Content uploaded by Faye A Gary
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Faye A Gary
Content may be subject to copyright.
Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 26:979–999, 2005
Copyright
c
Taylor & Francis Inc.
ISSN: 0161-2840 print / 1096-4673 online
DOI: 10.1080/01612840500280638
STIGMA: BARRIER TO MENTAL HEALTH
CARE AMONG ETHNIC MINORITIES
Faye A. Gary, EdD, RN, FAAN
Medical Mutual of Ohio Professor of Nursing for
Vulnerable and At-Risk Persons, Frances Payne Bolton
School of Nursing, Case Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, Ohio, USA
This paper explicates the stigma of mental illness as it is
experienced by four ethnic minority groups in the United
States. Concerns about prejudice and discrimination among
individuals who suffer burdens related to mental illness are
delineated. It is proposed that ethnic minority groups, who
already confront prejudice and discrimination because of
their group affiliation, suffer double stigma when faced with
the burdens of mental illness. The potency of the stigma of
mental illness is one reason why some ethnic minority group
members who would benefit from mental health services
elect not to seek or adequately participate in treatment. The
combination of stigma and membership in an ethnic
minority group can impede treatment and well-being,
creating preventable and treatable mortalities and
morbidities. The article concludes with recommendations
for research and health policy implications.
Much like leprosy in earlier centuries, mental illness remains em-
bedded with connotations that serve as barriers to help seeking and
treatment compliance (Corrigan, 2004a, 2004c). Remnants of this real-
ity continue despite the phenomenal scientific advancements that have
been made with regard to treatment modalities and subsequent evidence-
based outcomes (Corrigan, Watson, Warpinski, & Gracia, 2004b). Even
when individuals elect to seek treatment, many of them neglect the pre-
scribed regimen, while others abort treatment and terminate mental
Address correspondence to Faye A. Gary, Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Case
Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106. E-mail: fgary@case.edu
979
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
980 F. A. Gary
health services (Corrigan, 2004a; Gary, Baker, & Grandbois, 2005;
Szasz, 2003). Stigma is one of the major reasons. In this paper, stigma
refers to a collection of negative attitudes, beliefs, thoughts, and behav-
iors that influences the individual, or the general public, to fear, reject,
avoid, be prejudiced, and discriminate against people with mental disor-
ders. Stigma is manifest in language, disrespect in interpersonal relation-
ships, and behaviors. It is a barrier to those individuals who need mental
health services, but who are reluctant or refuse to seek help because
of the potential for discrimination and rejection by others (Corrigan,
2004b; Corrigan, Green, Lundin, Kubiak, & Penn, 2001; Corrigan &
Penn, 1999). It is considered “the most formidable obstacle to future
progress in the area of mental illness and health” (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 1999, p. 29).
This paper presents a discussion about stigma, and highlights some
of constructs that can be employed to understand stigma among any one
of the four minority groups.
Reasons why many people avoid needed psychiatric treatment are not
yet fully understood, even though it is an enduring, though troubling,
theme throughout the mental health system. The concept of Double
Stigma is hypothesized to be an additional burden that confronts ethnic
minority groups in America, but may affect different cultural groups
in special ways. Related constructs that are useful in understanding the
dynamics that set up and reinforce stigma in mental health as expressed
by ethnic minorities are embedded in the following discussion.
PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION
Prejudice
Individuals who are prejudiced tend to embrace negative stereotypes
about people. Statements such as, “All people with PTSD are danger-
ous and incompetent,” are likely to generate negative emotional reac-
tions from others . . . including comments such as “Yes ...they frighten
me . . . I stay away from them” (Corrigan, 2004b). Prejudice is a cog-
nitive and affective response, serving as an antecedent to discrimina-
tion, which has behavioral dimensions (Bettelheim & Janowitz, 1964;
Corrigan, 2004b; Gary, 1991; Kramer, 1949; Link, Phelan, Bresnahan,
Stueve, & Pescosolido, 1999; Pinel, 1999). Prejudice denotes thoughts
and feelings that members of one group have about individuals in an-
other group that are frequently based on stereotypes and unsubstantiated
information (Gary, 1991; Nicholson, 1998). In the United States, preju-
dice continues to negatively impact the lives of ethnic minority people
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 981
at all levels of their existence (Byrd & Clayton, 2002; Myrdal, 1996).
It also looms over individuals who are in need of psychiatric treatment
(Corrigan, 2004b; Pinel, 1999).
Discrimination
When dominant group members express certain stereotypes and neg-
ativisms about minority groups and then act in ways that are not in
the best interest of these groups, discrimination is in action. Discrim-
ination is expressed through decision-making and behaviors that are
observable, measurable, and reportable. Through this process, domi-
nant groups afford themselves advantages and privileges that they deny
minority groups (Byrd & Clayton, 1992, 2000, 2002; Myrdal, 1996).
Double Stigma is obvious: Until recently, individuals with psychiatric
disorders were placed in large state hospitals located in rural areas with
huge fences around them; many of the patients were confined until
death (Lamb & Weinberger, 1998). In communities, property owners
were and continue to be reluctant to lease dwellings to persons with
mental illnesses. Employers often will not extend opportunities to for-
merly hospitalized individuals. Changes in federal laws have helped to
relieve some of these discriminating actions, but constant monitoring
is still required (see, for example, the Americans with Disabilities Act,
http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm).
Today, individuals with mental illness are often inappropriately placed
in jails and prisons, a practice that has extended over more than two
centuries (Buchanan & Leese, 2001; Corrigan, Watson, Warpinski, &
Gracia, 2004a; Lamb & Weinberger, 1998; Szasz, 1971). When dis-
crimination is examined from the perspective of ethnic minority group
membership and mental illness, the problem becomes more complicated.
DOUBLE STIGMA
In an effort to explain some of the deleterious outcomes associated
with discrimination based on minority group status and the burden of
having to live with a mental disorder, I propose the concept of Double
Stigma. Hence, minority group members with mental illnesses endure
discriminatory practices as manifest by numerous segments of this so-
ciety, including politicians, researchers, and clinicians. Centuries-old
practices of discrimination against the mentally ill (Abreu, 1999; Balsa
& McGuire, 2003; Corrigan, 2004b; Szasz, 2003) are inculcated into
American society, and can have a deleterious impact on individuals and
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
982 F. A. Gary
families. Szasz (2003) posits that one of the enduring social obligations
that psychiatrists have to society is to control the “harm to self [suicide]
and to others [crime], which creates an ethical dilemma for the med-
ical profession” and for psychiatric nurses who have acquired similar
societal obligations (Szasz, 1971).
From the other side of the discrimination paradigm, America’s history
abounds with prejudice and discrimination against African Americans,
American Indians and Alaska Natives, Asian Americans, and Hispanic
Americans. Unfortunately, prejudice and discrimination continue to ex-
ist and affect all aspects of these people’s lives (Abreu, 1999; Balsa &
McGuire, 2003; Byrd & Clayton, 2001; Hamilton & Sherman, 1994).
Overlaps can occur in Double Stigma when race/ethnicity and health
care are cross-cutting phenomena. The United States Public Health Ser-
vice’s infamous four-decades-old Tuskegee Syphilis Study serves as a
powerful example of the deleterious effects of prejudice and discrim-
ination. This one study helps to clarify the harm that health profes-
sionals, in collusion with the federal government, can perpetuate upon
ethnic minority individuals in the name of the advancement of science
and protection of the public (Gary, Yarandi, & Scruggs, 2003; Jones,
1998; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999). Ethnic
minorities who have symptoms or histories of mental disorders expe-
rience vastly different access and outcome histories when compared
to their more socially accepted Caucasian counterparts (Pescosolido,
Gardner, & Lubell, 1998; Poussaint & Anderson, 2000; Rogler, Cortes,
& Malgady, 1991). Figure 1 depicts the factors that help to influence
the individual’s decision to seek, delay, or avoid treatment for mental
disorders.
Double Stigma is created by ethnic minority group membership, and
membership in one of these groups confronts the individual with sig-
nificant barriers. Moreover, too few nurses or other mental health pro-
fessionals who are members of these four ethnic minority groups have
been able to join the ranks of mental health professionals. This fact
helps to continue to perpetuate health disparities, and the lack of cul-
turally competent care in mental healthcare delivery systems (Smedley,
Stith, & Nelson, 2003; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
1999). The Sullivan Commission Report suggests that the missing per-
sons in healthcare systems are ethnic minority professionals; it calls for
new and novel approaches to diversifying nursing’s workforce (See the
Sullivan Commission Report, 2004, for a more detailed discussion). A
discussion of the model in Figure 1 will help the reader to integrate the
numerous factors that interact to produce and sustain stigma related to
mental disorders among ethnic minority groups.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 983
FIGURE 1. Sources: Corrigan, 2004b; Corrigan, River Lundin, Penn, Uphoff-
Wasowski, Campion et al., 2001; Gary, 1991; Lefley, 1989; Rowe, 2005;
Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, 2003; U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 1999.
Race Applied as a Biological Concept
It is essential that readers become aware that the biological con-
struct of race has no scientific evidence. Nevertheless, for more than a
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
984 F. A. Gary
century, health professionals and other powerful societal entities per-
petuated the concept of race and linked it to biological constructs,
based on superficial differences such as the light-skinned Europeans,
the dark-skinned people of African descent, the brownish-red-skinned
Native Americans and Alaska Natives, or the almond-shaped eyes of
Asians. Informed biology can now document the fact that these dif-
ferences are more related to environmental adaptations, and have lit-
tle significance to a biological phenomenon (Anderson & Nickerson,
2005). Advances in human genetics suggest that all human beings have
about 99.9% identical DNA (Rowe, 2005). (See Rowe, 2005; Sternberg,
Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005 for a more detailed discussion.) However,
race is a social concept that has powerful and sometimes devastat-
ing consequences. Its presence has dominated American culture and
helped to create legal and formal mechanisms used as rationales for
prejudice, discrimination, social stigma, health disparities, and pat-
terns of questionable forensic outcomes (Anderson & Nickerson, 2005;
Cooper, 2005; Myrdal, 1996; Ossorio & Duster, 2005; Shields et al.,
2005).
Labeling as Stigma Inducing
Stigma is a term that is used to convey prejudice or negative stereo-
typing. It emits poorly justified and often false information about
people that helps to create discriminatory acts against them (Corrigan,
Green, Lundin, Kubiak, & Penn, 2001; Corrigan et al., 2004b; Dinges
& Duong-Tran, 1993; Jones, 1998; Jorm, 2000). Numerous types of
stereotypical labeling of minority groups have endured for centuries
(Corrigan, Thompson, Lambert, Sangster, Noel, & Campbell, 2003;
Harris, Gorelick, Samuels, & Bempong, 1996; Johnson & Cameron,
2001; Jones, 2003). Researchers and clinicians, including mental health
professionals, endeavored to document the inferiority of certain ethnic
minority groups in the service of justifying prejudice and discrimination
(Anderson & Nickerson, 2005; Helms, Jernigan, & Mascher, 2005;
Smedley, & Smedley, 2005; Yee, Fairchild, Weizmann, & Wyatt, 1993).
One of the most provocative but least discussed labeling phenomena
that have negatively impacted minority populations is intelligence test-
ing based on the bogus use of race. In this twenty-first century, clar-
ity through a better understanding of the genome, and DNA, could
help bring science to a more socially responsible debate (Anderson &
Nickerson, 2005; International HapMap Consortium, 2003; Interna-
tional Human Genome Sequencing Consortium, 2001). A more educa-
tionally sophisticated group of ethnic minority researchers and clinicians
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 985
will participate in this debate, which will no longer be in the exclu-
sive domain of Caucasians (Anderson & Nickerson, 2005; Thomas,
2000).
Labels that are generated by others, though without malice, never-
theless can produce stigma. When mental health professionals provide
psychiatric diagnoses such as schizophrenia or paranoia, stigma is a pos-
sible outcome (American Psychological Association, 1993; American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). The potency associated with labeling is
such that a certain symbol, or the association with a certain professional,
can lead to the person being labeled and subsequently stigmatized. For
example, a sign on a door saying “Mental Health Clinic” can provoke
stigmatizing thoughts and feelings among casual passersby, with impli-
cations that the persons who enter the clinic are not “playing with a full
deck.” Similarly, the professionals who provide care there can some-
times not be immediately identifiable from among the patient group at
the clinic. Goffman (1963), Birenbaum (1970), and Gray (1993) refer to
this process as “courtesy stigma” suggesting that family members might
also share some of the stigmatization because of their affiliation and
kinship with the mentally ill person. Some family members try to avoid
the stigma, while others appear not to be concerned about its impact
(MacRae, 1999).
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are not necessarily pernicious (Corrigan & Penn, 1999).
They are knowledge structures that are learned and practiced by indi-
viduals in society. Stereotypes can be efficient but potentially dangerous
beliefs associated with categorizing information about certain ethnic
minority people and other populations such as individuals with men-
tal illnesses (Balsa & McGuire, 2003; Byrd & Clayton, 2001; Corrigan
et al., 2003; Corrigan, Green, Lundin, Kubiak, & Penn, 2001; Macrae
et al., 1994). Stereotyping includes categorizing information about cer-
tain groups of people and their behaviors (Corrigan & Penn, 1999; Gary,
1991; Hamilton & Sherman, 1994). Consider the stereotype that Asian
Americans are the “model minority.” This stereotype creates some ad-
vantages for this minority group, but it also produces blind spots and false
negatives. Societal constructs follow: Asians do not have social or sub-
stance abuse problems, or do not experience poverty. Such stereotypes
could serve as a deterrent to mental health care for Asian Americans, and
place extreme ambivalence at the center of their need to seek help for
preventable and treatable mental health disorders (Bach, Pham, Schrag,
Tate, & Hargraves, 2004; Shields et al., 2005).
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
986 F. A. Gary
Public Stigma
Stereotypes can negatively influence the lives of individuals with
mental illness through the public’s thoughts about violence (Penn
& Corrigan, 2002), incompetence in self-care and independent liv-
ing (Corrigan et al., 2001; Okazaki, 2000), and self-blame (Corrigan,
2004b), including the insinuation that individuals with mental illnesses
are responsible for their own disorders (Lefley, 1989). As a rule, stereo-
types are difficult to eradicate (Balsa & McGuire, 2003; Byrd & Clayton,
2001) and can endure for years and years. One can glean from this dis-
cussion that stereotypes, prejudice, labels, and discrimination can help
to interrupt the lives of thousands of individuals—and thwart their op-
portunities to become productive citizens (Corrigan et al., 2004a, 2004b;
Gary, 1991; Wahl & Harman, 1989).
The negative impact of stigma also is observable in the general health
system. Individuals with mental illnesses are less likely to obtain the
necessary health assessments and subsequent care when compared with
individuals without these mental illnesses. A variety of factors interact to
create these disparities, including muddled approaches to attaining care
(Pescosolido, Gardner, & Lubell, 1998) or the behavior of the illness,
which includes denial, as found in mood disorders, Bipolar, or Type II
Depression (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Individuals with
mental illnesses receive fewer medical services than persons with similar
conditions who do not have mental illnesses (U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 1999, 2001; U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services & Health Resources and Services Administration, 2003). The
nature of the illness can act as a barrier to receiving appropriate mental
health care (Brown, Schulberg, & Prigerson, 2000; Kessler et al., 2003;
Roy-Byrne et al., 2000). Public policy issues regarding parity of mental
health insurance coverage with general health insurance coverage con-
tinue to be debated among politicians, economists, providers, and the
public, while limits to access to care remain a major concern among pa-
tients and providers (Goffman, 1963; LaFromboise & Howard-Pitney,
1995; Pescosolido et al., 1998; Pillay & Sargent, 1999; Rodriguez, Allen,
Frongillo, & Chandra, 1999; Schneider, Zaslavsky, & Epstein, 2002).
Hence, mental illness can be a barrier to receiving appropriate health
care.
With regard to the criminal justice system, there is a crossing point
between mental health and criminal justice systems. Briefly, the men-
tally ill are frequently criminalized, and are “housed” in confinement
facilities such as jails and prisons where they may or may not receive
the necessary treatment. This tendency is observed across the lifespan
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 987
(Corrigan, Lickey, Campion, & Rashid, 2000; Lamb, Weinberger, &
DeCuir, 2002; Shelder, Mayman, & Manis, 1993; Wolff, 2002).
Consider, too, the disproportionate numbers of African Americans,
American Indians and Alaska Natives, and Hispanics who are in the na-
tion’s prisons. Being of ethnic minority status increases the chances of
incarceration and a long-term sentence with the criminal justice system
(Braithwaite & Arriola, 2003; Dressel & Barnhill, 1994; Freudenberg,
2002; Hartwell, 2001). This fact reflects another example of “double
stigma.”
Together, these realities support the hypothesis that in American soci-
ety, persons with mental illnesses are at risk for experiencing substantial
stigma related to mental illnesses, and that ethnic minority populations
endure the greater burdens (Corrigan, 2004b; Goffman, 1963; Lefley,
1989; MacRae, 1999; Pinel, 1999). Higher rates of mortality and mor-
bidity, and diminished well-being (Cooper, Corrigan, & Watson, 2003;
Corrigan, 2004b; Marmot & Wilkinson, 1999) are unfortunate natural
outcomes.
Family and Courtesy Stigma
In addition to the public’s stigma about mental illness, patients’ fam-
ilies also might encounter stigma that is generalized to them, as in the
case of “courtesy stigma” (see MacRae, 1999). Social barriers can be
erected against the patients, their families, and sometimes their friends
(Caldwell, 1996; Corrigan, 2004a, 2004b; Corrigan et al., 2003; Lefley,
1989). Symptom severity as manifested by patients who carry the burden
of chronic mental illness also might help to further isolate and alien-
ate patients and their families. It can diminish their reputations and
status in the community, and jeopardize their relationships with neigh-
bors and the public (Lefley, 1989; Pescosolido et al., 1998; Pescosolido,
Wright, & Kikuzawa, 1999). Kafkaesque nightmares sometimes emerge
within families as they ponder how, when, why, and under what cir-
cumstances these horrific illnesses occurred in their family members
(Adshead, 2003; Anderson & Nickerson, 2005; Lefley, 1989; Nemeroff,
2003; Pinel, 1999; Szasz, 2003). Residual and sometimes overwhelming
familial guilt accompanies the illness; parents and families struggle with
providing care for their loved ones as they try to unravel the complex
and costly nature of treatment that is required to maintain the individ-
ual (Adshead, 2003; Corrigan, Lickey et al., 2000; Lefley, 1989; Szasz,
2003). In many instances, family resources are depleted and individuals
only have access to care within the public domain (Hudson, 2005). That
is to say, given the severity of the illness and its chronic nature, families
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
988 F. A. Gary
cannot afford the necessary treatment for their loved ones. Limited sci-
entific evidence and the lack of knowledge and skills among mental
health professionals sometimes add to family stigmatization (Lefley,
1989; Vaughn, Snyder, Jones, Freeman, & Falloon, 1984).
Until recently, mental health professionals focused their scholarly ef-
forts on understanding mental illness from the conceptual frameworks
of family theories that delineated the family as the pathogenesis of the
individual’s mental illness. Based on this conceptualization, treatment
modalities were developed (Lefly, 1989; Lidz, 1968; Vaughn & Leff,
1976). The implicit and sometimes explicit message promulgated by
mental health professionals was that “the patient’s illness was their [the
family’s] fault and they should go away, shrouded in guilt, and leave the
professional to undo the damage” (Goldstein, 1981, p. 2). Inherent in this
framework is the possibility of iatrogenic damage expressed through a
variety of pathways. Included are the avoidant or recriminate responses
to familial requests for information and support for their efforts. Other
areas of tension linked to the prevailing schools of thought during that
era included double-bind communications, and the selection of interven-
tions that, by their nature, would alienate the family and other supporters.
Self-filling prophesies served to motivate particular types of behaviors
within the family and provider structures (Goldstein, 1981; Lefly, 1989;
Lidz, 1968; Vaughn & Leff, 1976). Other researchers such as Grunebaum
(1984) have suggested that family members are placed in untenable po-
sitions of having to endure the pain of the ill member’s disorder, tolerate
the stigma related to having caused the disorder, and the responsibil-
ity of having to oversee and monitor compliance with a treatment plan
that is often poorly understood. At the same time, the family struggles
with patient-related issues such as housing, medication compliance, and
conflicting advice from mental health professionals (Ahshead, 2003;
Corrigan, 2004b; Grunebaum, 1984; Lefley, 1989; Szasz, 2003).
Self-Stigma
The discussion is in no way complete without acknowledging the
impact of self-stigma, which can be an inhibiting factor that impedes
help-seeking behaviors and the quality of treatment and life experienced
by individuals with the illness (Corrigan, 2004b; Corrigan, Edwards,
Green, Diwan, & Penn, 2001; Jost & Banaji, 1994). Many individuals
with mental illnesses experience lowered self-esteem (Link, Struening,
Neese-Todd, Asmussen, & Phelan, 2001). Over time, they exhibit dimin-
ished self-efficacy, and continual lowering of self-esteem (Link et al.,
1999). They are at risk for a blighted future embedded with hopelessness
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 989
and sometimes despair (American Indian Policy Center, n.d.; Borowsky,
Resnick, Ireland, & Blum, 1999; Edmonson, 2000; Ferry, 2000; Gary,
Yarandi, & Scruggs, 2003). Numerous aspects of these mental states
are antecedents to suicide, one of the most devastating outcomes asso-
ciated with this malady. Mentally ill persons can internalize the stigma
that is prevalent within society. In this sense, they come to believe and
act as if the stigma is a real and legitimate phenomenon (Corrigan,
2004b; Corrigan et al., 2003; Link et al., 2001; Miller & Kaiser, 2001;
Okazaki, 2000; Snowden, 2001; Snowden & Cheung, 1990; Stevens &
Hall, 1988). That is to say, some come to believe that they are less val-
ued than others in society, and literally devalue themselves and their real
or potential contributions to the society (Hudson, 2005). As a result,
individuals with mental illness might avoid employment, and elect not
to be successful at some task or in a job, because of fear of failure, or
internalized self-stigma, which can translate into self-abhorrence (Balsa
& McGuire, 2003; Cool & Garrido, 2000; Cooper-Patrick et al., 2002;
Flores & Vega, 1998; Jones, 2003; LaVeist, Nickerson, & Bowie, 2000).
Importantly, a similar dynamic can occur among ethnic minority
persons who have fears and doubts about their own abilities or who
depend on reflected appraisal from others to attain and maintain their
self-worth and sense of self-efficacy (Corrigan, McCracken, & Holmes,
2001; Corrigan et al., 2004a; Costello, Compton, Keeler, & Angold,
2003; Gary, Baker, & Grandbois, 2005; Gary et al., 2003; Poussaint &
Anderson, 2000).
Revisiting the Overlap between Stigma and Ethnic Minorities
The long history of discrimination and maltreatment of ethnic minor-
ity groups in America has left its seemingly indelible stain on this society
(Byrd & Clayton, 2001; Smedley & Smedley, 2005; U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 1999, 2001). Statistical data suggest that
there are mortality and morbidity differentials among ethnic minorities
and Caucasians. Health differentials between the two groups cannot be
entirely explained by race and ethnicity: Socioeconomic status and envi-
ronmental factors also must be considered, and are sometimes a proxy for
race and ethnicity. Research that differentiates among the three and their
outcomes is just beginning to emerge (Anderson & Nickerson, 2005;
Shields et al., 2005). The importance of social class is evidenced through
facts that suggest that people live, die, and get sick depending on their
race and ethnicity, gender, age, and socioeconomic group status (Hudson,
2005; Rowe, 2005; Smedley & Smedley, 2005). Social class determina-
tion consists of level of education, income, and occupation. Individuals
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
990 F. A. Gary
with less education and who belong to the working class (laborers) are
more likely to die of heart disease than are people with higher levels
of education and who work as professionals (Navarro, 1997; Smedley
et al., 2003). Those with less education and/or of the working class re-
ceive mental health care that is substantially compromised; stigma is
a dynamic force that brings this hypothesis to fruition. Psychiatric ser-
vices are more often sought by Caucasians than by African American,
American Indian and Alaska Native, Asian American, and Hispanic
American groups (Byrd & Clayton, 2001; Jones, 2003; Smedley et al.,
2003; Smedley & Smedley, 2005; U.S. Department of Health and Hu-
man Services, 1999). Given the lower socioeconomic status (limited
capacity to purchase goods and services), the public and private stigma
influences, and the distrust of the mental health system, ethnic minority
people are at risk for not receiving adequate mental health care. Hence,
their chances for experiencing higher mortality and morbidity rates will
continue to increase exponentially, unless new and novel approaches are
implemented to forestall and reverse this trend (Marmot & Wilkinson,
1999; Mayberry, Mili, & Ofili, 2002; McDonnell, 2000). These are some
of the factors that are the pathogeneses of health disparities among eth-
nic minority groups in America (Byrd & Clayton, 2002; LaVeist, 2002;
LaVeist, Bowie, & Cooley-Quille, 2000; Shields et al., 2005; Smedley
et al., 2003; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999,
2001).
Based on the ubiquitous nature of stigma, an aggressive approach to
its eradication is a major public health objective, in service to the larger
goal of reducing mental health disparities that currently exist among the
four ethnic groups (see Healthy People 2010, U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 2000). This discussion concludes with particular
recommendations that address stigma.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH
Research
Nurse researchers and others need to move beyond the lofty goal
of assuring equal access to research and broaden its scope. Research
about stigma should be a major focus for nurses and other mental health
professionals. It should address cogent issues such as public stigma,
self-stigma, family stigmatizing, help-seeking and delaying behaviors,
quality indicators for mental health care among ethnic minority groups,
and others. Decisions to abort, or not comply with, treatment also should
be robustly examined among the four groups. Of equal importance is
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 991
the impact of public and courtesy (proxy) stigma on decision making
related to help-seeking and treatment-seeking behaviors. Culturally rel-
evant research studies are needed from the perspective of self-stigma,
self-esteem, self-worth, and self-depreciating attitudes and behaviors
(Lefley, 1989; Macrae et al., 1994; MacRae, 1999; Rowe, 2005; Shields
et al., 2005; Smedley et al., 2003; Szasz, 2003; U.S. Department of
Health & Human Services 1999, 2001).
The roles and influences of support systems or reference groups in
helping to facilitate or delay help seeking is essential information that
needs to be further examined. What are the key elements that maintain
consumer-driven groups? Would initiatives that explore stigma from the
perspective of care settings be informative from the policy perspective?
At the systems level, with regard to insurance, how do the insurance
disparities for mental health disorders affect each of the ethnic minor-
ity groups (Lee & Estes, 2001)? Are there differences within the four
groups? And, if there are differences, how do these differences manifest
themselves? What are the diverse methods and techniques of addressing
these differences?
Interpretation and Dissemination of Research Results
Nurse researchers and others must become more cognizant of how
their research findings will potentially be interpreted and used to trans-
late science to service. Scientists should become more sensitive to the
levels of mental health literacy that exist among its own groups and the
public. Given the increased interest in and intersection with genetics and
race—within the context and interpretation of behavior—a finely tuned
intellect embedded in ethically and socially responsible critical think-
ing is required. In addition, research practices and how research results
could be framed and/or exploited, interpreted, and understood must be
added to the basic research process (Geller, Barnhardt, & Holtzman,
2002; Lefley, 1989; Macrae et al., 1994; MacRae, 1999; Rowe, 2005;
Shields et al., 2005).
Health Literacy
Nurse researchers and practitioners must provide health literacy in-
formation for the public and for individuals and families who endure the
burden of mental illness. They must strengthen the premise that individ-
uals with mental illness and their families can benefit from the science
that is being promulgated about the prevention and treatment of mental
disorders. Researchers ought to produce summary abstracts that clearly
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
992 F. A. Gary
and specifically highlight their findings, including sensible statements
about implications for disease and acuity-level prevention and self-care
(Corrigan et al., 2004a; Jones, 1998; Jorm, 2000; Smedley et al., 2003;
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999, 2001).
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HEALTH POLICYMAKERS
Health policymakers must support research that informs health pro-
fessionals about the social determinants of health, including mortality
and morbidity. In order to approach this dimension with rigor and sci-
entific accuracy, the use of race and or ethnicity as “proxies” for so-
cioeconomic status, environmental and situational life experiences that
are known to disproportionately impact minority groups should not be
continued. The alternative is to measure these constructs directly. A set
of measures, defined by consensus, that more accurately addresses these
variables should be developed at the national level (by the National Insti-
tutes for Health). When unraveling the numerous complexities related
to health disparities, federal and local initiatives that build consensus
around core measures that address inequity and social determinants of
health status and their impact on disaggregated populations should be
constructed (Anderson & Nickerson, 2005; Shields et al., 2005). That is,
research should move beyond the current “racial and ethnic” categories
that are typically used in research, and begin to focus more on local
groupings/variables for the purpose of better understanding health be-
liefs and behaviors. Then the development of specific interventions for
the given population designed to alleviate the disparities would be more
relevant and perhaps produce better outcomes (see National Academy
of Sciences report, Ver Ploeg & Perrin, 2004, for a more detailed dis-
cussion).
Health policymakers should also support interdisciplinary learning
across all health professionals with an emphasis on research and health
policy. As the proliferation of research continues to grow exponentially,
it is imperative that all disciplines recognize the complexities that are
inherent in human behaviors and mental disorders among all human
groups. Importantly, the need for sophisticated and complex configu-
rations related to constructs, design options, measures, recruitment ap-
proaches, human subject issues, and data analyses should be incorpo-
rated into the standards for all research. The future of research should be
embellished with the best thinking for addressing complex issues related
to mental disorders and ethnic minority groups—with carefully con-
structed findings and implications for research and practice (Anderson
& Nickerson, 2005; Balsa & McGuire, 2003; Byrd, & Clayton, 2001;
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 993
Rowe, 2005; Shields et al., 2005; Smedley et al., 2003). To prevent and
treat mental disorders, and relieve the burden of disease for all peo-
ple, psychiatric nurses must commit to addressing issues of intricate
magnitudes—many with callous and heinous histories.
REFERENCES
Abreu, J. M. (1999). Conscious and nonconscious African American stereotypes: Impact
on first impression and diagnostic ratings by therapists. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 67, 387–393.
Adshead, G. (2003). Commentary on Szasz. Journal of Medical Ethics, 29, 230–232.
American Indian Policy Center. (n.d.). Reflections on traditional American Indian
ways: Important knowledge for younger generations. Retrieved July 1, 2005, from
http://www.airpi.org/research/R98know.html
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (4th ed., text rev). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychological Association. (1993). Guidelines for providers of psychological
services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse populations. American Psychol-
ogist, 48, 45–48.
Anderson, N. B., & Nickerson, K. J. (2005). Genes, race, and psychology in the genome
era: An introduction. American Psychologist, 60, 5–8.
Bach, P. B., Pham, H. H., Schrag, D., Tate, R. C., & Hargraves, J. L. (2004). Primary
care physicians who treat blacks and whites. New England Journal of Medicine, 351,
575–584.
Balsa, A. I., & McGuire, T. G. (2003). Prejudice, clinical uncertainty and stereotyping
as sources of health disparities. Journal of Health Economics, 22(1), 89–116.
Bettelheim, B., & Janowitz, M. (1964). Social change and prejudice.New York: The
Free Press.
Birenbaum, A. (1970). On managing a courtesy stigma. Journal of Health and Social
Behavior, 11, 196–206.
Borowsky, I. W., Resnick, M. D., Ireland, M., & Blum, R. W. (1999). Suicide at-
tempts among American Indian and Alaska Native youth: Risk and protective factors.
Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 153, 573–580.
Braithwaite, R. L., & Arriola, K. R. (2003). Male prisoners and HIV prevention: A call
for action ignored. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 759–763.
Brown, C., Schulberg, H. C., & Prigerson, H. G. (2000). Factors associated with symp-
tomatic improvement and recovery from major depression in primary care patients.
General Hospital Psychiatry, 22, 242–250.
Buchanan, A., & Leese, M. (2001). Detention of people with dangerous severe person-
ality disorders: A systematic review. Lancet 358(9297), 1955–1959.
Byrd, W. M., & Clayton, L. A. (1992). An American health dilemma: A history of blacks
in the health system. Journal of the National Medical Association, 84, 189–200.
Byrd, W. M., & Clayton, L. A. (2000). An American health dilemma: A medical history
of African Americans and the problem of race: Beginnings to 1900 (Vol. 1). New
York: Routledge.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
994 F. A. Gary
Byrd, W. M., & Clayton, L. A. (2001). Race, medicine, and health care in the United
States: A historical survey. Journal of the National Medical Association, 93(Suppl. 3),
11S–34S.
Byrd, W. M., & Clayton, L. A. (2002). An American health dilemma: Race, medicine,
and health care in the United States, from 1900 to the dawn of the new Millennium
2000 (Vol. 2).New York: Routledge.
Caldwell, C. H. (1996). Predisposing, enabling, and need factors related to patterns
of help-seeking among African American women. In H. W. Neighbors, & J. S.
Jackson (Eds.), Mental health in Black America(pp. 146–160). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Cool, C. G., & Garrido, M. (2000). Minorities in the United states: Sociocultural context
for mental health and developmental psychopathology. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, &
S. M. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed.) (pp. 177–
195). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
Cooper, A., Corrigan, P. W., & Watson, A. C. (2003). Mental illness stigma and care
seeking. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 191, 339–341.
Cooper, R. S. (2005). Race and IQ: Molecular genetics as deus ex machina. American
Psychologist, 60, 71–76.
Cooper-Patrick, L., Gallo, J., Gonzales, J., Thi Vu, H., Powe, N., & Nelson, C., Ford,
D. (2002). Race, gender, and partnership in the patient-physician relationship. In T.
A. LeVeist (Ed.), Race, ethnicity and health: A public health reader (pp. 607–626).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Corrigan, P. W. (2004a). Don’t call me nuts: An international perspective on the stigma
of mental illness. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 109, 403–404.
Corrigan, P. (2004b). How stigma interferes with mental health care. American Psychol-
ogist, 59, 614–624.
Corrigan, P. W. (2004c). Target-specific stigma change: A strategy for impacting mental
illness stigma. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 28(2), 113–121.
Corrigan, P. W., Edwards, A. B., Green, A., Diwan, S. L., & Penn, D. L. (2001). Prejudice,
social distance, and familiarity with mental illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 27, 219–
225.
Corrigan, P. W., Green, A., Lundin, R., Kubiak, M. A., & Penn, D. L. (2001). Familiarity
with and social distance from people who have serious mental illness. Psychiatric
Services, 52, 953–958.
Corrigan, P. W., Lickey, S. E., Campion, J., & Rashid, F. (2000). Mental health team
leadership and consumers satisfaction and quality of life. Psychiatric Services, 51,
781–785.
Corrigan, P. W., McCracken, S. G., & Holmes, E. P. (2001). Motivational interviews as
goal assessment for persons with psychiatric disability. Community Mental Health
Journal, 37(2), 113–122.
Corrigan, P. W., & Penn, D. L. (1999). Lessons from social psychology on discrediting
psychiatric stigma. American Psychologist, 54, 765–776.
Corrigan, P. W., River, L. P., Lundin, R. K., Penn, D. L., Uphoff-Wasowski, K.,
Campion, J., Mathisen, J., Gagnon, C., Bergman, M., Goldstein, H., & Kubiak,
M. A. (2001). Three strategies for changing attributions about severe mental illness.
Schizophrenia Bulletin, 27, 187–195.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 995
Corrigan, P. W., Thompson, V., Lambert, D., Sangster, Y., Noel, J. G., & Campbell,
J. (2003). Perceptions of discrimination among persons with serious mental illness.
Psychiatric Services, 54, 1105–1110.
Corrigan, P. W., Watson, A. C., Warpinski, A. C., & Gracia, G. (2004a). Implications of
educating the public on mental illness, violence, and stigma. Psychiatric Services,
55, 577–580.
Corrigan, P. W., Watson, A. C., Warpinski, A. C., & Gracia, G. (2004b). Stigmatizing
attitudes about mental illness and allocation of resources to mental health services.
Community Mental Health Journal, 40, 297–307.
Costello, E. J., Compton, S. N., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Relationships be-
tween poverty and psychopathology: A natural experiment. Journal of the American
Medical Association, 290, 2023–2029.
Dinges, N. G., & Duong-Tran, Q. (1993). Stressful life events and co-occurring depres-
sion, substance abuse and suicidality among American Indian and Alaska Native
adolescents. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 16(4), 487–502.
Dressel, P. L., & Barnhill, S. K. (1994). Reframing gerontological thought and practice:
The case of grandmothers with daughters in prison. Gerontologist 34, 685–691.
Edmonson, J. (2000). Hopelessness, self-efficacy, self-esteem and powerlessness in re-
lation to American Indian suicide. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
North Texas, Denton.
Ferry, J. (2000). No easy answer to high native suicide rates. Lancet, 355 (9207), 906.
Flores, G., & Vega, L. R. (1998). Barriers to health care access for Latino children: A
review. Family Medicine, 30, 196–205.
Freudenberg, N. (2002). Adverse effects of U.S. jail and prison policies on the health
and well-being of women of color. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 1895–
1899.
Gary, F. A. (1991). Sociocultural diversity and psychiatric mental health nursing. In F. A.
Gary, & C. K. Kavanagh (Eds.), Psychiatric mental health nursing (pp. 136–165).
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott.
Gary, F. A., Baker, M., & Grandbois, D. M. (2005). Perspectives on suicide preven-
tion among American Indian and Alaska Native children and adolescents: A call
for help. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing 10(2). Retrieved June 6, 2005, from
http://nursingworld.org/ojin/hirsh/topic4/tpc4
3.htm
Gary, F. A., Yarandi, H. N., & Scruggs, F. C. (2003). Suicide among African Americans:
Reflections and a call to action. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 24, 353–375.
Geller, G., Barnhardt, B., & Holtzman, N. A. (2002). The media and public reaction to
genetic research. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 773.
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Goldstein, M. J. (1981). Editor’s notes. In M. J. Goldstein (Ed.), New developments in
interventions with families of schizophrenics. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gray, D. (1993). Perceptions of stigma: The parents of autistic children. Sociology of
Health and Illness, 15, 102–120.
Grunebaum, H. (1984). Comments on Terkelsen’s “Schizophrenia and the family: II.
Adverse effects of family therapy.” Family Process, 23(3), 421–428.
Hamilton, D., & Sherman, J. (1994). Stereotypes. In R. S. Wyer, & T. K. Srull (Eds.),
Handbook of social cognition (2nd ed., pp. 1–68). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
996 F. A. Gary
Harris, Y., Gorelick, P. B., Samuels, P., & Bempong, I. (1996). Why African Americans
may not be participating in clinical trials. Journal of National Medical Association,
88, 630–634.
Hartwell, S. (2001). An examination of racial differences among mentally ill offenders
in Massachusetts. Psychiatric Services, 52, 234–236.
Helms, J. E., Jernigan, M., Mascher, J. (2005). The meaning of race in psychology and
how to change it: A methodological perspective. American Psychologist 60, 27–36.
Hudson, C. G. (2005). Socioeconomic status and mental illness: Tests of the social
causation and selection hypotheses. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 75(1),
3–18.
International HapMap Consortium. (2003). The International HapMap Project. Nature
426, 789–796.
International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. (2001). Initial sequencing and
analysis of the human genome.Nature 409, 860–921.
Johnson, J. L., & Cameron, M. C. (2001). Barriers to providing effective mental health
services to American Indians. Mental Health Services Research, 3(4), 215–223.
Jones, A. H. (1998). Mental illness made public: Ending the stigma? Lancet 352(9133),
1060.
Jones, R. N. (2003). Racial bias in the assessment of cognitive functioning of older
adults. Aging & Mental Health, 7(2), 83–102.
Jorm, A. F. (2000). Mental health literacy: Public knowledge and beliefs about mental
disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 396–401.
Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system justification and the
production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1–27.
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Koretz, D., Merikangas, K. R., Rush,
A. J., Walters, E. E., & Wang, P. S. (2003). The epidemiology of major depressive
disorder: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). The
Journal of the American Medical Association, 289, 3095–3105.
Kramer, B. M. (1949). Dimension of prejudice. The Journal of Psychology, 27, 389–451.
LaFromboise, T. D., & Howard-Pitney, B. (1995). Suicidal behavior in American In-
dian female adolescents. In S. S. Canetto, & D. Lester (Eds.), Women and Suicidal
Behavior (pp. 157–173). New York: Springer.
Lamb, H. R., & Weinberger, L. E. (1998). Persons with severe mental illness in jails and
prisons: A review. Psychiatric Services 49, 483–492.
Lamb, H. R., Weinberger, L. E., & DeCuir, W. J. Jr. (2002). The police and mental health.
Psychiatric Services, 53, 1266–1271.
LaVeist, T. A. (2002). Beyond dummy variables and sample selection: What health
services researchers ought to know about race as a variable. In T. A. LaVeist (Ed.),
Race, ethnicity, and health: A public health reader (pp. 115–129). San Francisco:
Josey-Bass.
LaVeist, T. A., Bowie, J. V., & Cooley-Quille, M. (2000). Minority health status in
adulthood: The middle years of life. Health Care Financing Review, 21(4), 9–
21.
LaVeist, T. A., Nickerson, K. J., & Bowie, J. V. (2000). Attitudes about racism, medical
mistrust, and satisfaction with care among African American and white cardiac
patients. Medical Care Research and Review, 57(suppl. 1), 146–161.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 997
Lee, P. R., & Estes, C. L. (2001). The nation’s health. Sudbury, MA: Jones &
Bartlett.
Lefley, H. P. (1989). Family burden and family stigma in major mental illness. American
Psychologist 44, 556–560.
Lidz, T. (Ed.). (1968). Family organization and personality structure.New York: Free
Press.
Link, B. G., Phelan, J. C., Bresnahan, M., Stueve, A., & Pescosolido, B. A. (1999). Public
conceptions of mental illness: Labels, causes, dangerousness, and social distance.
American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1328–1333.
Link, B. G., Struening, E. L., Neese-Todd, S., Asmussen, S., & Phelan, J. C. (2001).
Stigma as a barrier to recovery: The consequences of stigma for the self-esteem of
people with mental illnesses. Psychiatric Services, 52, 1621–1626.
MacRae, H. (1999). Managing courtesy stigma: The case of Alzheimer’s disease. Soci-
ology of Health & Illness, 21(1), 54–70.
Macrae, C. N., Bodenhausen, G. V., Milne, A. B., & Jetten, J. (1994). Out of mind
but back in sight: Stereotypes on the rebound. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 67, 808–817.
Marmot, M., & Wilkinson, R. G. (Eds.). (1999). Social determinants of health.New
York: Oxford University Press.
Mayberry, R., Mili, T., & Ofili, E. (2002). Racial and ethnic differences in access to
medical care. In T. A. LaVeist (Ed.), Race, ethnicity, and health: A public health
reader (pp. 161–197). San Francisco: Josey-Bass.
McDonnell, S. (2000). Race matters: The healthcare divide. Retrieved July 1, 2005,
from http:// www.allaboutblackhealth.com/newsarchives3.htm
Miller, C. T., & Kaiser, C. R. (2001). A theoretical perspective on coping with stigma.
Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 73–92.
Myrdal, G. (1996). An American dilemma:The Negro problem and modern democracy.
New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
Navarro, M. (1997, July 3). Assisted suicide decision looms in Florida. New York Times,
p. A14.
Nemeroff, C. B. (2003). Improving antidepressant adherence. Journal of Clinical Psy-
chiatry, 64(Suppl. 18), 25–30.
Nicholson, I. A. (1998). Gordon Allport, character, and the “culture of personality,”
1897–1973. History of Psychology 1(1), 52–68.
Okazaki, S. (2000). Treatment delay among Asian-American patients with severe mental
illness. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70(1), 58–64.
Ossorio, P., & Duster, T. (2005). Race and genetics: Controversies in biomedical, be-
havioral, and forensic sciences. American Psychologist, 60, 115–128.
Penn, D. L., & Corrigan, P. W. (2002). The effects of stereotype suppression on psychi-
atric stigma. Schizophrenia Research, 55, 269–276.
Pescosolido, B. A., Gardner, C. B., & Lubell, K. M. (1998). How people get into mental
health services: Stories of choice, coercion and “muddling through” from “first-
timers.” Social Science & Medicine, 46, 275–286.
Pescosolido, B. A., Wright, E. R., & Kikuzawa, S. (1999). “Stakeholder” attitudes over
time toward the closing of a state hospital. Journal of Behavior Health Services
Research, 26, 318–328.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
998 F. A. Gary
Pillay, A. L., & Sargent, C. A. (1999). Relationship of age and education with anxiety,
depression, and hopelessness in a South African community sample. Perceptual and
Motor Skills, 89(3 Pt. 1), 881–884.
Pinel, E. C. (1999). Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereo-
types.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(1), 114–128.
Poussaint, A., & Anderson, A. (2000). Lay my burden down. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Rodriguez, E., Allen, J. A., Frongillo, E., & Chandra, P. (1999). Unemployment, depres-
sion, and health: A look at the African American community.Journal of Epidemiology
and Community Health, 53, 335–342.
Rogler, L. H., Cortes, D. E., & Malgady, R. G. (1991). Acculturation and mental health
status among Hispanics. Convergence and new directions for research. American
Psychologist, 46, 585–597.
Rowe, D. C. (2005). Under the skin: On the impartial treatment of genetic and
environmental hypotheses of racial differences. American Psychologist 60, 60–
70.
Roy-Byrne, P., Stang, P., Wittchen, H., Ustun, B., Walters, E. E, & Kessler, R. C. (2000).
Lifetime panic-depression comorbidity in the National Comorbidity Survey. Asso-
ciation with symptoms, impairment, course and help-seeking. British Journal of
Psychiatry, 176, 229–235.
Schneider, E., Zaslavsky, A., & Epstein, A. (2002). Racial disparities in the quality
of care for enrollees in medicare managed care. Journal of the American Medical
Association, 287, 1288–1294.
Shelder, J., Mayman, M., & Manis, M. (1993). The illusion of mental health. American
Psychologist, 48, 1117–1131.
Shields, A. E., Fortun, M., Hammonds, E. M., King, P. A., Lerman, C., Rapp, R., &
Sullivan, P. E. (2005). The use of race variables in genetic studies of complex traits
and the goal of reducing health disparities: A transdisciplinary perspective. American
Psychologist, 60, 77–103.
Smedley, A., & Smedley, B. D. (2005). Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social
problem is real. American Psychologist, 60, 16–26.
Smedley, B. D., Stith, A. Y., & Nelson, A. R. (Eds.). (2003). Unequal treatment: Con-
fronting racial and ethnic disparities in health care.Washington, DC: The National
Academies.
Snowden, L. R. (2001). Barriers to effective mental health services for African Ameri-
cans. Mental Health Services Research, 3(4), 181–187.
Snowden, L., & Cheung, F. (1990). Use of inpatient mental health services by members
of ethnic minority groups. American Psychologist, 45, 347–355.
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Kidd, K. K. (2005). Intelligence, race, and genetics.
American Psychologist, 60, 46–59.
Stevens, P. E, & Hall, J. M. (1988). Stigma, health beliefs and experiences with health
care in lesbian women. The Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 20(2), 69–73.
Szasz, T. (1971). The sane slave: A historic note on the use of medical diagnosis as
justificatory rhetoric. American Journal of Psychotherapy 25, 228–239.
Szasz, T. (2003). Psychiatry and the control of dangerousness: On the apotropaic function
of the term “mental illness.” Journal of Medical Ethics, 29, 227–203.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
Stigma: A Barrier among Ethnic Minorities 999
The Sullivan Commission on Diversity in the Healthcare Workforce. (2004). Miss-
ing persons: Minorities in the health professions. Retrieved June 1, 2005, from
http://www.aacn.nche.edu/Media/pdf/SullivanReport.pdf
Thomas, W. (2000). Larry P revisited: IQ testing of African-Americans: Proceedings of
a symposium presented by the Department of African American Studies, City College
of San Francisco and the Bay Area Association of Black Psychologists.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health: A report to
the Surgeon General. Retrieved June 1, 2005 from http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/
library/mentalhealth/home.html
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2000). Healthy people 2010. Retrieved
June 1, 2005, from http://www.healthypeople.gov
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2001). Mental health: Culture, race,
and ethnicity—A supplement to mental health: A report of the Surgeon General.
Rockville, MD: Author.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services & Health Resources and Services
Administration. (2003). United States Health Personnel Factbook. Retrieved June 4,
2005, from http://bhpr.hrsa.gov/healthworkforce/reports/factbook.htm
U.S. Department of Justice. (2005). The Americans with Disabilities Act, ADA Home
Page. Retrieved July 1, 2005 from http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/adahom1.htm
Vaughn, C. E., & Leff, J. P. (1976). The influence of family and social factors in the
course of psychiatric illness: A comparison of schizophrenic and depressed neurotic
patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 129, 125–137.
Vaughn, C. R., Snyder, K. S., Jones, S., Freeman, W., & Falloon, I. R. H. (1984). Family
factors in schizophrenic relapse. Archives of General Psychiatry 41, 1169–1177.
Ver Ploeg, M., & Perrin, E. (2004). Eliminating health disparities: Measurement and
data needs.Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Wahl, O. F., & Harman, C. R. (1989). Family views of stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin
15, 131–134.
Wolff, N. (2002). Risk, response, and mental health policy: Learning from the experience
of the United Kingdom. Journal of Health Political Policy & Law, 27, 801–832.
Yee, A. H., Fairchild, H. H., Weizmann, F., & Wyatt, G. E. (1993). Addressing psychol-
ogy’s problem with race. American Psychologist, 48, 1132–1140.
Issues Ment Health Nurs Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Boston College
For personal use only.
