amount after elicitor treatment.
Various factors related to growing conditions can influence the nutritional quality of plants, including vegetable crops, especially the contents of health-promoting phytochemicals. In this study, the phytochemical contents of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) cultivated under greenhouse and open field conditions were comparatively analyzed using a metabolomic approach with Mass Profiler Professional (MPP) software. S. oleracea, which is one of the well-known leafy vegetables belonging to the family Chenopodiaceae, is cultivated worldwide. Although the nutritional value of spinach is high, the phytochemical contents of spinach cultivated under greenhouse and open field conditions have not been comparatively analyzed. Metabolomic analysis of the methanol (MeOH) extracts of greenhouse-cultivated spinach (GS) and open field-cultivated spinach (OFS) using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS), followed by principal component analysis (PCA) with MPP demonstrated the differential metabolite profiles of GS and OFS. The active compounds 1–3 were isolated and identified using LC-Q-TOF-MS-guided fractionation. Among these, 5,3',4'-trihydroxy-3-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone 4'-glucuronide (2) exhibited growth-inhibitory activities against Helicobacter pylori 51. Distribution analysis of compound 2 revealed that the anti-H. pylori compound 2 is an OFS-specific bioactive phytochemical. This indicates that the phytochemical quality of OFS is better than that of GS. These findings will aid in providing vital data for vegetable processors, dieticians, nutritionists, and consumers to select optimal green leafy vegetables.
Research on waste valorization and utilization of food by-products are increasing day-by-day. This trend not only protect the environment from pollution but also gives good value of food industries wastes and by-products. In this study, optimization of harvesting stage and storage conditions of radish leaves has been done by using response surface methodology. Different packaging materials such as paper, cling film and LDPE were tried for storage. Among all, better retention of all quality parameters was observed in the leaves stored in LDPE. Maximum quality retention in terms of moisture content, ascorbic acid, DPPH scavenging activity, total phenols, total flavonoids and chlorophyll was observed with 9.55 cm length of leaves and 4℃ storage temperature on 0th day. The applied model was found suitable for current study with 94% of anticipated values.
the extremities were in greater evidence. These injuries are characterized by high-energy and comminuted fractures, vascular damage and important soft tissue loss. More recently, in the Global War Against Terrorism, reports from the United States Navy Medical Corps revealed an incidence of 58 to 88% of firearm injuries, with 23 to 39% of fractures in more than 56,000 patients (2). The increasing use of high-energy weapons in modern warfare is associated with severe vascular injuries. The amputation rate of American soldiers in World War II was 35.8% after repair and , was noted (Figure 2).
Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. (Convolvulaceae) is a commonly grown vegetable in the Americas, Africa and especially Southeast Asia, including India. Due to the presence of numerous secondary metabolites, this plant has considerable therapeutic as well nutraceutical value and is categorized among highly prioritized but neglected leafy vegetables. Proper identification of the higher quality genotypes of I. aquatica will help scientists explore major genes to develop future high-quality varieties. Therefore, an integrated approach combining traditional and molecular plant breeding should be carried out to strengthen future breeding programs. Identification of traits controlling genes by extensive database searching with bioin-formatics, followed by genomics and transgenic approaches, opens a new possibility to use these beneficial vegetables as potent nutraceuticals, especially in developing countries where malnutrition is a matter of concern. Application of plant cell culture technique can be an attractive field of research for this plant species. In this context micropropagation is the best choice for producing year around pilot-scale production within a short time span. In vitro plantlets can also be conserved as artificial seed to maintain elite plant lines with augmented secondary metabolites. Screening by the use of hairy root culture under photoautotrophic condition to detect contaminants and pollution can assure cultivars are safe to consume. This chapter presents an overview of the origin, distribution, botanical classification, breeding through classical and molecular approaches, tissue-culture practices like rapid micropropagation for high frequency regeneration, use of elite clones and conservation by alginate entrapment, prospects of using hairy root culture, recent developments and future scope of biotechnology and molecular biology using bio
Environmental sustainability continues to attract global interest, especially due to the issue of climate change. The agri-food sector is considered a major contributor to climate change as processes and activities within the sector can negatively impact the environment. The recent changing dietary pattern towards increased vegetable consumption implies a consequent increase in production to meet demand. This study assessed the environmental performance of 1 kg of spinach/FU (Functional Unit) cultivated by different producers in Italy under integrated and organic farming systems. The life cycle assessment was used following the CML_IA impact assessment method. The data used was mainly primary, related to 2019/2020 (harvest period), and representative of the cultivation systems of central and southern Italy. From the results obtained, impact scores for central Italy were higher (e.g., for global warming 0.56 and 0.47 kg CO2 eq. for central and southern respectively). There was high variability among the scores obtained. However, no statistically significant differences were observed at a confidence level of 95% (p < 0.05). Integrated farming was also more impacting than organic for most categories (e.g., for global warming 0.20 kg CO2 eq. for integrated and 0.075 kg CO2 eq. for organic) in Cerignola, Puglia region. Emissions from fertilizer, pesticide, tillage, and combine harvesting were major contributors to impact shares. The results of this study will be helpful to ensure sustainable spinach production and consumption.
Galangin, a non-toxic phytochemical is known to possess several therapeutic applications. Mounting evidences have demonstrated that galangin a naturally available flavonoid exerts anticancer effects via several mechanisms. The phytocompound induces apoptosis and renders antiangiogenic property. Additionally, galangin has demonstrated significate results in combating various cancer types when administered in combination with other phytocompounds or with gold nanoparticles (GNPs). The present article is a critical review of galangin for its treatment on different types of cancer and its usability as an alternative cancer therapeutics.
Spinach is rich in minerals, vitamins, phytochemicals and bioactive compounds with health-beneficial effects; however, this plant also tends to accumulate oxalates and nitrates in their leaves. Apart from genotype, nutrition is the pre-harvest factor that mostly affects quality attributes at harvest. Particularly, the application of compost extracts (CE) may induce resistance against soil-borne diseases and favour secondary metabolism, increasing antioxidant capacity. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of different types of fertilization with or without the addition of CE, on harvest quality and shelf life of minimally processed spinach (Spinacia oleracea, var. Shrike RZ) stored during 12 days at 4 °C. A compost extract (CE) was prepared by mixing a compost from agri-food wastes (vine pruning, leek waste and olive mill waste) with deionized water. CE foliar applications were done from days 28 and 56 after sowing. The treatments applied were: Control; Control + CE; NPK (inorganic NPK fertilizer 15-15-15); NPK + CE; DMPP (ENTEC Nitrofoska® plus the nitrification inhibitor 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP)) and DMPP + CE. After harvest, spinach leaves were minimally processed and packaged to generate a passive modified atmosphere. Nitrate content in the control treatment was reduced by the addition of CE, although in the rest of the treatments, CE addition did not produce any effect. For nitrite contents, the lowest value was obtained for the Control + CE. Moreover, the oxalate content was the lowest for the control treatment with a decreasing trend throughout the storage. The treatment Control + CE also showed the highest initial total phenolic contents, with very similar values at the end of shelf life to those observed at harvest for all the treatments. The highest differences in color as regards the initial values were detected for DMPP. Microbial loads increased for all the treatments without differences between them. The atmosphere reached at the end of the cold storage was the same for all the cases, with CO2 and O2 around 10 kPa for each one of them. After 12 days at 4 °C, all the treatments were above the limit of usability, with the spinach leaves acceptable for consumption. The results found in this study indicate that the addition of CE might be convenient for obtaining spinach rich in bioactive compounds and with low concentrations of antinutritional factors, without affecting the microbial load of the final product.
Cities face many environmental challenges while providing opportunities for integrating human infrastructure with the surrounding environment. One effort to improve environmental conditions in cities is to increase the amount of green space in creative ways within city limits. Here we propose a unique system taking carbon dioxide (CO2) from indoor spaces and applying it to rooftop gardens or farms through existing ventilation systems with the elevated CO2 levels leading to a fertilization effect that increases plant growth. CO2 measurements were taken inside multiple classrooms as well as at the exhaust vents on a rooftop and air from exhaust was applied to crops and biomass and leaf number were measured. High concentrations of CO2 ([CO2]) persisted inside university classrooms as well as at rooftop exhaust vents in correlation with expected human occupancy and stayed around 1070 ± 70 and 830 parts per million (ppm) CO2 reaching a max of 4470 and 1300 ppm CO2 respectively. Growth in Spinacia oleraceae L. (spinach) grown next to exhaust air increased 4-fold in comparison to plants grown next to a control fan applying atmospheric air. High wind speed decreased growth by approximately 2-fold. Zea mays (corn), a C4 plant, grown next to exhaust experienced a 2 to 3-fold increase, indicating alternative environmental factors additionally playing a part in growth enhancement. Enhancing growth in rooftop gardens using indoor air, could help rooftop plants grow larger and survive harsh conditions. This would make rooftop gardens more viable and better able to provide environmental services and connect urban areas to the surrounding environment.
Resistance of spinach to white rust (Albugo occidentalis) and races 3 and 4 of downy mildew (Peronospora farinosa f. sp. spinaciae) was quantified on several cultivars and breeding lines in separate field inoculation experiments. Several cultivars and breeding lines from the Arkansas breeding program had undergone repeated field selections for white rust resistance (Fall Green, Ozarka II, FA88-310, FA88-354, and FA86-70) while others had not (Grandstand, St. Helens, and Hybrid 424). Resistance to both diseases was quantified by measuring disease incidence and severity at regular intervals 7-32 days after inoculation. The latent periods and the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) also were compared [...]
Radical-scavenging antioxidants, as part of the cellular defense system, function to inhibit the formation and propagation of free radicals and active oxygen species formation. In previous studies we demonstrated that endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) promotes oxidative stress and associated pathological changes in a rat model and that use of selected antioxidants was effective in reducing LPS-related lipid peroxidation product formation in the liver, as well as LPS-related pathological changes in different organs. In this study, several toxicological parameters (ie, clinical signs, blood chemistry, and histopathological changes) were compared among groups of male New Zealand rabbits injected with LPS following prophylactic pretreatment with either of 2 antioxidants, a group injected with LPS without pretreatment with antioxidants, groups injected with either of the 2 antioxidants only, and an untreated control group. The antioxidants used were a water-soluble natural antioxidant (NAO) from spinach and the NADPH oxidase inhibitor, apocynin. Exposure to LPS alone was associated clinically with depression, tachypnea, outer ear vasodilation, and iris congestion; biochemically with a significant increase in blood total bilirubin, transaminase activity, and glucose, total cholesterol, and triglyceride levels; macroscopically with multiple whitish areas in the liver; and histologically with hepatocellular focal necrosis and acute inflammation, thymic and splenic lymphoid necrosis and depletion, acute uveitis and hemorrhages in the ciliary processes, and decreased adrenal cortical cytoplasmic vacuolation considered consistent with depletion of steroidal hormone contents. The NAO had more effective prophylactic capacities than the apocynin. The protective effects were obvious in all investigated parameters. The results indicate the possible therapeutic efficacy of NAO in the treatment of clinical endotoxemia associated with gram-negative bacterial sepsis that is known to be associated with oxidative stress.
The TRAMP model and human prostatic cancer (PCA) cell lines DU145 and PC3 are useful forchemopreventive studies. We compared the efficacy of 3 anti-oxidants [a water-soluble natural anti-oxidant. NAO (200 mg/kg). found in spinach leaves; epigallocatechin-3 gallate, EGCG (200 mg/kg), a major green tea polyphenol; and N-acetylcysteine, NAC (125 mg/kg)] plus vehicle in slowing spontaneous tumorigenic progression in TRAMP and wild-type male mice. Sacrifices occurred on weeks 5, 9, and 13. Prostatic histopathology and oxidative-stress blood markers were evaluated. Hyperplasias were ranked by a combination of severity grade and distribution (focal, multifocal, and diffuse). The effectivity of each tested compound in reducing the severity/focalness of hyperplasia varied from lobe to lobe. NAO exerted a significant effect on the dorsal and lateral lobes; NAC, on the anterior and ventral lobes, and EGCG, on the ventral lobe. When the most severe hyperplasia in all 4 lobes of TRAMPs was evaluated, only NAO reduced hyperplasia at weeks 9 and 13. Plasma peroxide levels in TRAMPs were reduced following oral administration of NAO or NAC for 13 weeks; EGCG only slightly reduced these levels. In NAO-treated DU 145 and PC3 PCA cells, inhibition of cellular proliferation occurred in a dose-dependent manner, increasing numbers of G1 cells and reducing ROS levels. The anti-oxidative and antiproliferative properties of NAO may explain its efficacy in slowing the spontaneous prostatic carcinogenic process in the TRAMP and its effects in the cell lines.
A fully automated-continuous flow 40-sample/ hour procedure was adapted from the Singleton-Rossi method of analysis for total phenols in wine and other plant extracts. It was compared with small-volume manual and semiautomated versions of this analysis. The agreement in mg of gallic acid equivalent phenol (GAE) per liter among a series of dry wines was excellent by all three procedures. The coefficients of variation in replicate analyses averaged 5.8% for the manual, 6.2% for the semi-automated and 2.2% for the automated procedure. This greater reproducibility, plus savings of about 70% in labor and up to 40% in reagents, makes the automated procedure attractive for laboratories doing enough total phenol analyses to recoup the cost of the automating equipment. For continuous flow, color development with the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent in alkaline solution must be hastened by heating compared to slower room temperature development for the manual methods. Heating of sugar-containing samples in the alkaline solution gives interference presumably from endiol formation. Examples are given of corrections which were used successfully to estimate the true phenol content of sweet wines.
Besides spinatoside (3,6-dimethoxy-5,7,3′,4′-tetrahydroxyflavone 4′-O-β-D-glucopyranuronide), three new flavonol glycosides have now been isolated from the polar fractions of the methanolic extract of Spinacia oleracea. They have been identified as patuletin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 6)-[β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1 → 2)]-β-D-glucopyranoside, patuletin 3-O-β-gentiobioside and spinacetin 3-O-β-gentiobioside, respectively.
Droplet counter-current chromatographic separation and subsequent TLC demonstrated the existence of at least 14 phenolics in the leaves of Spinacia oleracea. Three have now been isolated and identified, respectively, as the 4′-glucuronides of 5,7,4'-trihydroxy-3,6,3′-trimethoxyflavone (jaceidin), 5,3′,4′-trihydroxy-3-methoxy-6:7-methylene-dioxyflavone and 5,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′-dimethoxy-6:7-methylenedioxyflavone.
After frozen storage the content of individual carotenoids and flavonoids was determined in organically grown spinach genotypes ( Spinacia oleracea L) which differed in leaf colour and shape. The spinach was sorted, washed, blanched in steam for 3 min and frozen in liquid nitrogen. After frozen storage the green colour was determined by sensory evaluation and HunterLab colorimetry. The content of individual chlorophylls, carotenoids and flavonoids was determined using HPLC. Lutein, β‐carotene, violaxanthin and 9′‐( Z )‐neoxanthin were the main carotenoids in processed spinach. The total content of carotenoids varied from 176.6 mg kg ⁻¹ ‘wet weight’ as eaten in the lightest green genotype to 226.3 mg kg ⁻¹ ‘wet weight’ as eaten in the darkest green genotype. The highest content of β‐carotene (83.1 mg kg ⁻¹ ‘wet weight’ as eaten) was found in the dark green genotype. The content of lutein and neoxanthin varied significantly between genotypes, and the highest content was found in the dark green genotype (76.0 and 25.4 mg kg ⁻¹ ‘wet weight’ as eaten respectively). The total flavonoid content and the relative content of individual flavonoids were found to vary between the six genotypes. Seven main flavonoids were identified.
© 2001 Society of Chemical Industry
Quinic, tartaric, and malic acid esters as well as glucose esters and the glucosides of hydroxycinnamic acids have been determined qualitatively and quantitatively by HPLC in tomatoes (two states of ripeness (green and red) and different types), bell pepper, eggplant, spinach, mangold, beetroot, pea, bush bean, broad bean, lettuce (outer and inner leaves separated), endive, and chicory.
Five flavonoid aglycons and eight flavonol glycosides were isolated from broad bean pods. By chemical, chromatographic, and spectral methods the aglycons were identified as 7,3′,4′-trihydroxyflavone, 7,4′-dihydroxyflavone, geraldone, butein, and kaempferol and the glycosides as kaempferol 3-glucoside, 7-glucoside, 3-(2″-rhamnosyl)galactoside 7-rhamnoside, 3-galactoside 7-rhamnoside, 3-rhamnosyl-(6″-acetyl)galactoside 7-rhamnoside, and 3-(6″-acetyl)galactoside 7-rhamnoside and as quercetin 3-galactoside 7-rhamnoside and 3-(6″-acetyl)galactoside 7-rhamnoside. The concentration changes of these flavonoids in pod tissues with progressive stages of maturity were evaluated by HPLC analysis. A significant increase in the concentration of both flavonoid aglycons and glycosides was observed when the pods matured and became reddish and brown. Some of the flavonoid aglycons detected in broad bean pods had previously been reported as Rhizobium nodulation gene inducers.
Changes in the anthocyanin concentration of coloured potato tubers have been investigated in cultivars with coloured skin and coloured or white flesh. The biosynthesis of anthocyanins coincided with tuber initiation in cultivars with intensely coloured mature tubers and, after a slight increase as the smaller tubers increased in size, anthocyanin concentrations remained relatively constant. Thus, because tubers were increasing in weight, anthocyanin was being synthesised to maintain a more or less constant concentration. In cultivars with less coloured tubers, the developing tubers remained white for a longer time, with anthocyanin concentrations increasing gradually up to a maximum at a certain tuber weight depending on the cultivar. The concentration of flavonoids was lower than that of anthocyanins but followed a similar pattern. Phenolic acid levels were about twice those of the anthocyanins and reached their maximum at a slightly lower tuber weight than anthocyanins and flavonoids. During cold storage (4°C) the anthocyanin concentration in coloured tubers increased, whereas tubers stored at higher temperatures did not show this increase. The increased colour in cold-stored tubers is discussed in terms of its relationship to ‘cold sweetening’ and the increased concentration of sugars in cold-stored tubers. The distribution of anthocyanins altered during tuber development and also during cold storage. In very small developing tubers the anthocyanins appeared first at the stem end of the tuber whilst the bud end remained white. As the anthocyanin concentration increased during tuber development, it increased over the whole tuber, but the concentration at the stem end was always higher than that at the bud end, until the tuber reached maturity, when the concentration became approximately equal at both ends. After cold storage, tubers had a higher concentration of anthocyanin in the bud end than the stem end; the opposite to that found in developing tubers.
Ten fresh cabbage genotypes (Brassica oleraceavar capitata) representing fresh-market, processing, and storage types were evaluated for total phenols, antioxidant capacity, and flavonoids at the 3-wk juvenile stage, at which time plants are uniform in size when grown under identical soil and environmental conditions. The genotypes studied, ‘Bobcat,’‘Fresco,’‘Little Rock,’‘Marvelon,’‘Rinda,’‘Ramada,’‘Transam,’‘Genesee,’‘Huron,’ and ‘Octoking,’ showed significant variations in concentration of phenolic phytochemicals and antioxidant capacity. Total phenols ranged from 110.2 mg gallic acid equivalents/100g in ‘Genesee’ to 153.3 mg gallic acid equivalents/100 g in ‘Bobcat’. Total antioxidant capacity varied from 108.4 to 176.1 mg vitamin C equivalents/100 g, and flavonoids from nondetectable to 2.61 mg quercetin/100 g and from 1.30 to 7.03 mgkaempferol/100 g. Apigenin, luteolin, and myricetin were not detected. Five nutritional soil supplements from agricultural and food processing sources (quer-cetin flavonoid complex, commercial vegetable juice, crushed onion, crushed garlic, and green tea) were added to the cabbage genotype ‘Rinda’ once a week for 3 wk to assess their efficacy in increasing phenolic concentrations in cabbage leaves. Addition of the supplements generally resulted in increased levels of total phenols (97% with commercial vegetable juice), antioxidant capacity (41% with crushed onion), and quercetin plus kaempferol (110% with commercial vegetable juice) in the juvenile ‘Rinda’ plants with no significant increase with the addition of green tea. Nutritional soil supplements could provide enhanced levels of bioactive phenolic compounds as antioxidants in cabbage and therefore to consumers.
The two main flavonol glycosides present in broccoli florets were identified as quercetin 3-O-sophoroside and kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside. Three minor glucosides of quercetin and kaempferol were also detected, namely isoquercitrin, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside and a kaempferol diglucoside. The sophorosides of quercetin and kaempferol were present in raw florets at a level of 65 mg kg−1 and 166 mg kg−1 fresh weight, respectively. The total content of quercetin and kaempferol glycosides expressed as aglycone was 43 and 94 μg g−1 fresh weight, respectively, and these agree with other recently published data. During the cooking process only 14–28% of the individual glucosides were retained in the cooked tissue, the remainder being largely leached into the cooking water with only a small loss attributed to the formation of the respective aglycones. © 1998 SCI.
From spinach leaves (cv Viroflay), five new naturally occurring flavonoids have been isolated and identified by 13C NMR, 1H NMR, FAB-MS, UV and hydrolytic and enzymatic procedures. The new compounds were identified as spinacetin 3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside, patuletin 3-O-β-d-(2″feruloylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside, spinacetin 3-O-β-d-(2″-p-coumaroylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside, spinacetin 3-O-β-d-(2″feruloylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-[β-d-apiofuranosyl(1 → 2)]-β-d-glucopyranoside and spinacetin 3-O-β-d-(2″feruloylglucopyranosyl)(1 → 6)-β-d-glucopyranoside. The known compounds jaceidin 4′-glucuronide, 5,3′,4′-trihydroxy-3-methoxy-6:7-methylenedioxyflavone 4′-glucuronide, 5,4′-dihydroxy-3,3′-dimethoxy-6:7-methylenedioxyflavone 4′-glucuronide, patuletin 3-glucosyl(1 → 6)-[apiosyl(1 → 2)] glucoside and patuletin and spinacetin 3-gentiobiosides, were also detected. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
The diversity and depth of the body's antioxidant protection system is reviewed. Components of both endogenous and exogenous origins contribute protection, and new data suggests that some components interact to spare or replace each other. Evidence from both animal and human studies shows that glutathione and vitamin C can act in concert to alleviate a variety of oxidant stresses. Results from in vitro and animal studies indicate that vitamin C regenerates tocopherol in the lipid phase, but this interaction has not yet been shown to be important to human nutrition and metabolism. Newer evidence suggests that β-carotene and tocopherol may act synergistically against lipid peroxidation, and that polyphenols, such as flavonoids provide antioxidant protection which is enhanced by vitamin C. The diverse roles of iron and copper in redox biochemistry is illustrated by their incorporation in protective metalloenzymes and by some proposed interactions with vitamins. The emerging picture of synergisms and interactions suggests that antioxidant protection may be more flexible and efficient than indicated by studies of single nutrient effects. The apparent versatility of the oxidant defense system implys that it is capable of taking advantage of diverse antioxidants provided by the diet, as well as excesses of a particular antioxidant nutrient.
From the edible parts of the Spanish red onion (cultivar ‘Morada de Amposta’), the anthocyanins cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-arabinoside, cyanidin 3-malonyl-glucoside and cyanidin 3-malonylarabinoside and the flavonoids quercetin 3,4′-diglucoside, quercetin 7,4′-diglucoside, quercetin 3-glucoside, dihydro-quercetin 3-glucoside and isorhamnetin 4′-glucoside were identified. The amount of anthocyanins reached 233 mg kg−1 and that of the flavonoids 943 mg kg−1 fresh weight of onions. The onions were processed minimally to produce fresh ‘ready-to-eat’ shredded onion, and the stability of the anthocyanin pigments was evaluated during storage in perforated films for 7 days at 8 °C. After 1 day of storage, a slight increase in anthocyanins was observed, followed by a decrease, reaching the lower levels after 7 days of storage. In spite of the decrease in anthocyanins, the appearance of the commodity was acceptable after the storage period. The stability of the individual anthocyanins was very different, the malonated anthocyanins being much more stable than the corresponding non-acylated pigments. In addition, the arabinosides were shown to be less stable than the corresponding glucosides.
Previously, some fruits were shown to contain high antioxidant activities. In this paper, we report the antioxidant activities of 22 common vegetables, one green tea, and one black tea measured using the automated oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay with three different reactive species: a peroxyl radical generator, a hydroxyl radical generator, and Cu2+, a transition metal. Based on the fresh weight of the vegetable, garlic had the highest antioxidant activity (micromol of Trolox equiv/g) against peroxyl radicals (19.4) followed by kale (17.7), spinach (12.6), Brussels sprouts, alfalfa sprouts, broccoli flowers, beets, red bell pepper, onion, corn, eggplant (9.8-3.9), cauliflower, potato, sweet potato, cabbage, leaf lettuce, string bean, carrot, yellow squash, iceberg lettuce, celery, and cucumber (3.8-0.5); kale had the highest antioxidant activity against hydroxyl radicals followed by Brussels sprouts, alfalfa sprouts, beets, spinach, broccoli flowers, and the others. The green and black teas had much higher antioxidant activities against peroxyl radicals than all these vegetables. However, the tea also showed a prooxidant activity in the presence of Cu2+, which was not found with any of the vegetables studied.
The effect of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and cooking on the flavonoids and vitamin C content (ascorbic + dehydroascorbic acid; AA + DHAA) of fresh-cut spinach was evaluated. The total flavonoid content (approximately 1000 mg kg(-)(1) f.w.) remained quite constant during storage in both air and MAP atmospheres, while vitamin C (750 mg kg(-)(1)f.w.) was better preserved in MAP-stored spinach. AA was transformed to DHAA during storage, and its concentration was higher in MAP-stored tissues. The free-radical scavenging activity of the isolated flavonoids was tested, and only those flavonoids with either a dihydroxyl grouping or acylated with ferulic acid showed significant activity. A decrease in the total antioxidant activity was observed during storage, particularly important in MAP-stored spinach. The higher content of DHAA and lower content of both AA and antioxidant flavonoids in the MAP-stored samples could explain this antioxidant activity decrease. Boiling extracted 50% of total flavonoids and 60% vitamin C in the cooking water. However, flavonoid glucuronides were extracted more in the cooking water than the other glycosides. The vitamin C content of the cooked tissue was higher in those samples stored in MAP.
The effect of fruit maturation on changes in carotenoids, flavonoids, total soluble reducing equivalents, phenolic acids, ascorbic acid, and antioxidant activity (AOX) in different pepper types (Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, and Capsicum chinese) was determined. Generally, the concentration of these chemical constituents increased as the peppers reached maturity. Peppers contained high levels of L-ascorbic acid and carotenoids at maturity, contributing 124-338% of the RDA for vitamin C and 0.33-336 RE/100 g of provitamin A activity, respectively. Levels of phenolic acids, capxanthin, and zeaxanthin generally increased during maturation, whereas the level of lutein declined. Flavonoid concentrations varied greatly among the pepper types analyzed and were negatively correlated to AOX under the conditions of the beta-carotene-linoleic assay. Model systems were used to aid in understanding the relationship between flavonoids and AOX. Significant increases in AOX were observed in pepper juice models in response to increasing dilution factors and the presence of EDTA, indicating a pro-oxidant effect due to metal ions in the system. In vitro models demonstrated that increasing levels of flavonoids in combination with constant levels of caffeic and ascorbic acid gave a resultant AOX that was either additive of the two compounds or competitive in their ability to scavenge peroxyl radicals. The model systems were in good agreement with the chemical composition of the pepper cultivars and reflected the interactions affecting AOX. More research is needed to understand the complex interactions that occur among various antioxidants present in pepper extracts.
The Tg.AC mouse carrying the v-Ha-ras structural gene is a useful model for the study of chemical carcinogens, especially those acting via non-genotoxic mechanisms. This study evaluated the efficacy of the non-toxic, water-soluble antioxidant from spinach, natural antioxidant (NAO), in reducing skin papilloma induction in female hemizygous Tg.AC mice treated dermally five times over 2.5 weeks with 2.5 microg 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). The TPA-only group was considered as a control; the other two groups received, additionally, NAO topically (2 mg) or orally (100 mg/kg), 5 days/week for 5 weeks. Papilloma counts made macroscopically during the clinical observations showed a significant decrease in multiplicity (P<0.01) in the NAO topically treated group. According to histological criteria, papilloma multiplicity were lower in both topical-NAO and oral-NAO groups, but significantly so only in the oral-NAO mice (P<0.01). The beneficial effect of NAO in the Tg.AC mouse is reported.
Thirteen compounds, isolated from spinach (Spinacia oleracea), acted as antimutagens against the dietary carcinogen 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoline in Salmonella typhimurium TA 98. The antimutagens were purified by preparative and micropreparative HPLC from a methanol/water (70:30, v/v) extract of dry spinach (commercial product) after removal of lipophilic compounds such as chlorophylls and carotenoids by solid-phase extraction (SPE). Pure active compounds were identified by instrumental analysis including FT-IR, (1)H and (13)C NMR, UV-vis spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry. All of these compounds were flavonoids and related compounds that could be attributed to five groups: (A, methylenedioxyflavonol glucuronides) 5,3'-dihydroxy-4'-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavonol 3-O-beta-glucuronide (compound 1), 5,2',3'-trihydroxy-4'-methoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavonol 3-O-beta-glucuronide (compound 2), 5-hydroxy-3',4'-dimethoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavonol 3-O-beta-glucuronide (compound 3); (B, flavonol glucuronides) 5,6,3'-trihydroxy-7,4'-dimethoxyflavonol 3-O-beta-glucuronide (compound 4), 5,6-dihydroxy-7,3',4'-trimethoxyflavonol 3-O-beta-glucuronide (compound 5); (C, flavonol disaccharides) 5,6,4'-trihydroxy-7,3'-dimethoxyflavonol 3-O-disaccharide (compound 6), 5,6,3',4'-tetrahydroxy-7-methoxyflavonol 3-O-disaccharide (compounds 7 and 8); (D, flavanones) 5,8,4'-trihydroxyflavanone (compound 9), 7,8,4'-trihydroxyflavanone (compound 10); (E, flavonoid-related compounds) compounds 11, 12, and 13 with incompletely elucidated structures. The yield of compound 1 was 0.3%, related to dry weight, whereas the yields of compounds 2-13 ranged between 0.017 and 0.069%. IC(50) values (antimutagenic potencies) of the flavonol glucuronides ranged between 24.2 and 58.2 microM, whereas the flavonol disaccharides (compounds 7 and 8), the flavanones (compounds 9 and 10), and the flavonoid-related glycosidic compounds 11-13 were only weakly active. The aglycons of compounds 7 and 8, however, were potent antimutagens (IC(50) = 10.4 and 13.0 microM, respectively).
In previous studies we have elucidated the presence of powerful, natural antioxidants (NAO) in water extracts of spinach leaves and demonstrated their biological activity in both in vitro and in vivo systems. In the present study, the chemical identity of several of these antioxidant components is presented. Spinach leaves were extracted with water and the 20,000 g supernatant which contained the antioxidant activity was extracted with a water:acetone (1:9) solution. The 20,000 g supernatant obtained was further purified on reverse phase HPLC using C-8 semi-preparative column. Elution with 0.1% TFA resulted in five hydrophilic peaks. Elution with acetonitrile in TFA resulted in seven additional hydrophobic peaks. All the peaks were detected at 250 nm. All the fractions obtained showed antioxidant activity when tested using three different assays. Based on 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy four of the hydrophobic fractions were identified as glucuronic acid derivatives of flavonoids and three additional fractions as trans and cis isomers of p-coumaric acid and others as meso-tartarate derivatives of p-coumaric acid. The present study demonstrates for the first time the presence of both flavonoids and p-coumaric acid derivatives as antioxidant components of the aqueous extract of spinach leaves.
Total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of 11 commercial cultivars and 15 advanced breeding lines of spinach were determined over two growing seasons known to vary in biotic and abiotic stresses. Flavonoid composition and content of fall-grown commercial cultivars and advanced breeding lines were also determined. Over-winter spinach, which was planted in late fall and harvested in the spring, had much higher levels of total phenolics and antioxidant capacity than spinach planted in early fall and harvested in late fall, indicating that growing conditions, as well as biotic and abiotic stresses, influenced phenolic metabolism. Genotype also appeared to play an important role in affecting phenolic metabolism and antioxidant capacity in spinach. Advanced breeding lines of spinach, which show increased disease resistance, had higher levels of total phenolics, individual and total flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity than commercial cultivars. Our results indicate that plant breeders can select for increased phenolic content to increase antioxidant capacity in spinach cultivars, or the crops can be grown in different seasons or under certain stress conditions to elevate levels of antioxidants.
NAO is a natural water soluble antioxidant that was isolated and purified from spinach leaves. Using HPLC, NMR, and CMR spectroscopy, the main components were identified as flavonoids and p-coumaric acid derivatives. The NAO was found to be a very effective antioxidant in several in vivo and in vitro biological systems. In the present study, the antioxidant activity of the novel antioxidant glucurinated flavonoid (GF) isolated and characterized from NAO, is compared to well-known antioxidants. In addition, the direct free radical scavenging properties of the purified component GF were studied using the electron spin resonance (ESR) technique. GF and NAO were found to be superior to EGCG and NAC and to the Vitamin E homologue Trolox in inhibiting reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in the autooxidation system of linoleic acid and in fibroblasts exposed to metal oxidation. GF and NAO were found to inhibit the ESR signal intensity of DMPO-O(2) radical formation during the riboflavin photodynamic reaction. 10 mM GF caused approximately 90% inhibition in the intensity of the ESR signal, while NAO at a concentration of 60 microg/ml caused an inhibition of about 50%. Using the Fenton reaction, GF and NAO were found to inhibit DMPO-OH radical formation. A concentration of 2 mM GF caused a 70% inhibition in the intensity of the DMPO-OH radical ESR signal, while propyl gallate at the same concentration caused only 50% inhibition. Furthermore, both GF and NAO also inhibited the (1)O(2) dependent TEMPO radical generated in the photoradiation TPPS4 system. About 80% inhibition was obtained by 4 mM GF. The results obtained indicate that the natural antioxidants derived from spinach may directly affect the scavenging of ROS and, as a consequence, may be considered as effective sources for combating oxidative damage.
The phenolic and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) values have been measured in six fresh and frozen vegetables (beet green, spinach, broccoli, carrot, onion, and celery) from the same cultivar by analyzing the whole juice (WJ) and the acetonic extract of the squeezed pulp. To exploit the effect of the acid environment on the stability and recovery of the phenolics, perchloric acid (PCA) was added directly to WJ and to the pulp before the extraction with acetone. In both fresh and frozen vegetables, PCA markedly increased the recovery of phenolics extracted from the pulp, but PCA had no effect on the WJ. Four of six frozen vegetables showed lower phenolic and ORAC values than the fresh vegetables, whereas in the other two cases, values were significantly higher compared to fresh samples. Among the fresh vegetables, beet green showed the highest ORAC and phenolic values; however, when measured in two different cultivars of beet green, the ORAC value showed as much as 4.5-fold variation, whereas total phenolics and flavonoids showed 1.2- and 3.5-fold variations, respectively. The results show that total phenolics and ORAC, compared in fresh and frozen vegetables, represent an index of the mildness of blanching in the industry of frozen vegetables and provide a measure of the gap in antioxidants in the diet of people who consume frozen instead of fresh vegetables. The plant genotype is an important source of variability in the ORAC value, which can be conveniently used to increase the intake of antioxidants from vegetables.
Methods are described for the extraction and analysis of hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants, using modifications of the oxygen radical absorbing capacity (ORAC(FL)) procedure. These methods provide, for the first time, the ability to obtain a measure of "total antioxidant capacity" in the protein free plasma, using the same peroxyl radical generator for both lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidants. Separation of the lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidant fractions from plasma was accomplished by extracting with hexane after adding water and ethanol to the plasma (hexane/plasma/ethanol/water, 4:1:2:1, v/v). Lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidants were efficiently partitioned between hexane and aqueous solvents. Conditions for controlling temperature effects and decreasing assay variability using fluorescein as the fluorescent probe were validated in different laboratories. Incubation (37 degrees C for at least 30 min) of the buffer to which AAPH was dissolved was critical in decreasing assay variability. Lipophilic antioxidants represented 33.1 +/- 1.5 and 38.2 +/- 1.9% of the total antioxidant capacity of the protein free plasma in two independent studies of 6 and 10 subjects, respectively. Methods are described for application of the assay techniques to other types of biological and food samples.
Spinach leaves, containing several active components, including flavonoids, exhibit antioxidative, antiproliferative, and antiinflammatory properties in biological systems. Spinach extracts have been demonstrated to exert numerous beneficial effects, such as chemo- and central nervous system protection and anticancer and antiaging functions. In this review article, we present a compilation of data generated in our laboratories and those of other investigators describing the chemical composition of spinach, its beneficial effects, relative safety information, and its recommended inclusion in the human diet. A powerful, water-soluble, natural antioxidant mixture (NAO), which specifically inhibits the lipoxygenase enzyme, was isolated from spinach leaves. The antioxidative activity of NAO has been compared to that of other known antioxidants and found to be superior in vitro and in vivo to that of green tea, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), and vitamin E. NAO has been tested for safety and is well tolerated in several species, such as mouse, rat, and rabbit. NAO has been found to be nonmutagenic and has shown promising anticarcinogenic effects in a few experimental models, such as skin and prostate cancer; it has not shown any target-organ toxicity or side effects. The current review provides epidemiological and preclinical data supporting the efficacy of extracts of spinach and the safety of its consumption.
The effects of maturation (green, pink, and ripe) on phenolic composition of strawberry cultivars Camarosa, Dorit, Chandler, and Osmanli and their hybrids were investigated using a high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. p-Hydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumaric acid, ellagic acid, cyanidin-3-glucoside, pelargonidin-3-glucoside, kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin were individually quantified for each stage. The highest amounts of anthocyanins were obtained from ripe fruits whereas ellagic acid was found as the main phenolic in the green fruits. Phenolic concentrations were found statistically different in green and ripe fruits. One hybrid was found to have higher phenolic contents than the other genotypes. The p-hydroxybenzoic and p-coumaric acid levels changed during maturation, but no differences in contents of flavonoids in green and ripe fruit were detected.
Both lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidant capacities were determined using the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC(FL)) assay with fluorescein as the fluorescent probe and 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride as a peroxyl radical generator on over 100 different kinds of foods, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, dried fruits, spices, cereals, infant, and other foods. Most of the foods were collected from four different regions and during two different seasons in U.S. markets. Total phenolics of each sample were also measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Hydrophilic ORAC(FL) values (H-ORAC(FL)) ranged from 0.87 to 2641 micromol of Trolox equivalents (TE)/g among all of the foods, whereas lipophilic ORAC(FL) values (L-ORAC(FL)) ranged from 0.07 to 1611 micromol of TE/g. Generally, L-ORAC(FL) values were <10% of the H-ORAC(FL) values except for a very few samples. Total antioxidant capacity was calculated by combining L-ORAC(FL) and H-ORAC(FL). Differences of ORAC(FL) values in fruits and vegetables from different seasons and regions were relatively large for some foods but could not be analyzed in detail because of the sampling scheme. Two different processing methods, cooking and peeling, were used on selected foods to evaluate the impact of processing on ORAC(FL). The data demonstrated that processing can have significant effects on ORAC(FL). Considering all of the foods analyzed, the relationship between TP and H-ORAC(FL) showed a very weak correlation. Total hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant capacity intakes were calculated to be 5558 and 166 micromol of TE/day, respectively, on the basis of data from the USDA Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (1994-1996).
Sweet peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) cv. Vergasa have been studied at four maturity stages (immature green, green, immature red, and red). The individual phenolics (hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonoids), vitamin C (ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid), and individual carotenoids were characterized and quantified. Five hydroxycinnamic derivatives and 23 flavonoids were characterized and quantified from the pericarp of sweet pepper by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry. Identification was carried out by their UV spectra, chromatographic comparisons with authentic markers, identification of hydrolysis products, and tandem mass spectrometry analysis. Hydroxycinnamic derivatives, O-glycosides of quercetin, luteolin, and chrysoeriol, and a large number of C-glycosyl flavones have been characterized. Some of these compounds were found for the first time in nature. Clear differences in the individual and total phenolic content were detected between the different maturity stages. Immature green pepper had a very high phenolic content while green, immature red, and red ripe peppers showed a 4-5-fold reduction. Ascorbic acid was the main form of vitamin C, and its content increased as the pepper reached maturity. The red ripe stage had a relevant impact on the carotenoids content. Thus, immature green peppers showed the highest content of polyphenols, while red ripe fruits had the highest content of vitamin C and provitamin A.
Many studies are accumulating that report the neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and chemopreventive actions of dietary flavonoids. While there has been a major focus on the antioxidant properties, there is an emerging view that flavonoids, and their in vivo metabolites, do not act as conventional hydrogen-donating antioxidants but may exert modulatory actions in cells through actions at protein kinase and lipid kinase signalling pathways. Flavonoids, and more recently their metabolites, have been reported to act at phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase), Akt/protein kinase B (Akt/PKB), tyrosine kinases, protein kinase C (PKC), and mitogen activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) signalling cascades. Inhibitory or stimulatory actions at these pathways are likely to affect cellular function profoundly by altering the phosphorylation state of target molecules and by modulating gene expression. A clear understanding of the mechanisms of action of flavonoids, either as antioxidants or modulators of cell signalling, and the influence of their metabolism on these properties are key to the evaluation of these potent biomolecules as anticancer agents, cardioprotectants, and inhibitors of neurodegeneration
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