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Experiential avoidance as a generalized psychological vulnerability: Comparisons with coping and emotion regulation strategies
Abstract
Extending previous work, we conducted two studies concerning the toxic influences of experiential avoidance (EA) as a core mechanism in the development and maintenance of psychological distress, and disruption of pleasant, engaging, and spontaneous activity. Of particular interest was whether EA accounted for relationships between coping and emotion regulation strategies on anxiety-related pathology (Study 1) and psychological distress and hedonic functioning over the course of a 21-day monitoring period (Study 2). In Study 1, EA mediated the effects of maladaptive coping, emotional responses styles, and uncontrollability on anxiety-related distress (e.g., anxiety sensitivity, trait anxiety, suffocation fears, and body sensation fears). In Study 2, EA completely mediated the effects of two emotion regulation strategies (i.e., suppression and reappraisal) on daily negative and positive experiences and was associated with diminished daily positive affective experiences and healthy life appraisals, diminished frequency of positive events and more frequent negative life events, and greater negative affective experiences. The present data show that cognitive reappraisal, a primary process of traditional cognitive-behavior therapy, was much less predictive of the quality of psychological experiences and events in everyday life compared with EA. Further consideration of experiential avoidance as a generalized diathesis and toxic process will be useful in improving our understanding of the etiology, phenomenology, and treatment of anxiety conditions, general human suffering, and disruptions in hedonic capacity.
... According to Hayes et al., (1996Hayes et al., ( , 1999, experiential avoidance represents deliberate efforts to change or avoid aversive thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations. The avoidant coping strategy may have short-term benefits, such as providing immediate relief (Kashdan et al., 2006). However, when people habitually and rigidly rely on avoidant strategies over the long term, they may show impaired psychological and social functioning (Kashdan et al., 2006), including more internalizing distress like depression and anxiety (Akbari et al., 2022;Spinhoven et al., 2014) and externalizing problems like compulsive behaviors (Den Ouden et al., 2020), substance abuse, aggression, and self-harm behaviors (Chawla & Ostafin, 2007;Kingston et al., 2010). ...
... The avoidant coping strategy may have short-term benefits, such as providing immediate relief (Kashdan et al., 2006). However, when people habitually and rigidly rely on avoidant strategies over the long term, they may show impaired psychological and social functioning (Kashdan et al., 2006), including more internalizing distress like depression and anxiety (Akbari et al., 2022;Spinhoven et al., 2014) and externalizing problems like compulsive behaviors (Den Ouden et al., 2020), substance abuse, aggression, and self-harm behaviors (Chawla & Ostafin, 2007;Kingston et al., 2010). ...
... In support of this model, several contextual and individual factors have been demonstrated to be correlated with lower emotional health and behavioral adaptation via the mediator role of experiential avoidance (Hsieh et al., 2019;McCluskey et al., 2022). For example, experiential avoidance was found to explain the pathway through which a feeling of uncontrollability over threatening events was linked to anxiety-related distress (Kashdan et al., 2006). It has also been verified to mediate the associations between shame and addiction to Internet use (Teymouri Farkush et al., 2022) and between harsh parenting and adolescent smartphone addiction (Wei et al., 2021). ...
Problematic mobile phone use (PMPU) has been revealed to be shaped by multiple factors. Nevertheless, limited studies have focused on sense of control, an intrinsic human motive, and investigated its impact on PMPU and the mechanisms of this influence. On the grounds of the Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution model, the present study tested experiential avoidance as a possible mediator and self-concept clarity as a possible moderator in the connection linking sense of control and PMPU. Undergraduate students (N = 1,093; Mage = 18.95, SD = 1.10; 53.2% women) recruited through convenience sampling completed questionnaires in their classrooms. The mediation analysis revealed a significant mediating effect of experiential avoidance on the negative link between sense of control and PMPU. The moderated mediation analysis demonstrated a significant moderating effect of self-concept clarity, which attenuated both the direct path linking sense of control and PMPU and the mediating path through experiential avoidance. The findings contribute to elucidating whether, how, and under what conditions sense of control is connected with PMPU, and offer insights for developing practical intervention strategies to address PMPU.
... Despite the established links between EA and disorders marked by low PA (e.g., depression, PTSD), it remains unclear to what extent EA is associated with low PA in addition to elevated NA. A growing literature has found inverse associations between EA and PA, with higher levels of EA associated with diminished PA (Gámez et al., 2011(Gámez et al., , 2014Hershenberg et al., 2017;Kashdan et al., 2006;Machell et al., 2015). For example, Machell et al. (2015) used a 14-day daily diary paradigm to study the effects of EA on anxiety, well-being, and positive and negative affect. ...
... In line with this, Gámez et al. (2014) found significant negative associations between measures of EA and measures of PA. Of note, this preliminary research linking EA with low PA has mostly utilized measures of EA that operationalize EA in response to the experience of negative emotions/affect (Kashdan et al., 2006;Shahar & Herr, 2011). Although theoretical frameworks relate EA broadly with internal experiences that the individual experiences as unpleasant or unwanted (i.e., some of which may be positively valenced), the majority of published studies of EA have assessed EA solely in response to NA (Chawla & Ostafin, 2007;Kashdan et al., 2006;Rochefort et al., 2018). ...
... Of note, this preliminary research linking EA with low PA has mostly utilized measures of EA that operationalize EA in response to the experience of negative emotions/affect (Kashdan et al., 2006;Shahar & Herr, 2011). Although theoretical frameworks relate EA broadly with internal experiences that the individual experiences as unpleasant or unwanted (i.e., some of which may be positively valenced), the majority of published studies of EA have assessed EA solely in response to NA (Chawla & Ostafin, 2007;Kashdan et al., 2006;Rochefort et al., 2018). Thus, less is known about EA in response to differing affective states (e.g., positive emotion) and the relationship between EA and longer-term alterations in the positive affect system. ...
Experiential Avoidance has been conceptualized as an unwillingness to sustain engagement with unwanted negatively valenced internal states and has been strongly associated with a range of psychological symptoms. However, it remains unclear whether and how experiential avoidance may be associated with the experience of positive affect/anhedonia. Anhedonia has been associated with impairments in reward system functioning (e.g., anticipatory and consummatory reward responsivity). Initial research suggests that experiential avoidance may diminish hedonic responses to experienced rewards, perhaps leading to global decrements in positive affect. This study investigated associations between experiential avoidance, positive affect, anhedonia, and reward responsiveness using a baseline questionnaire packet and a one-week experience sampling paradigm. 157 undergraduate students completed baseline questionnaires assessing trait experiential avoidance, depression, anxiety, positive affect (PA), negative affect (NA), and anhedonic symptoms. Participants then completed experience sampling questionnaires assessing anticipatory (RRA) and consummatory (RRC) reward responsivity, NA, PA, and state experiential avoidance. Trait experiential avoidance predicted increased levels of NA, decreased levels of PA, and decreased RRA and RRC across the week. Increases in state experiential avoidance were associated with increases in NA as well as decreases in PA and RRC throughout the week. Findings demonstrate significant associations between experiential avoidance and both NA and PA, supporting experiential avoidance as a potential construct of clinical significance for disorders marked by low PA. Results also generally support a relationship between experiential avoidance and reward responsivity, specifically with RRC. Future research is needed to examine the mechanisms through which these associations occur.
... Compared to college students who stopped engaging in self-injury one year ago, students who continued engaging in NSSI behaviors showed significantly less acceptance of emotional responses, regardless of gender (Anderson & Crowther, 2012). Interestingly, efforts to suppress or avoid a negative emotion may have a counter-effect, increasing rather than decreasing psychological distress (Kashdan et al., 2006). Therefore, recurrent use of these strategies in the presence of high-intensity emotions may serve as a stepping-stone towards other maladaptive strategies, such as NSSI, when emotional avoidance alone is no longer effective. ...
... Specifically, among individuals who reported a lack of emotion regulation strategies, only those with higher negative urgency, that is, a proclivity to act rashly when experiencing intense negative emotions, were likely to engage in more frequent NSSI. These findings are consistent with metaanalyses that identify limited access to emotion regulation strategies and negative urgency as the most robust predictors of NSSI (Sheppes et al., 2015;You et al., 2016) and with biosocial models that characterize NSSI by emotion dysregulation and impulsivity (Kashdan et al., 2006;Lieb et al., 2004). ...
Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is defined as self-inflicted pain, and it is used as a mechanism to alleviate psychological distress. Although NSSI is prevalent in Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD), it is also an increasing concern among college student populations. While emotion dysregulation and negative urgency are associated with NSSI, little is known about which dimensions specifically predict the motivations (NSSI-functions) and frequency of self-harm. The current study explored the rela-tionship between emotion dysregulation, negative urgency, and NSSI in 86 young adults, divided into three groups: college students with NSSI, BPD patients with NSSI, and a healthy control group without NSSI. We con-ducted multiple regression analyses to predicted NSSI-functions and NSSI-frequency. Non-acceptance of emotions, a specific dimension of emotion dysregulation, uniquely predicted intrapersonal NSSI-functions (e.g., regu-lating distressing emotions), but not interpersonal NSSI-functions (e.g., communicating distress). Lastly, poor emotion regulation strategies pre-dicted NSSI-frequency only in individuals with high negative urgency, that is, individuals who tend to act impulsively when experiencing negative emotions, but not in those with low negative urgency. Findings shed light on the underlying motivations for engaging in self-injury, and they reveal facets of emotion dysregulation relevant for NSSI treatment.
Keywords: Self-harm.Emotion dysregulation. Negative urgency. Self-harm functions.
... Psychological flexibility is "the ability to contact the present moment more fully as a conscious human being and to change or persist in behavior when doing so serves valued ends" (Hayes et al., 2006, p. 7). Psychological flexibility is also the ability of an individual to adapt and respond effectively to changing situations, including the capacity to accept and regulate their thoughts and behaviors (Arslan et al., 2021;Kashdan et al., 2006). According to an acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), the primary objectives of therapy are to promote psychological flexibility and values-based living, rather than symptom relief. ...
... Psychological flexibility allows people to respond more effectively to the challenges they encounter in their lives. It also helps people regulate their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, which contributes to responding effectively to changing situations (Arslan et al., 2021;Kashdan et al., 2006). When individuals enter into dysfunctional parent modes, they are more likely to experience negative feelings and thoughts toward themselves and others. ...
This cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the mediating role of psychological flexibility in the relationship between dysfunctional parenting (i.e., dysfunctional parent modes) and emotional problems and substance misuse among Turkish college students. Participants were 466 undergraduate students (69% female) aged between 18 and 45 years (M = 21.46, SD = 3.31) from a public university in Turkey. The majority of participants in the study reported never or infrequent use of tobacco, alcohol, and prescription drugs, with daily or almost daily use reported by less than a quarter of the sample for each substance. Results showed that higher levels of dysfunctional parent modes were associated with increased emotional problems and substance misuse. Moreover, psychological flexibility mediated the relationship between dysfunctional parent modes and emotional problems, as well as both mediated and moderated the relationship between dysfunctional parent modes and substance misuse. Results from the study also showed that people in the at-risk group for substance misuse reported higher levels of dysfunctional parent modes and emotional problems, as well as lower levels of psychological flexibility than the typical group. These results suggest that psychological flexibility may play a significant role in the link between dysfunctional parent modes and emotional problems and substance misuse among Turkish college students. Future research should investigate whether interventions targeting psychological flexibility could be effective in reducing emotional problems and substance misuse among students with dysfunctional parent modes.
... EA, or the avoidance of emotional experiences associated with anxiety (Kashdan et al., 2006;Suveg et al., 2007), can contribute to a subsequent increase in the emotional reaction to the experience (Campbell-Sills et al., 2006). EA can include the strategies of suppression, rumination, and avoidance of situations that invoke anxiety, all of which are significantly associated with heightened anxiety (Aldao et al., 2010). ...
... EA can include the strategies of suppression, rumination, and avoidance of situations that invoke anxiety, all of which are significantly associated with heightened anxiety (Aldao et al., 2010). According to the acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) model, EA causes a person to fail to take action consistent with their values and goals, which in turn leads to regret, disappointment, and feelings of worthlessness (Kashdan et al., 2006). Strategies within CBT (e.g. ...
Purpose
Anxiety sensitivity (AS) and experiential avoidance (EA) are associated with anxiety in both adults and youths. This study examined the separate contributions of AS and EA in predicting (a) anxiety (symptom severity) and (b) differential treatment outcomes in anxious youth receiving cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).
Methods
Participants (N = 89; age 10–17 years; 37% male; 78% white) met diagnostic criteria for an anxiety disorder and received CBT (Coping Cat). AS and EA were child-report measures collected at baseline. The outcome variables were anxiety symptom severity (Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children; child- and parent-reported) and Independent Evaluator-rated anxiety severity (Child Global Impression-Severity) collected at baseline and posttreatment. Multilevel models (MLM) examined independent and relative contributions of AS and EA to the outcome variables as a secondary analysis.
Results
Both AS and EA were associated with levels of anxiety symptom severity at pretreatment and at posttreatment, varying by reporter. Neither AS nor EA predicted differential treatment outcomes: youth at varying levels had comparably favorable outcomes.
Conclusions
Findings suggest similarity in AS and EA, and that both constructs may be adequately and equally addressed in CBT. Future research could consider examining change in AS and EA and anxiety across treatment in diverse populations.
... Cognitive reappraisal and suppression differ in their adaptiveness in regard to promoting or undermining psychological health (for review, see . Extensive research shows that cognitive reappraisal is beneficial for psychological health (for review, see Webb et al., 2012;Hu et al., 2014), and that it is linked to resilience, positive affect, mental well-being, increased life satisfaction, better job performance, as well as favorable cognitive and social outcomes (Gross and John, 2003;John and Gross, 2004;Kashdan et al., 2006;Kraiss et al., 2020). In contrast, suppression is considered a maladaptive strategy, associated with worse psychological health outcomes Hu et al., 2014;Chervonsky and Hunt, 2017;Cameron and Overall, 2018). ...
... In contrast, suppression is considered a maladaptive strategy, associated with worse psychological health outcomes Hu et al., 2014;Chervonsky and Hunt, 2017;Cameron and Overall, 2018). The tendency to withhold the expression of emotions is linked to, for example, impaired interpersonal relationships, greater anxiety and depression, poorer life satisfaction, lack of authenticity, lower self-esteem and increased negative emotions (Gross and John, 2003;Kashdan et al., 2006;English and John, 2013). The differential effects of cognitive reappraisal and suppression have also been confirmed in several correlational studies during the pandemic (Cardi et al., 2021;Liang et al., 2021;Low et al., 2021;Santi et al., 2021;Ye et al., 2021;Gullo et al., 2022). ...
Background: Maintaining good mental health is important during a crisis.
However, little attention has been given to how people achieve this, or how they
evaluate emotions associated with stressors, such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
This study aims to (1) investigate whether emotion regulation, in particular
cognitive reappraisal and suppression, moderates the relationship between
COVID-19 stress and general mental distress and (2) examine gender differences
in the interrelations between COVID-19 stress, emotion regulation, and mental
distress.
Methods: Data from a population in Norway (n = 1.225) were collected using
a cross-sectional survey during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Emotion regulation was measured using the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire
Scale (ERQ), COVID-19 stress with the COVID-19 Stress Scale, and mental distress
with the Patient Health Questionnaire 4 (PHQ-4). Moderation analyses were
conducted using the PROCESS macro for SPSS.
Results: There was a strong association between COVID-19 stress and
general mental distress (r = 0.61). The moderation analyses showed substantial
moderation effects of cognitive reappraisal and suppression on the relationship
between COVID-19 stress and mental distress. Cognitive reappraisal served as a
buffer (p = 0.001) and suppression (p = 0.002) exacerbated the relation between
COVID-19 stress and mental distress. Men had higher scores of suppression
(p < 0.001), and women had higher scores of cognitive reappraisal (p = 0.025). The
buffering effect of cognitive reappraisal presented itself only in women (p < 0.001),
while the exacerbation effect of suppression appeared only in men (p < 0.001).
Conclusion: The current study suggests that COVID-19 pandemic-related stress
is easier to deal with for those who have the tendency to cognitively reappraise.
In contrast, suppression is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety.The prevention of mental distress can be supported by guiding people about the
importance of using healthy emotion regulation strategies, as well as helping
them to become more aware of the way they interpret and regulate their
emotions. Gender differences in emotion regulation suggest gender awareness,
e.g., tailored programs for men and women.
... While experiential avoidance may successfully attenuate negative affect momentarily, it also likely restricts contact with valuable sources of positive affect (Machell et al., 2015). Such a conceptualization appears warranted given evidence that experiential avoidance is a key mechanism for the impact of emotion regulation strategies on daily negative and positive experiences (Kashdan et al., 2006). Negative affect may intensify in the long-run due to a chronic unwillingness to contact any source of possible adversity (Kashdan et al., 2013;Luoma et al., 2020). ...
... As such, the purpose of the current study was to analyze the differential effects of experiential avoidance, measured as state and trait, on the experience of affective states following exposure to two behavior analogue tasks. Trait experiential avoidance is ostensibly more shaped up through a long learning history of reinforcement trials for engaging in avoidance behavior, and as such, this variable was considered more of a removed, vulnerability factor (Kashdan et al., 2006). Therefore, it was hypothesized that trait experiential avoidance would operate as a distal risk factor (Little et al., 2007) for the likelihood of relying on state experiential avoidance in the moment. ...
Because experiential avoidance is considered by some to be the root of most forms of psychopathology, it is often a primary intervention and research target. Yet, the current literature is limited by its assessment and conceptualization of experiential avoidance as a trait variable. Little attention is paid to how it operates as a context-dependent state-based factor. Further, more information is needed to determine how experiential avoidance relates to affective states in specific contexts. Links have been established between experiential avoidance and negative affect intensity in the contextual behavior science (CBS) literature. Studying more specific elements of state-based experiential avoidance as potential mediators of negative affect is an important next step. Thus, the overarching goal of the present study was to measure the indirect effect of state experiential avoidance on the relationship between trait experiential avoidance and dimensions of negative affect following exposure to several challenging tasks. Participants (N = 160) in the current study completed both the cold pressor test and Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) in a counterbalanced order. Non-parametric bootstrapping analyses revealed a significant indirect effect of state experiential avoidance on negative affect for the TSST condition. As predicted, these effects were strongest under interpersonal contexts rather than when physiological discomfort was evoked. Implications for conceptualizing experiential avoidance as state and trait and how these relate to CBS interventions are proposed.
... According to the ACT framework, inflexibility is a psychological factor encompassing various inflexibility processes, including cognitive fusion and experiential avoidance [75]. Experiential avoidance, in particular, has been defined as the phenomenon of attempting to avoid unpleasant private experiences (such as thoughts, feelings, emotions, sensations, etc.), which are expected to be excessively negative or distressing, through deliberate efforts to control, suppress, eliminate, or escape from them [75,83]. In some cases, a certain degree of experiential avoidance could function as a self-protective strategy to prevent consequences perceived as catastrophic [83]. ...
... Experiential avoidance, in particular, has been defined as the phenomenon of attempting to avoid unpleasant private experiences (such as thoughts, feelings, emotions, sensations, etc.), which are expected to be excessively negative or distressing, through deliberate efforts to control, suppress, eliminate, or escape from them [75,83]. In some cases, a certain degree of experiential avoidance could function as a self-protective strategy to prevent consequences perceived as catastrophic [83]. In other cases, when too rigid and/or pervasive, experiential avoidance can be a pathogenic process [84], a toxic diathesis underlying several psychological vulnerabilities [84]. ...
The literature has widely acknowledged the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health of young adults. Despite extensive research, eudaimonic well-being, which focuses on self-knowledge and self-realization, has been scarcely investigated. This cross-sectional study aimed to add knowledge on the eudaimonic well-being of young adults one year after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, verifying its potential linkages with fear of death and psychological inflexibility. A total of 317 young Italian adults (18–34 years), recruited through a chain sampling method, completed measures of psychological inflexibility, fear of death, and eudaimonic well-being included in an online survey. The study’s hypotheses were tested with multivariate multiple regression and mediational analyses. Results showed that psychological inflexibility was negatively associated with all the dimensions of well-being, while fear of the death of others was associated with autonomy, environmental mastery, and self-acceptance. Furthermore, in the association between fear of death and well-being, the mediation role of psychological inflexibility was verified. These results contribute to the extant literature on the factors associated with eudaimonic well-being, providing clinical insights into the work with young adults within challenging times.
... Positive emotions can broaden thought-action repertoires (Fredrickson, 2001;Fried, 2010), suggesting that students and teachers who experience more positive emotions may generate more ideas and strategies. Efficient use of emotion regulation strategies could help maintain emotional well-being even when an individual is experiencing negative events (Kashdan et al. 2006;Ochsner and Gross, 2005;Troy et al. 2010). ...
This study investigated the predictors of quality of life i.e. perceived social support and emotion regulation among the 124 private school basic education teachers in the Division of San Carlos. Descriptive-correlational method was utilized by the researcher in this study. Result of Pearson Product Moment Correlation revealed that social support positively correlates to quality of life; whereas no correlation was observed between emotion regulation and quality of life using Spearman correlation. The level of emotion regulation and quality showed no significant difference when grouped according to age, gender, and number of years in teaching. On the other hand, perceived social support also showed no significant difference when grouped according to demographics except in number of years in teaching; however, post hoc test using Tukey HSD does not reveal any significant difference between pairwise groups. Using multiple regression analysis, a significant regression was found. The regression equation formed is given by = 73.618 + 4.028() + 0.841(). It indicated that a unit increase in perceived social support increases the quality of life by 4.028 units, assuming that emotion regulation is constant. This result underscores the unique and influential role of social support in contributing to the well-being of teachers.
... However, other authors claim that emotional discharge may have a positive effect on victims and may facilitate a change of stage, since it helps reduce the intensity of the emotions experienced and offers temporary relief to victims (Taherkhani, 2022). Emotional suppression (i.e., limiting facial expression and controlling positive and negative feelings) is a regulating strategy that is associated with lower PA, life satisfaction, and psychological well-being (Gross, 2015), and related with a lower level of functioning, a lack of acceptance and desire to remain in contact with one's emotional experiences, more vulnerability and the lack of responses to leave a violent relationship (Kashdan et al., 2006). High levels of emotional suppression may be linked to negative self-concept, increase distress, and are associated with more posttraumatic stress symptoms in IPV survivors (Muñoz-Rivas et al., 2021). ...
Intimate partner violence against women is a pervasive and significant problem around the world that causes victims to suffer grave mental and physical health issues. The Stages of Change or SOC model has been used in recent study to examine the stage of change in female victims as a potential predictor of their readiness to end their relationship. This study's objective was to analyse emotion-focused coping strategies used by female victims to deal with emotions arising from trauma, violence or abuse, according to the SOC model. The sample comprised 200 victims of gender violence who had received formal assistance in Spain. The standardised test was administered in face-to-face interviews. According to the women's SOC, the findings showed differences in the use of emotion-focused coping strategies and indicated that emotion regulation efforts were greater in the early SOC-especially in precontemplation and action-of the continuum towards action. Emotion-focused coping strategies were activated to regulate either positive or negative emotions, again in accordance with participants' stage of change, with negative affectivity predominating in the early stages (precontemplation and contemplation), and positive affectivity having a greater presence in the later ones (action and maintenance). A series of mediation analyses demonstrated that although negative emotions immobilise female victims in the precontemplation stage, they also facilitate effective coping in the action stage, thereby helping to reduce the emotional impact of violence.
... The second hypothesis is the sequential mediation model. Individuals accustomed to adopt maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies are more likely to avoid unpleasant experiences (Kashdan et al., 2006). ...
Although previous research has demonstrated shyness plays a critical role in the development and maintenance of smartphone addiction, the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relationship remains obscure. The present study aimed to examine the mediating roles of maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and experiential avoidance and the moderating role of online social support in the relationship between shyness and adolescents’ smartphone addiction. A sample of 513 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 16.16 years, range from 14 to 19) was recruited to complete the questionnaires. After sex and age were controlled, shyness was significantly and positively associated with adolescents’ smartphone addiction and this relationship was partially mediated by both maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and experiential avoidance. The multiple mediation analysis further indicated that maladaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and experiential avoidance exerted a mixed mediation effect on the relationship between shyness and adolescents’ smartphone addiction. Moreover, online social support significantly moderated the relationship between shyness and smartphone addiction and this relationship is much weaker for adolescents with high online social support. These results contribute to design the effective interventions of adolescents’ smartphone addiction.
... 58 Both emotion supression and experiential avoidance are negatively correlated with measures of both psychological 59,60 and physical health, 61,62 however, it seems that experiential avoidance is a more severe form of emotion dysregulation. For example, the correlation between experiential avoidance and anxiety is about 0.60, [63][64][65] while the correlation between emotion supression and anxiety is substantially lower and amounts to about 0.20. 57,[66][67][68][69][70] It can be speculated that experiential avoidance is a more pathological form of emotion dysregulation because when suppressing emotions a person tries to modulate the motor and physiological expression of an emotion, but the feeling of that emotion can still remain, while in the case of experiential avoidance the person supresses the motor expression, the physiological expression, and also the feeling itself, which are all three components of the total three components of emotion. ...
Objective: To analyze the correlation between sociodemographic variables, emotional states (anxiety, depression), emotion regulation strategies (experiential avoidance, emotion suppression) and acute gastrointestinal symptoms. Method: On a convenience sample of 186 subjects, data on acute gastrointestinal symptoms, emotions (depression and anxiety), emotion regulation strategies (emotion supression and experiential avoidance) and sociodemographic variables have been gathered using a Physical health questionnaire (PHQ), Zung depression scale, State trait anxiety inventory (STAI), Emotion regulation questionnaire (ERQ) and Brief experiential avoidance questionnaire (BEAQ). Data was analyzed by multiple hierarchical regression. In the final model 32% of variance of acute gastrointestinal symptoms was explained, and statistically significant predictors were depression and experiential avoidance. Higher levels of depression and experiential avoidance were associated with more frequent acute gastrointestinal symptoms. Conclusion: A high prevalence of clinically relevant symptoms of anxiety (63%) and depression (41%), as well as a positive correlation between emotion, emotion regulation strategies and acute gastrointestinal symptoms emphasize the importance of providing psychological support to patients with gastrointestinal system disorders. Independent contribution of experiential avoidance to the prediction of acute gastrointestinal symptoms shows that in order to understand the psychological aspect of gastrointestinal symptoms it is important to have insight not only into emotions, but also into the way they are being regulated. Sažetak Cilj: Analizirati povezanost između sociodemografskih varijabli, emocionalnih stanja (anksioznost, depresivnost), strategija regulacije emocija (izbjegavanje doživljaja, potiskivanje emocija) i akutnih probavnih simptoma Metode: Na prigodnom uzorku od 186 sudionika pomoću Upitnika tjelesnog zdravlja (PHQ), Zungovog upitnika depresivnosti, Upitnika anksioznosti kao stanja i osobine ličnosti (STAI), Upitnika regulacije emocija (ERQ) i Kratkog upitnika izbjegavanja doživljaja (BEAQ), prikupljeni su podaci o akutnim probavnim simptomima, emocijama (depresivnosti i anksioznosti), strategijama regulacije emocija (potiskivanje emocija i izbjegavanje doživljaja) i sociodemografskim varijablama. Na podacima je primijenjena hijerarhijska regresijska analiza. U finalnom modelu objašnjeno je 32% varijance akutnih gastrointestinalnih simptoma, pri čemu su statistički značajni prediktori bili depresivnost i izbjegavanje doživljaja. Intenzivnija depresivnost i izraženija sklonost izbjegavanju doživljaja bili su povezani s učestalijim akutnim gastrointestinalnim simptomima. Zaključak: Visoka zastupljenost klinički relevantnih simptoma anksioznosti (63%) i depresivnosti (41%), te pozitivna povezanost i emocija i strategija regulacije emocija s akutnim gastrointestinalnim simptomima, upućuje na važnost pružanja psihološke podrške bolesnicima s poremećajima gastrointestinalnog sustava. Nezavisan doprinos izbjegavanja doživljaja predikciji akutnih gastrointestinalnih simptoma pokazuje da je za razumijevanje psihološkog aspekta gastrointestinalnih simptoma važno imati uvid, ne samo u emocije, već i u način na koji ih se regulira.
... 121; italics added). Since the original explication of experiential avoidance, it has been widely studied and used to conceptualize a range of mental health concerns, both within and outside of CBS (Boulanger et al., 2010;Chawla & Ostafin, 2007;Kashdan et al., 2006). ...
Serious concerns have been raised regarding the validity of popular experiential avoidance measures. We developed a new “experiential avoidance rating scale” (EARS) to address some of the psychometric concerns with existing measures. Candidate items were generated according to the original functional contextual definition of experiential avoidance and reviewed by experts and public members for content validity and readability. Items then underwent validation involving n=3,628 participants. Exploratory factor analyses (n=1,069) identified six items with good underlying common variance. Confirmatory factor analyses from college student (n=1,068) and community samples (n=1,413) demonstrated excellent fit. In all samples, the EARS demonstrated evidence of content, factorial, concurrent, convergent, and discriminant validity. The EARS also demonstrated evidence of incremental validity by predicting significant additional variance above-and-beyond neuroticism and extant experiential avoidance measures in depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, alcohol use problems, and general mental health measures. Measurement invariance analyses indicated that the EARS demonstrated residual (strict) invariance between cisgender men and women; clinical and non-clinical participants; White Non-Hispanic, White Hispanic, Black, and Asian participants; and heterosexual and bisexual individuals. We suggest that the EARS be further investigated as a brief measure of experiential avoidance in additional studies, particularly with clinical populations. We also discuss areas of future psychometric study and implications.
... In order for leaders to be able to explore their core assumptions, ability of their teams to make sense out of the chaos of the disaster event, examine how protocols will and will not hold up under the stress of crisis, and develop a better understanding of how normal communication channels within the organization may not work, crisis leaders must be encouraged to explore the possibility of catastrophic organizational failure, something that most organizational leadership teams are afraid to do. However, this willingness to foster creativity, courage, and to accept risk on a daily basis is key to creating healthy, dynamic, innovative organizations for routine tasks (Kashdan, Barrios, Forsyth, & Steger, 2006;Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004), and can make them profoundly more resilient in the face of disaster. ...
Every human crisis demands a hero, an individual or small group of individuals who are not only aware of impending chaos, but in the vernacular are, “ready, willing, and able” to act decisively. Their decisive actions are understood to be the very barrier that holds back destruction – whether it is physical, financial, emotional, or philosophical. While the phrase “ready, willing, and able” sounds trivial in common use, the reason heroes are valuable in crisis events is precisely because most people are unable or unwilling to act. Thus, in moments of crisis, the risks involved and the decision making authority to address those risks, typically become concentrated in an individual or small group. This is often a tacit transaction wherein a heroic actor becomes the agent of the larger group (Desmond, 2008a, 2008b), and thus this individual no longer able to rely on the psychological and social crutches that allow others the “out” of inaction.
... Experiential avoidance is assessed using a self-report measure for children and adolescents (Avoidance and Fusion Questionnaire for Youth, Greco, Lambert, & Baer, 2008) and for parents (Acceptance and Avoidance Questionnaire, Bond et al., 2011). It has been suggested that experiential avoidance is detrimental to psychological well-being (Kashdan et al., 2006;Machell, Goodman, & Kashdan, 2015) and a critical factor in the development of a range of psychological disorders (Chawla et al., 2007). Symptoms of many disorders involve the avoidance of something, for example, avoiding anxiety eliciting situations (anxiety disorders), ruminating (depression), or distressing thoughts and feelings (substance abuse). ...
This paper describes the rationale and design of the Every Child Is Different project (Dutch: Ieder Kind is Anders, IKIA). IKIA is a national crowdsourcing study designed to examine the dynamic and dimensional nature of Dutch children's and adolescents' mental health and well-being using both self-report (8-18 years) and parental report (of youth 4-18 years). Emotional processes are integral to the project as they underlie most of the processes related to mental health and well-being. Via an internet platform participants complete cross-sectional questionnaires on emotional and psychosocial development, well-being, mental health, parenting, and social environment. Participants receive automated feedback which consists of visual displays of their (sub)scores compared to the sample's average and an explanation of the subject. Participants can additionally participate in a 30-day smartphone-based diary study about their daily activities, behaviors, and emotions. This paper describes the methods and techniques used in the IKIA project, as well as future research that can be conducted with the resulting data.
... With the important limitation that the present study measured negative attitudes toward sadness, rather than negative attitudes toward feelings in general (Leahy, 2002) or the emotional inhibition which presumably results from them, the present findings seem to be in line with past research which has argued experiential avoidance to constitute a generalized psychological vulnerability for various disorders (Kashdan et al., 2006;Masuda & Tully, 2011;Panayiotou et al., 2015). Again, with the same limitation in mind, results also seem to be in line with past research which has proposed seeing in alexithymia the result of emotional avoidance strategies (Berrocal et al., 2009;Bilotta et al., 2016;Panayiotou et al., 2015;Venta et al., 2012). ...
In accord with its conceptualization as a deficit, alexithymia has often been theorized and tested as a mediator of the association between childhood risk factors and later psychopathology. However, this is questioned by recent research which conceptualizes alexithymia as the result of negative perceptions of emotions, which by themselves could act as the real mediator of this association between childhood risk factors and later psychopathology. Cross-sectional data were collected through self-report questionnaires,from 193 undergraduate students. Results suggest that, in non-clinical samples, the association between an unsupportive emotion socialization alexithymia is completely mediated by avoidance-related negative attitudes towards sadness. Also, the association between emotion socialization and later psychopathology is not (in the case of borderline personality traits) or only minimally (in the case of depressive symptoms) mediated by alexithymia when these avoidance-related negative attitudes towards sadness are also included as a mediator. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.
... They put special emphasis on the role of acceptance in the regulation of the emotional process. Applying it in everyday life is connected with lowering the negative affect (Kashdan et al., 2006;Shallcross et al., 2010;Wojnarowska et al., 2020) and physiological reactivity in response to a negative stimulus triggering negative emotions (Troy et al., 2018). Some scholars perceive this strategy as the cognitive change, the reappraisal of the emotional state, since people usually assess their negative emotional condition and do not approve it. ...
Objective
Emotion regulation is an adaptive ability affecting people’s physical and mental health, quality of life and functioning. In the present study we focused on the influence of the intensity of experienced emotions on emotion regulation strategies (ERS) that are applied in everyday life.
Methods
For 7 days the participants kept an online diary where every day they described the situation which had aroused their strongest negative emotions. Next, they identified the emotions, their intensity and the type of applied strategies (acceptance vs. reappraisal vs. rumination vs. distraction vs. suppression). The study involved 88 people N = 88, which gives 538 observations.
Results
The obtained results indicate that the intensity of emotions affects the choice of regulation strategies. When the intensity increases, people are more likely to choose the rumination strategy and less likely to choose the reappraisal strategy. However, the expected relationship between the intensity and the number of regulation strategies was not confirmed. In turn, it was gender (male) that turned out to be associated with a greater number of strategies used.
Conclusion
The concern of this research was to look at making regulatory decisions in personally relevant and complex everyday situations. Although the emotions experienced in response to a difficult situation were varied, the intensity of the emotional experience was an important factor determining the choice of a regulation strategy. It indicates that this emotional dimension is a basic and determining aspect in people’s regulatory capabilities. These results also indicate that perhaps men in a situation perceived as stressful and worthy of emotional involvement use more regulatory strategies than women. These findings may find an application in all kinds of psychological interventions (e.g., psychotherapy, anger management therapies).
... Specifically, individuals with higher scores on measures of emotion regulation difficulties, depression, anxiety, and stress tended to exhibit greater negative reactivity and lower positive reactivity. These data suggest that high negative reactivity and low positive reactivity are associated with significantly higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms, and more emotion regulation difficulties, consistently with prior research suggesting that intense negative emotions are harder to regulate, and poor emotion regulation skills often result in an emotional profile characterized by high negative reactivity and low positive reactivity (Ciarocchi et al ., 2001;Gross and John, 2003;Kashdan et al ., 2006). Our analysis included the assessment of the divergent validity of the PERS-S by examining its correlations with conceptually unrelated measures, such as the PSQI, the DBAS, the ISI, the rMEQ, and the GDMS. ...
Emotion reactivity refers to the activation, intensity, and duration of emotional responses to internal or external stimuli. It can be differentiated from emotion regulation since the former is the very first response to an emotional trigger, and the latter can be defined as a tool for maintaining one’s own arousal in a window of tolerance. Since, to date, there are no Italian self-report measures able to evaluate individuals’ emotional reactivity, this study aimed to contribute to the Italian validation of the short form of the PERS (PERS-S). The PERS-S is an 18-item self-report measure answered on a 5-point Likert scale that generates six subscale scores and two composite scores, with higher scores indicating higher levels of reactivity. Data from 768 individuals showed that the PERS-S had good to excellent goodness-of-fit. The internal consistency was high, with an overall reliability coefficient (Cronbach’s α) of .87 and .86 for the negative and positive general scales, respectively. The PERS-S also demonstrated appropriate convergent validity, showing significant correlations with conceptually related measures, and acceptable divergent validity, showing minimal correlations with unrelated constructs. Finally, we evaluated the Test-Retest Reliability by administering the PERS-S to the same sample twice, with a 2-week interval. The significant correlations between the two PERS-S administrations suggest temporal stability. The Italian version of the PERS-S will enrich the repertoire of self-report measures for investigating the development and risk factors of mental health disorders and may have practical applications in clinical settings.
... Acceptance and commitment therapy is a type of psychotherapy that enhances psychological flexibility [155], and studies of acceptance and commitment therapy indicate that improved psychological flexibility is associated with decreased substance abuse, depression, self-harm, chronic pain, anxiety, prejudice, and stress, as well as other positive outcomes [155]. Further, psychological flexibility is an important dimension of overall psychological health [154] and is closely related to resilience [154,156,157]. ...
Equine-assisted services (EASs) are being increasingly used as complementary interventions for military veterans who have experienced trauma. However, there is limited evidence of benefit for this population and almost no literature describing the desired potential outcomes and possible mechanisms of action. The aim of this article is to address these gaps by reviewing the extant literature of animal-assisted interventions in general, and equine-assisted services in particular, with the goal of providing guidance for future investigations in the field. Currently, the field is in the early stage of scientific development, but published results are promising. Interventions that enhance treatment compliance and/or outcomes could benefit this population. Preliminary results, reviewed herein, indicate that EAS interventions might benefit the military veteran population by enhancing treatment engagement and therapeutic alliance, as well as by contributing to symptom reduction and resulting in various transdiagnostic benefits. It is recommended that future studies include exploration of potential beneficial outcomes discussed herein, as well as investigate suggested mechanisms of action.
... Based on the results of Kotsou et al. (2018), we hypothesize that acceptance will be the most central node in a network of mechanisms of change and will be most strongly connected to well-being (regardless of diagnosis). This premise is also supported by other research literature (Hayes et al., 2006;Kashdan et al., 2006). ...
Mechanisms of change represent the cornerstone of the therapeutic process. This study aimed to investigate how network models could be used to test mechanisms of change at a group level. A secondary aim was to investigate which of the several hypothesized mechanisms (emotion regulation, interoceptive awareness, and acceptance) are related to changes in psychological well-being. The sample comprised adult patients suffering from psychological disorders (N=444; 70% women) from 7 clinical sites in the Czech Republic who were undergoing groupbased multicomponent treatment composed mainly of psychodynamic psychotherapy (lasting from 4 to 12 weeks depending on the clinical site). Data were collected weekly using the multidimensional assessment of interoceptive awareness, emotion regulation skills questionnaire, chronic pain acceptance questionnaire-symptoms and outcome rating scale. A lag-1 longitudinal network model was employed for exploratory analysis of the panel data. The pruned final model demonstrated a satisfactory fit. Three networks were computed, i.e., temporal, contemporaneous, and between-person networks. The most central node was the modification of negative emotions. Mechanisms that were positively associated with well-being included modification, readiness to confront negative emotions, activity engagement, and trust in bodily signals. Acceptance of negative emotions showed a negative association with well-being. Moreover, noticing bodily sensations, not worrying, and self-regulation contributed indirectly to changes in well-being. In conclusion, the use of network methodology to model panel data helped generate novel hypotheses for future research and practice; for instance, well-being could be actively contributing to other mechanisms, not just a passive outcome.
... The concept of coping has been well studied and is generally understood as "constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person" (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Coping has been studied at the individual/personal level (Duhachek & Kelting, 2009;Han et al., 2015;Kashdan et al., 2006) without much focus on the social and cultural context of the individual(s) (Afifi et al., 2006;Bruce & Banister, 2019). In recent years, however, more literature acknowledging the importance of the environment on coping strategies adopted by individuals has emerged. ...
... However, no moderating effect has been found for emotion-focused coping. This indicates that although emotion-focused and avoidance strategies have both often been considered maladaptive coping in the literature (Chenoweth et al., 2019;Kashdan et al., 2006), the individual effects of each specific strategy are more nuanced. An optimistic evaluation of the OMC service's utilitarian value may influence individuals' processing of these stressful situations by heightening the positive aspects of OMC service. ...
... Avoidance is a very natural ERS with short-term positive effects. However, it often encompasses long-term psychological problems if it maintains anxiety, disconnects from goals and meaningful activities, or impairs social functioning (Kashdan et al., 2006;LeDoux et al., 2017). Behavioral avoidance is one of the key symptoms of anxiety disorders and, consequently, the target of their treatment (Craske et al., 2009;Hofmann & Hay, 2018). ...
Emotion regulation has been put forward as an important transdiagnostic process. However, previous analyses of the relationships between emotion regulation strategies and symptoms of psychopathology in children and adolescents have produced mixed results. The present meta-analysis examines the relationships between youth’s habitual use of three adaptive (acceptance, problem-solving, and cognitive reappraisal) and three maladaptive (rumination, avoidance, and suppression) strategies with symptoms of depression, anxiety, aggression, and addiction. A total of 181 articles with 386 effect sizes were analyzed. Rumination, avoidance, and acceptance showed the largest effect sizes across all symptoms. Maladaptive strategies showed, in general, larger effect sizes than adaptive strategies. Effect sizes were generally larger for internalizing compared to externalizing symptoms. The findings underscore the importance of emotion regulation for mental health in youth.
... 49 However, when avoidance becomes a habit over a long period of time, energy is expended to prevent exposure to unwanted experiences, leading to high levels of psychological distress and feelings of a meaningless life with cancer. 50 Additional studies designed to examine avoidance levels in patients with cancer are suggested to confirm the associations between avoidance and psychological distress in this population. ...
Objective
This study aimed to examine the reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire for Cancer (C-AAQ-Cancer) in patients with advanced lung cancer.
Methods
In Phase I, the AAQ-Cancer was translated from English to Chinese. In Phase II, an expert panel was invited to examine the content validity of the translated instrument, and pilot testing was performed. In Phase III, a total of 200 patients with advanced lung cancer from a university-affiliated hospital in central China were recruited to test the construct validity of the translated AAQ-Cancer using exploratory factor analysis, and reliability was assessed based on internal consistency and test–retest reliability.
Results
The semantic equivalence and content validity index of the C-AAQ-Cancer were satisfactory. Exploratory factor analysis indicated that the C-AAQ-Cancer contained the following five subscales: cancer concerns, blunting, blame, distancing, and behavioral disengagement. These subscales explaining 68.28% of the total variance. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale was 0.87, and the test–retest reliability was 0.839.
Conclusions
This study evaluated the psychometric properties of the C-AAQ-Cancer. The findings support the reliability and validity of this instrument in evaluating experiential avoidance or acceptance levels in patients with advanced lung cancer.
... 30 In terms of the outcome variables, the effects of low psychological flexibility on psychopathology and overall psychological illhealth have been widely explored. [31][32][33] According to these findings, it is reasonable to hypothesize that psychological flexibility profiles based on the PPFI correlate with perceived stress and mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 crisis. ...
Purpose:
Although the link between psychological flexibility and healthy functioning has been widely analyzed, the employed measurements often lacked accuracy. The current study introduced a person-centered approach that identified subgroups of college students across the dimensions of the Personalized Psychological Flexibility Index (PPFI) and explored how these subgroups relate to a risk factor (perceived stress) and mental health outcomes (depression, anxiety, negative affect, and positive affect) in the context of COVID-19.
Methods:
A sample of 659 participants (Mage = 19. 99, SD = 1.27; 57.97% females) completed the questionnaires online. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was employed to determine the optimal number of subgroups or profiles. Then, multinomial logistic regression and analyses of variance were used to identify variables associated with profile membership.
Results:
LPA identified three distinct profiles (active strategy, inconsistent strategy, and passive strategy). Furthermore, multinomial logistic regressions indicated that students with high perceived stress were more likely to be in the passive strategy group than the active strategy group (β = -0.104, OR = 0.901, p < 0.001) and the inconsistent strategy group (β = -0.087, OR = 0.917, p < 0.001). Additionally, analyses of variance revealed that the three profiles differed in depression (η2 = 0.062, p < 0.001), anxiety (η2 = 0.059, p < 0.001), negative affect (η2 = 0.047, p < 0.001), and positive affect (η2 = 0.048, p < 0.001).
Conclusion:
The current study employed LPA based on the PPFI to identify and confirm three profiles of psychological flexibility. We found that perceived stress and mental health outcomes were associated with these three profiles. This study offers a new perspective on understanding psychological flexibility through a person-centered approach. Furthermore, interventions aimed at reducing college students' perceived stress during the COVID-19 crisis are critical for preventing the deterioration of psychological flexibility.
... Vale notar que, apesar disso, os PNR -mais especificamente, a preocupaçãotambém possuem uma função evolutiva adaptativa, como planejamento, resolução de problemas e autorregulação emocional (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008;Watkins, 2008), habilidades as quais queremos que nossas clientes tenham e Ironicamente, o envolvimento rígido em estratégias de esquiva experiencial geralmente leva ao aumento do sofrimento psicológico (já vemos aqui a bola de neve se formando), tal como da frequência e intensidade dos PNR (Hayes et al., 1999;Kashdan et al., 2006;Ruiz et al., 2018). ...
Esse breve texto é uma publicação no volume 1 da revista Jornadas em Análise do Comportamento sobre a atuação da ACT sobre preocupação excessiva e ruminação.
Chamamos esse combo-(preocupação mais ruminação)-de pensamentos negativos repetitivos. Conforme a compreensão da terapia de aceitação e compromisso (ACT, sigla em inglês), tais processos passam a ser um problema clínico quando nos roubam do momento presente, nos afastam de nossos valores e da vida que desejamos construir.
Citação (APA 7): Leão, C. S. (2023). Atuação da ACT sobre preocupação excessiva e ruminação. Jornadas em análise do comportamento, 1(1), 5–8. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7897857
Volume disponível em: www.ibac.com.br/jornadas-ac
... Improved PF is associated with decreased substance abuse, depression, self-harm, chronic pain, anxiety, prejudice, and stress as well as other outcomes [156]. Further, PF an important dimension of overall psychological health [155], and is closely related to resilience [155,157,158]. ...
Equine-assisted services (EAS) are being increasingly used as complementary interventions for military veterans who have experienced trauma. However, there is limited evidence of benefit for this population and almost no literature describing desired potential outcomes and possible mechanisms of action. The aim of this article is to address these gaps by reviewing the extant literature of animal-assisted interventions in general, and equine-assisted services in particular, with the goal of providing guidance for future investigations in the field. Currently, the field is in the early stage of scientific development, but published results are promising. Interventions that enhance treatment compliance and/or outcomes could benefit this population. Preliminary results, reviewed herein, indicate that EAS interventions might benefit the military veteran population by enhancing treatment engagement and therapeutic alliance, as well as contributing to symptom reduction and resulting in various transdiagnostic benefits. It is recommended that future studies include exploration of potential beneficial outcomes discussed herein as well as investigate suggested mechanisms of action.
... I-EC is thought to be intrinsically motivated by the anticipation of rewards, the pleasure of discovering new knowledge for self-serving purposes, and not for any extrinsic benefit (Litman & Jimerson, 2004;Litman, 2008). It can also influence school-and work-related performance and goal-setting behaviors (von Stumm et al., 2011;Litman, 2008;Kashdan et al., 2006). Curiosity that is motivated by interest has been shown to guide one's decision-making in several contexts. ...
... Expressive suppression is related to less positive and more negative emotions (e.g., John & Gross, 2004), and may cause a sense of cognitive dissonance between one's outward expressions and internal feelings, thus causing additional distress on top of existing negative emotions (Gross & John, 2003). Expressive suppression is related to anxiety and depressive symptoms (Kashdan et al., 2006), reduced self-esteem (Mouatsou & Koutra, 2021), nervous system and cardiovascular arousal (Harris, 2001), and dissatisfaction in interpersonal relationships (Srivastava et al., 2009). Thus, expressive suppression may result in a sense of inefficacy in reducing negative feelings and habituated physiological arousal, ultimately exacerbating the negative consequences of COVID-19-related stress on mothers' resilience. ...
Stress related to the COVID-19 pandemic may pose acute threats to caregivers' capacity to cope and result in problematic parenting. However, studies have suggested that some caregivers were able to maintain high resilience when facing hardship. The goal of the present study was to examine how COVID-19-related stress affects resilience and parenting of mothers with young children and whether mothers' individual differences in emotion regulation skills lead to different resilience and parenting outcomes. We followed a sample of 298 mothers in the United States with children between 0 and 3 years old over 9 months beginning in April 2020 when most states were on lockdown. Results indicated that both COVID-19-related stress in April 2020 and greater increases/smaller decreases of COVID-19-related stress across 9 months were associated with mothers' lower resilience in January 2021. Low resilience, in turn, was associated with mothers' higher parenting stress, perceptions of parenting incompetence, and risk for child abuse. Furthermore, for mothers with low and moderate levels of cognitive reappraisal, a greater increase/smaller decrease in COVID-19-related stress was associated with their lower resilience after 9 months. In contrast, for mothers with high cognitive reappraisal, the change in COVID-19-related stress was not related to their resilience. This study demonstrates the importance of cognitive reappraisal for mothers of young children to resist and thrive against chronic and uncontrollable external stressors, which are crucial to preventing mothers' child abuse potential and maintaining positive parenting. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
... Bu bağlamda yapılan araştırmada KKT'nin temel psikopatoloji görüşüne göre psikopatolojilerin oluşmasında önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğu düşünülen deneyimsel kaçınma davranışını Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Folette ve Strosahl, (1996) düşünceler, duygular, bedensel hisler ya da hatıralar gibi özel deneyimlerin şeklini, sıklığını ve yoğunluğunu değiştirme çabası olarak açıklamaktadırlar. Bunun yanı sıra KKT'ye temel oluşturan yaklaşımlardan biri olan İÇT (İlişkisel Çerçeve Teorisi) kaçınma davranışını, kısa vadede bazı olumsuzlukların ortadan kaldırılması amacıyla herhangi bir durumdan uzaklaşılması fakat bu uzaklaşma eğilimleri uzun vadede daha olumsuz sonuçlar doğuran davranış kalıbı olarak tanımlamaktadır (Kashdan, Barrios, Forsyth, ve Steger, 2006;Exline, Kaplan, ve Grubbs, 2012;Feldner, Zvolensky, Eifert ve Spira, 2003;Brown, Lejuez, Kahler ve Strong, 2002). ...
Araştırmada Kabul ve Kararlılık Terapisi temelli geliştirilen karar verme becerisi psikoeğitim programının karar verme stilleri üzerindeki etkisi incelenmiştir. Araştırmada 2x3’lük split plot desen kullanılmıştır. Veri toplama aracı olarak Karar Verme Stilleri Ölçeği ve Kişisel Bilgi Formu uygulanmıştır. Ölçümlerden edinilen verilerin analizinde, tek faktör üzerinde tekrarlı ölçümler için iki faktörlü varyans analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. Analiz sonucunda; Müdahale * zaman etkisinin Bağımlı ve Kaçınmacı Karar Verme Stilinde anlamlı olduğu; Anlık, Sezgisel ve Rasyonel Karar Verme Stillerinde anlamlı olmadığı belirlenmiştir. Bağımlı ve Kaçınmacı Karar Verme Stillerinde oluşan farklılaşmanın kaynağının belirlenmesi için Bonferonni testi ve varyans analizi kullanılmıştır. Edinilen bulgulara gore; psikoeğitim programının bireylerin Bağımlı Karar Verme Stillerinde anlamlı düşüşler oluşturduğu ve bu düşüşün izleme testinde de devam ettiği belirlenmiştir. Kaçınmacı Karar Verme Stili için uygulanan Bonferonni testi ve varyans analizi sonucunda ise psikoeğitim programının bireylerin Kaçınmacı Karar Verme Stilinde anlamlı düşüşler oluşturduğu ve bu düşüşlerin izleme sürecinde de devam ettiği belirlenmiştir.
Background
Common challenges in the youth mental health system include low access, poor uptake, poor adherence, and limited overall effectiveness. Digital technologies offer promise, yet challenges in real-world integration and uptake persist. Moderated Online Social Therapy (MOST) aims to overcome these problems by integrating a comprehensive digital platform into existing youth mental health services. Theory of change (ToC) frameworks can help articulate how and why complex interventions work and what conditions are required for success.
Objective
The objective of this study is to create a ToC for MOST to explain how it works, why it works, who benefits and how, and what conditions are required for its success.
Methods
We used a multimethod approach to construct a ToC for MOST. The synthesis aimed to assess the real-world impact of MOST, a digital platform designed to enhance face-to-face youth mental health services, and to guide its iterative refinement. Data were gathered from 2 completed and 4 ongoing randomized controlled trials, 11 pilot studies, and over 1000 co-design sessions using MOST. Additionally, published qualitative findings from diverse clinical contexts and a review of related digital mental health literature were included. The study culminated in an updated ToC framework informed by expert feedback. The final ToC was produced in both narrative and table form and captured components common in program logic and ToC frameworks.
Results
The MOST ToC captured several assumptions about digital mental health adoption, including factors such as the readiness of young people and service providers to embrace digital platforms. External considerations included high service demand and a potential lack of infrastructure to support integration. Young people and service providers face several challenges and pain points MOST seeks to address, such as limited accessibility, high demand, poor engagement, and a lack of personalized support. Self-determination theory, transdiagnostic psychological treatment approaches, and evidence-based implementation theories and their associated mechanisms are drawn upon to frame the intervention components that make up the platform. Platform usage data are captured and linked to short-, medium-, and long-term intended outcomes, such as reductions in mental health symptoms, improvements in functioning and quality of life, reductions in hospital visits, and reduced overall mental health care costs.
Conclusions
The MOST ToC serves as a strategic framework for refining MOST over time. The creation of the ToC helped guide the development of therapeutic content personalization, user engagement enhancement, and clinician adoption through specialized implementation frameworks. While powerful, the ToC approach has its limitations, such as a lack of standardized methodology and the amount of resourcing required for its development. Nonetheless, it provides an invaluable roadmap for iterative development, evaluation, and scaling of MOST and offers a replicable model for other digital health interventions aiming for targeted, evidence-based impact.
Purpose:
This study aimed to analyze the concepts of experiential avoidance, anxiety sensitivity and behavioral inhibition system through healthy volunteers and patients diagnosed with anxiety disorder. It was planned to analyze and evaluate the correlation among the levels of experiential avoidance, anxiety sensitivity and behavioral inhibition system in various anxiety groups.
Method:
Within the scope of this study, clinical interviews were carried out with patients who sought treatment at the Psychiatry Department of the Hospital of Balıkesir University Medical Faculty. The study included 50 Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) patients and 50 Panic Disorder (PD) patients who fulfilled the study criteria and accepted to participate in the study. A voluntary control group of 50 individuals with similar age and gender with the patients was formed. The participants were evaluated through the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II), Behavioral Inhibition System/Behavioral Approach System Scale (BIS/BAS Scale), and Anxiety Sensitivity Index-3 (ASI-3).
Results:
In this study, the anxiety sensitivity, behavioral inhibition system sensitivity and experiential avoidance levels were all found to be higher in both the GAD and PD patients than the controls. On the other hand, the scale scores did not significantly differ between the GAD patients and PD patients. Positive correlations were determined among anxiety sensitivity, experiential avoidance and behavioral inhibition system. Our data provided findings supporting that the development of anxiety disorders entails increased anxiety sensitivity, behavioral inhibition system sensitivity and experiential avoidance levels.
Discussion:
The literature has shown, through separate studies, a correlation among experiential avoidance, anxiety sensitivity and behavioral inhibition system as well as a correlation between these concepts and anxiety disorders, and this study handled them altogether to reveal their correlation with anxiety in a clinical environment.
Bu araştırma, kendini homoseksüel veya heteroseksüel olarak tanımlayan bireylerde yaşantısal kaçınma, değer odaklı yaşam ve depresyon-anksiyete-stres arasındaki ilişkiyi belirleme ve homoseksüel bireylerde değer odaklılığın depresyon, anksiyete ve stres puanlarını yordama gücünü tespit etmek amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma grubu 199’u homoseksüel, 199’u heteroseksüel olmak üzere 398 kişiden oluşmaktadır. Verilerin analizi için Bağımsız Gruplar t-Testi, Pearson çarpım moment korelasyon analizi, Çoklu Standart Regresyon analizi yapılmıştır. Araştırmanın bulguları; eşcinsel davranış eğilimi gösteren bireylerde değer verme ölçeği ilerleme ve tıkanma alt boyutlarının depresyonu %47 (r = .683; p
Background
Dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs form the basis of the formation and maintenance of psychopathologies. In our study, we planned to examine the common aspects of the concepts of dysfunctional metacognition, experiential avoidance, and behavioral inhibition system in depressed patients compared to healthy individuals and their effects on each other.
Methods
Fifty-five depressed patients and as a control group 54 healthy volunteers participated in the study. Beck Depression Inventory, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Metacognitions Questionnaire 30, Acceptance and Action Questionnaire II, and Behavioral Inhibition and Behavioral Activation Scale were used in the study.
Results
Median (minimum–maximum) Acceptance and Action Questionnaire II score was 9 (7-35) points in the control group and 30 (9-46) points in the depressed patient group (P < .001). A statistically significant difference between the groups was observed only in the Behavioral Activation Scale—reward responsiveness subscale, with 20 (14-30) points in the control group and 23 (13-36) points in the patient group. A statistically significant difference was observed between the groups in all Metacognitions Questionnaire 30 subscale scores (P < .001). A statistically significant positive correlation was found between depression scores and experiential avoidance (r = 0.751; P < .001), reward responsiveness (r = 0.329; P < .001) and metacognition subscale scores. In addition, a positive correlation was found between experiential avoidance and metacognition subscale scores (P < .001).
Conclusion
The data we obtained support the fact that as the severity of depression increases, the patients more strongly stick to dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs, exert more frequently experiential avoidance and less often impulsive behaviors. Considering these clinical features may contribute favorably to the individualized psychotherapy process.
Background
Disordered eating refers to a range of unhealthy eating behaviors and related clinical symptoms that can impair daily functioning and lead to physical and psychological issues. This highlights the need to explore the complex pathology of this phenomenon. Emotional functioning difficulties are often linked to disordered eating behaviors. This study investigated the predictive ability of three transdiagnostic emotion regulation constructs (distress tolerance, anxiety sensitivity, and experiential avoidance) in relation to disordered eating in a non-clinical population.
Methods
A total of 253 undergraduate students from Tehran universities were selected using a convenience sampling method and completed the Eating Attitude Test (EAT-26), Distress Tolerance Scale (DTS), Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI-3), and Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ-II). The research data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, and multiple linear regression.
Results
The findings revealed significant relationships between disordered eating and distress tolerance, anxiety sensitivity, and experiential avoidance. The regression analysis indicated that these variables collectively accounted for 53% of the variance in disordered eating, with distress tolerance having the most significant explanatory role.
Conclusions
Our results demonstrated that transdiagnostic constructs such as distress tolerance, anxiety sensitivity, and experiential avoidance can significantly predict disordered eating. This knowledge may be valuable in the development of preventive and therapeutic transdiagnostic protocols for individuals displaying disordered eating symptoms and behaviors or those at risk of developing clinical eating disorders.
Understanding the individual differences that can buffer the impact of combat and other adverse exposures on deleterious behavioral health outcomes could lead to more targeted prevention and intervention efforts. Cognitive reappraisal, an antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy, is linked to positive health outcomes such as lower levels of post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression. This study examined the moderating effect of individual differences in cognitive reappraisal use on the association between combat exposure and behavioral health outcomes in active-duty U.S. Soldiers (N = 2,290). This study utilized survey data collected approximately 18 months following a combat deployment to Afghanistan in 2014. Results showed that individual differences in cognitive reappraisal use significantly moderated the effect of combat exposure on anxiety and post-traumatic stress symptoms but not depressive symptoms. Specifically, increasing combat exposures predicted a steeper increase in negative behavioral health symptoms for Soldiers reporting lesser (versus greater) cognitive reappraisal use. These findings highlight a role for cognitive reappraisal as a targetable factor that can mitigate the behavioral health consequences of exposure to combat stressors.
Alexithymia is a clinically relevant personality trait characterized by poor emotional awareness and associated with several psychological and physical health concerns. Individuals with high alexithymia tend to engage in experiential avoidance and this may mediate psychological distress. However, little is known about what specific processes of experiential avoidance are involved, and the nature of the relation between alexithymia, experiential avoidance, and psychological distress remains unclear at a latent construct level. To examine this relationship at the latent construct level, a representative sample of 693 U.S. adults completed alexithymia (TAS-20, BVAQ, PAQ), general distress (DASS-21), multi-dimensional experiential avoidance (MEAQ), and general health (PROMIS-G-10) questionnaires. Structural equation modeling revealed that alexithymia significantly predicted experiential avoidance (β = 0.966, t = 82.383, p < .01), experiential avoidance significantly predicted general distress (β = 0.810, t = 2.017, p < .05), and experiential avoidance fully mediated the relationship between alexithymia and general distress (βindirect = −0.159, t = −0.398, p > .05). Correlations between alexithymia and experiential avoidance subfactors revealed a strong relationship to the repression and denial subfactor. Experiential avoidance is a promising target for clinical interventions, though longitudinal research is necessary to elucidate how the relationship between alexithymia and experiential avoidance unfolds over time.
Although existing studies have proved that autistic traits (AT) may have relations to non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) behaviors, its associations with anxiety, rumination and experiential avoidance (EA) are still unclear. The current study, based on a sample of 1317 Chinese college students, explored the associations between AT, anxiety and NSSI, and the possible modulating roles of rumination and EA in these associations. The results shows that 1) a total of 334 (25.36%) students reported a history of NSSI and 30 (2.28%) students were categorized as high AT; 2) Students with high AT reported higher rates of NSSI than those with low AT (36.67% vs. 25.10%); 3) AT, anxiety, rumination and EA have positive relations with NSSI; 4) AT predicted NSSI indirectly through anxiety; 5) Rumination and EA significantly moderated the effects of AT on NSSI via anxiety. In conclusion, this study confirms the indirect effect of AT on NSSI through anxiety in Chinese college students, and further clarifies the reinforcing effects of rumination and EA on the associations between AT, anxiety and NSSI. These findings suggest that developing adaptive emotion-regulating strategies and positive coping styles might promote the prevention and treatment of NSSI behaviors among autistic individuals.
Objectives:
The first aim of this pilot observational study was to replicate a previous study of a resiliency psychotherapy incorporating horses (PIH) intervention for healthcare workers. The second aim was to address some gaps in the literature regarding equine-assisted services more broadly.
Design:
Prospective open trial.
Setting:
A large healthcare system and a community equine facility INTERVENTION: A single-session four-hour intervention that focused on participants resilience.
Main outcome measures:
Safety, feasibility, and utilization were assessed, and psychological instruments were administered. Instruments utilized were the Positive and Negative Affect Scale the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire II, and the Conner-Davidson Resiliency Scale.
Results:
Thirty-eight subjects participated in the study, the majority of which were female (71.1%). The age group with the most representation included those ranging from age 25 to 34. The intervention was safe but underutilized. Participation was associated with improved psychological flexibility (PF), and positive affect, as well as reduction in negative affect pre- to post-intervention. There was no change in resiliency and there were no associations between improvements in affect and PF.
Conclusions:
Resiliency PIH interventions for healthcare workers can be utilized safely and likely result in short-term psychological benefits for participants. Future randomized controlled investigations are warranted, and these studies should implement methods to maximize utilization. Additionally, this study and the literature suggest that enhanced affect and PF are likely important EAS outcomes across a variety of interventions. These constructs should be investigated with more rigorous studies including comparisons of interventions with and without a psychotherapy component.
Although cyber victimization has been suggested as a significant risk factor for the development of adolescents’ depression, the underlying psychopathological process that mediates this relationship needs further exploration. Based on the psychological inflexibility model, this study aimed to examine cognitive fusion and experiential avoidance as serial mediators in the relation between cyber victimization and depression. A total of 556 Chinese adolescents completed a set of online self-report questionnaires measuring cyber victimization, cognitive fusion, experiential avoidance, and depression. A bias-corrected bootstrap approach was used to test the serial mediation model. The results showed that cyber victimization predicted adolescents’ depression not only directly but also indirectly through three paths: the mediating role of (1) cognitive fusion and (2) experiential avoidance, and (3) the serial mediating role of cognitive fusion and experiential avoidance. These findings provide insight into the interventions for depression in adolescent cyber victims.
Several researchers have demonstrated that revisiting and making meaning out of negative experiences can be helpful, while others have suggested that such “dwelling in the past” (e.g., rumination) is associated with a range of negative outcomes, such as depression. In addition to such inconsistent findings, negative effects of revisiting negative experiences have been shown to be weaker in non‐Western cultures compared to Western cultures. This paper employs a sociocultural cognitive framework to understand the mechanisms of such cultural differences, as well as potentially shed light on some of the paradoxes behind revisiting negative experiences observed in Western cultures. We specified how the different perspectives towards change, context, and contradiction between holistic/dialectical versus analytic thinking styles may have an impact on the effects of recalling and reflecting upon past negative events. We integrated a wide range of empirical evidence that implies how the cognitive differences serve as mechanisms for cultural differences in revisiting negative experiences, generated a set of hypotheses, and outlined possible directions for future research.
Au cours des dernières années, les pratiques méditatives et plus singulièrement la méditation dite « de pleine conscience » (« mindfulness 1 »), ont fait l’objet d’un engouement sans précédent. Elles sont aujourd’hui appliquées aux entreprises, à l’éducation et même à l’armée. Cette hype de la méditation, qui a suscité un certain nombre d’idées fausses sur le sujet, a également été suivie par une série de critiques. Cet article examine les principales critiques et propose des pistes pour y répondre. Il aborde notamment les difficultés à définir la méditation et la pleine conscience, ainsi que les problèmes méthodologiques qui affectent l’interprétation des résultats de recherche. L’article discute également de l’image erronée de la méditation comme une panacée et son utilisation pour échapper aux difficultés de la vie. Enfin, il explore les effets indésirables des pratiques méditatives et aborde les questions éthiques liées à l’instrumentalisation de la méditation et à la justice sociale.
Dijital teknolojiler, hayatın her alanında vazgeçilmezimizdir. İnternetin etkileşim imkânı sağlaması, dijital araçların erişilebilir ve taşınabilir olması, bir bakıma dijital bağımlılıklarının temelini oluşturmaktadır. Diğer yandan internetin sahip olduğu birçok avantaj kaçınma davranışlarını kolaylaştırmaktadır. İnternet ve dijital araçlar insanlara stresli ve sorunlu durumlarda kolay bir kaçış yolu sunmaktadır. İnsanların, istenmeyen ve olumsuz durumları yaşamamak için geliştirdiği strateji ve savunma biçimleri yaşantısal kaçınma olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Üzücü ve stresli durumlardan kendini korumak adına kaçınmak, sorunlarla baş edebilmek için farklı yollar denemek, kişilere kısa süreli rahatlama, uzaklaşmış olma hissi yaşatabilmektedir. İnternet ve dijital teknolojiler kişiye stresli durumlardan uzaklaşması için büyük kolaylık sağlayabilmektedir. Bu durum bağımlılık sorunlarını da beraberinde getirmektedir. 390 üniversite öğrencisi ile yüz yüze anket tekniğiyle toplanan veriler, katılımcıların stresli durumlarla başa çıkma ve olumsuz hislerden kaçınma amacıyla dijital araçları aktif bir şekilde kullandığını göstermektedir. Araştırmada yaşantısal kaçınma ile dijital bağımlılık ilişkisinde, dijital araç kullanımının aracılık rolü belirlenmiştir. Yine yaşantısal kaçınmanın, dijital araç kullanımı ve dijital bağımlılık üzerinde pozitif anlamlı etkisi bulunmaktadır.
Full-text is available here: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/3K4YSWUMPP8DPGEQFJDE/full?target=10.1080/03069885.2023.2212856
‘For after all, the best thing one can do when it is raining is, let it rain.’ (Longfellow, 1906)
Mental health conditions, including depression, anxiety, and stress, affect a sizable proportion of university students. Yet, little is known regarding the incidence of mental health issues among Indian university students. These mental health issues are generally caused by a range of factors, including academic demands, interpersonal connections (Steptoe, 2007), future prospects, competitive exams, peer pressure, and professional considerations (Beiter et al., 2015). One of the most important mental health problems impacting a large population across India and the world is depression, leading to physical diseases, suicidal thoughts, and suicide, among other negative outcomes (Gururaj et al., 2016). According to the NCRB Report, 2021, the two age groups most susceptible to suicide were between 18 and 30 and 30 and 44. Suicide rates in both age categories were 34.5% and 31.7%, respectively. Family issues (3,233 victims), romantic relationships (1,495 victims), and illness (1,408 victims) were the three leading factors in suicides below 18 years of age, while the victims that were either students or unemployed made up 8.0% (13,089 victims) and 8.4% (13,714 victims) of all suicides, respectively. The objectives of this study were to understand and add to the body of knowledge on the role of mindfulness concerning depression, anxiety, and stress amongst university students; the role of mindfulness concerning avoidant behaviours amongst university students; and the mediating role of acceptance in the relationship between mindfulness and depression, anxiety, and stress amongst university students. The results of the study revealed that depression, experiential avoidance, and mindfulness are all strongly and negatively connected. The study discovered a strong correlation between experiential avoidance and depression, anxiety, and stress (psychological distress). Mindfulness had a considerable impact on the mediator, experiential avoidance, which was postulated.
Download Full Text from: https://doi.org/10.1177/025609092311664
Gratitude is conceptualized as a moral affect that is analogous to other moral emotions such as empathy and guilt. Gratitude has 3 functions that can be conceptualized as morally relevant: (a) a moral barometer function (i.e., it is a response to the perception that one has been the beneficiary of another person's moral actions); (b) a moral motive function (i.e., it motivates the grateful person to behave prosocially toward the benefactor and other people); and (c) a moral reinforcer function (i.e., when expressed, it encourages benefactors to behave morally in the future). The personality and social factors that are associated with gratitude are also consistent with a conceptualization of gratitude as an affect that is relevant to people's cognitions and behaviors in the moral domain.
The importance of cognitive styles as psychological antecedents of psychopathology has gained increasing acceptance over the past 2 decades. Although ample research has explored cognitive styles that confer vulnerability to depression, cognitive styles that confer vulnerability to anxiety have received considerably less attention. In the present investigation, we examined the looming maladaptive style (LMS) as a cognitive style that functions as a danger schema to produce specific vulnerability to anxiety, but not to depression. In 4 studies, we examined the psychometric properties of a revised measure of the LMS, its predictive utility, and its effects on threat-related schematic processing. Results provided evidence for the validity of the LMS and indicated that it predicts anxiety and schematic processing of threat over and above the effects of other cognitive appraisals of threat, even in individuals who are currently nonanxious.
In four studies, the authors examined the correlates of the disposition toward gratitude. Study 1 revealed that self-ratings and observer ratings of the grateful disposition are associated with positive affect and well-being prosocial behaviors and traits, and religiousness/spirituality. Study 2 replicated these findings in a large nonstudent sample. Study 3 yielded similar results to Studies 1 and 2 and provided evidence that gratitude is negatively associated with envy and materialistic attitudes. Study 4 yielded evidence that these associations persist after controlling for Extraversion/positive affectivity, Neuroticism/negative affectivity, and Agreeableness. The development of the Gratitude Questionnaire, a unidimensional measure with good psychometric properties, is also described.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A theory of ironic processes of mental control is proposed to account for the intentional and counterintentional effects that result from efforts at self-control of mental states. The theory holds that an attempt to control the mind introduces 2 processes: (a) an operating process that promotes the intended change by searching for mental contents consistent with the intended state and (b) a monitoring process that tests whether the operating process is needed by searching for mental contents inconsistent with the intended state. The operating process requires greater cognitive capacity and normally has more pronounced cognitive effects than the monitoring process, and the 2 working together thus promote whatever degree of mental control is enjoyed. Under conditions that reduce capacity, however, the monitoring process may supersede the operating process and thus enhance the person's sensitivity to mental contents that are the ironic opposite of those that are intended.
The present study describes the development of a short, general measure of experiential avoidance, based on a specific theoretical approach to this process. A theoretically driven iterative exploratory analysis using structural equation modeling on data from a clinical sample yielded a single factor comprising 9 items, A fully confirmatory factor analysis upheld this same 9-item factor in an independent clinical sample. The operational characteristics of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAO) were then examined in 8 additional samples. All totaled, over 2,400
The present study describes the development of a short, general measure of experiential avoidance, based on a specific theoretical approach to this process. A theoretically driven iterative exploratory analysis using structural equation modeling on data from a clinical sample yielded a single factor comprising 9 items. A fully confirmatory factor analysis upheld this same 9-item factor in an independent clinical sample. The operational characteristics of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ) were then examined in 8 additional samples. All totaled, over 2,400 participants were studied. As expected, higher levels of experiential avoidance were associated with higher levels of general psychopathology, depression, anxiety, a variety of specific fears, trauma, and a lower quality of life. The AAQ related to more specific measures of avoidant coping and to self-deceptive positivity, but the relation to psychopathology could not be fully accounted for by these alternative measures. The data provide some initial support for the model of experiential avoidance based on Relational Frame Theory that is incorporated into Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, and provides researchers with a preliminary measure for use in population-based studies on experiential avoidance.
Four studies demonstrate the psychometric adequacy and validity of scales designed to assess coping through emotional approach. In separate undergraduate samples, exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of dispositional (Study 1) and situational (Study 3) coping item sets yielded 2 distinct emotional approach coping factors: emotional processing (i.e., active attempts to acknowledge and understand emotions) and emotional expression. The 2 scales yielded high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, as well as convergent and discriminant validity. A study (Study 2) of young adults and their parents established the scales' interjudge reliabilities. Longitudinal (Study 3) and experimental (Study 4) research supported the predictive validity of the emotional approach coping scales with regard to adjustment to stressful encounters. Findings highlight the utility of functionalist theories of emotion as applied to coping theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Syndromal classification is a well-developed diagnostic system but has failed to deliver on its promise of the identification of functional pathological processes. Functional analysis is tightly connected to treatment but has failed to develop testable, replicable classification systems. Functional diagnostic dimensions are suggested as a way to develop the functional classification approach, and experiential avoidance is described as 1 such dimension. A wide range of research is reviewed showing that many forms of psychopathology can be conceptualized as unhealthy efforts to escape and avoid emotions, thoughts, memories, and other private experiences. It is argued that experiential avoidance, as a functional diagnostic dimension, has the potential to integrate the efforts and findings of researchers from a wide variety of theoretical paradigms, research interests, and clinical domains and to lead to testable new approaches to the analysis and treatment of behavioral disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study tested the hypothesis that coping through emotional approach, which involves actively processing and expressing emotions, enhances adjustment and health status for breast cancer patients. Patients (
n = 92) completed measures within 20 weeks following medical treatment and 3 months later. Women who, at study entry, coped through expressing emotions surrounding cancer had fewer medical appointments for cancer-related morbidities, enhanced physical health and vigor, and decreased distress during the next 3 months compared with those low in emotional expression, with age, other coping strategy scores, and initial levels on dependent variables (except medical visits) controlled statistically. Expressive coping also was related to improved quality of life for those who perceived their social contexts as highly receptive. Coping through emotional processing was related to one index of greater distress over time. Analyses including dispositional hope suggested that expressive coping may serve as a successful vehicle for goal pursuit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia and hedonic enjoyment constitute 2 philosophical conceptions of happiness. Two studies involving combined samples of undergraduate and graduate students (Study 1,
n = 209; Study 2,
n = 249) were undertaken to identify the convergent and divergent aspects of these constructs. As expected, there was a strong positive correlation between personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Analyses revealed significant differences between the 2 conceptions of happiness experienced in conjunction with activities for the variables of (1) opportunities for satisfaction, (2) strength of cognitive-affective components, (3) level of challenges, (4) level of skills, and (5) importance. It thus appears that the 2 conceptions of happiness are related but distinguishable and that personal expressiveness, but not hedonic enjoyment, is a signifier of success in the process of self-realization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies supported hypotheses that (1) published scales tapping coping through processing and expressing emotion are confounded with psychopathology; (2) previously demonstrated relations between emotional approach coping (EAC) and maladjustment are partially spurious; and (3) EAC, when tapped by items uncontaminated by distress, is beneficial under specific conditions. In Study 1, 194 psychologists rated a majority of published items, but no author-constructed EAC item, as indicative of pathology. Study 2 assessed relations of confounded and unconfounded EAC scales to 171 young adults' adjustment during stressful events. Confounded items evidenced weaker discriminant validity with distress measures than did unconfounded items, and they were weaker predictors of later maladjustment when initial adjustment was controlled than when it was not. Unconfounded EAC predicted improved adjustment for women and poorer adjustment for men over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Gratitude is conceptualized as a moral affect that is analogous to other moral emotions such as empathy and guilt. Gratitude has 3 functions that can be conceptualized as morally relevant: (a) a moral barometer function (i.e., it is a response to the perception that one has been the beneficiary of another person's moral actions); (b) a moral motive function (i.e., it motivates the grateful person to behave prosocially toward the benefactor and other people); and (c) a moral reinforcer function (i.e., when expressed, it encourages benefactors to behave morally in the future). The personality and social factors that are associated with gratitude are also consistent with a conceptualization of gratitude as an affect that is relevant to people's cognitions and behaviors in the moral domain.
The present study describes the construction and validation of a new scale for measuring coping strategies entitled the Coping Styles Questionnaire (CSQ). Earlier studies had suggested that there were three primary coping components: task, emotion, and avoidance. In part, the validation of the CSQ confirmed these results, extracting factors concerned with problem-solving (Rational Coping, RATCOP), emotion (Emotional Coping, EMCOP) and avoidance (Avoidance Coping, AVCOP). However, a new factor was uncovered which tapped distancing or detachment (Detached Coping, DETCOP). Subsequent analyses suggested a grouping of two adaptive (RATCOP and DETCOP) and two maladaptive (EMCOP and AVCOP) coping styles, which was confirmed by the concurrent validation of the scale using the Emotional Control Questionnaire.
The independence of positive and negative affect has been heralded as a major and counterintuitive finding in the psychology of mood and emotion. Still, other findings support the older view that positive and negative fall at opposite ends of a single bipolar continuum. Independence versus bipolarity can be reconciled by considering (a) the activation dimension of affect, (b) random and systematic measurement error, and (c) how items are selected to achieve an appropriate test of bipolarity. In 3 studies of self-reported current affect, random and systematic error were controlled through multiformat measurement and confirmatory factor analysis. Valence was found to be independent of activation, positive affect the bipolar opposite of negative affect, and deactivation the bipolar opposite of activation. The dimensions underlying D. Watson, L. A. Clark, and A. Tellegen's (1988) Positive and Negative Affect schedule were accounted for by the valence and activation dimensions.
ACT is a therapy that is based philosophically in clinical behavior analysis. Functional contextualism is the world view that
underlies ACT. Theoretically ACT is based on RFT, which offers an account of how language creates pain and useless methods
of dealing with it, and which suggests alternative contextual approaches to these domains. ACT uses metaphors, experiential
exercises, and logical paradox to get around the literal content of language and to produce more contact with the ongoing
flow of experience in the moment. The primary ACT components are challenging the control agenda, cognitive defusion, willingness,
self as context, values, and commitment. ACT is part of the CBT tradition, although it has notable differences from traditional
CBT. The main purpose of ACT is to relieve human suffering through helping clients live a vital, valued life.
Research on self-esteem has focused almost exclusively on level of trait self-esteem to the neglect of other potentially more important aspects such as the contingencies on which self-esteem is based. Over a century ago, W. James (1890) argued that self-esteem rises and falls around its typical level in response to successes and failures in domains on which one has staked self-worth. We present a model of global self-esteem that builds on James' insights and emphasizes contingencies of self-worth. This model can help to (a) point the way to understanding how self-esteem is implicated in affect, cognition, and self-regulation of behavior, (b) suggest how and when self-esteem is implicated in social problems; (c) resolve debates about the nature and functioning of self-esteem; (d) resolve paradoxes in related literatures, such as why people who are stigmatized do not necessarily have low self-esteem and why self-esteem does not decline with age; and (e) suggest how self-esteem is causally related to depression. In addition, this perspective raises questions about how contingencies of self-worth are acquired and how they change, whether they are primarily a resource or a vulnerability, and whether some people have noncontingent self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
The psychometric properties of the Anxiety Control Questionnaire (ACQ) were evaluated in 1,550 outpatients with DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders and 360 nonclinical participants. Counter to prior findings, exploratory factor analyses produced a 3-factor solution (Emotion Control, Threat Control, Stress Control) based on 15 of the ACQ's original 30 items. Factor analyses in two independent clinical samples (e.g., confirmatory factor analysis, CFA) replicated the 3-factor solution. Multiple-groups CFAs indicated that the measurement properties of the ACQ were invariant in male and female patients, and that the ACQ was largely form and parameter equivalent in a clinical versus nonclinical sample. Hierarchical analysis supported the existence of a higher-order dimension of perceived control. Structural regression analyses indicated that each of the ACQ factors accounted for significant unique variance in one or both latent factors representing the dimensions of autonomic anxiety and depression. The results are discussed in regard to their conceptual and psychometric implications to the construct of perceived emotional control.
Analytical solutions for point and variance estimators of the mediated effect, the ratio of the mediated to the direct effect, and the proportion of the total effect that is mediated were studied with statistical simulations. We compared several approximate solutions based on the multivariate delta method and second order Taylor series expansions to the empirical standard deviation of each estimator and theoretical standard error when available. The simulations consisted of 500 replications of three normally distributed variables for eight sample sizes (N = 10, 25, 50, 100, 500, 1000, and 5000) and 64 parameter value combinations. The different solutions for the standard error of the indirect effect were very similar for sample sizes of at least 50, except when the independent variable was dichotomized. A sample size of at least 500 was needed for accurate point and variance estimates of the proportion mediated. The point and variance estimates of the ratio of the mediated to nonmediated effect did not stabilize until the sample size was 2,000 for the all continuous variable case. Implications for the estimation of mediated effects in experimental and nonexperimental studies are discussed.
Cognitive- behavioral therapy (CBT), although effective, has the lowest average effect size for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), when compared to effect sizes of CBT for other anxiety disorders. Additional basic and applied research suggests that although interpersonal processes and emotional avoidance may be maintaining GAD symptomatology, CBT has not sufficiently addressed interpersonal issues or emotion avoidance. This study aimed to test the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of an integrative psychotherapy, combining CBT with techniques to address interpersonal problems and emotional avoidance. Eighteen participants received 14 sessions of CBT plus interpersonal emotional processing therapy and three participants (for training and feasibility purposes) received 14 sessions of CBT plus supportive listening. Results showed that the integrative therapy significantly decreased GAD symptomatology, with maintenance of gains up to 1 year following treatment. In addition, comparisons with extant literature suggested that the effect size for this new GAD treatment was higher than the average effect size of CBT for GAD. Results also showed clinically significant change in GAD symptomatology and interpersonal problems with continued gains during the 1-year follow-up. Implications of these results are discussed.
In a longitudinal community survey of 291 adults, we explored the relation between coping strategies and psychological symptoms. Respondents completed the revised Ways of Coping Scale (Folkman & Lazarus, 1985) for a self-named stressful episode. Factor analysis produced eight coping factors: three problem focused, four emotion focused, and one (support mobilization) that contained elements of both. Multiple regression analyses indicated bidirectionality in the relation between coping and psychological symptoms. Those in poorer mental health and under greater stress used less adaptive coping strategies, such as escapism, but coping efforts still affected mental health independent of prior symptom levels and degree of stress. We compared main versus interactive effects models of stress buffering. Main effects were confined primarily to the emotion-focused coping scales and showed little or negative impacts of coping on mental health; interactive effects, though small, were found with the problem-focused scales. The direction of the relation between problem-focused scales and symptoms may depend in part on perceived efficacy, or how the respondent thought he or she handled the problem. Implications for the measurement of adaptive coping mechanisms and their contextual appropriateness are discussed.
In this study we examined the relation between personality factors (mastery and interpersonal trust), primary appraisal (the stakes a person has in a stressful encounter), secondary appraisal (options for coping), eight forms of problem- and emotion-focused coping, and somatic health status and psychological symptoms in a sample of 150 community-residing adults. Appraisal and coping processes should be characterized by a moderate degree of stability across stressful encounters for them to have an effect on somatic health status and psychological symptoms. These processes were assessed in five different stressful situations that subjects experienced in their day-to-day lives. Certain processes (e.g., secondary appraisal) were highly variable, whereas others (e.g., emotion-focused forms of coping) were moderately stable. We entered mastery and interpersonal trust, and primary appraisal and coping variables (aggregated over five occasions), into regression analyses of somatic health status and psychological symptoms. The variables did not explain a significant amount of the variance in somatic health status, but they did explain a significant amount of the variance in psychological symptoms. The pattern of relations indicated that certain variables were positively associated and others negatively associated with symptoms.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators.
A theoretical model of psychological well-being that encompasses 6 distinct dimensions of wellness (Autonomy, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, Positive Relations with Others, Purpose in Life, Self-Acceptance) was tested with data from a nationally representative sample of adults (N = 1,108), aged 25 and older, who participated in telephone interviews. Confirmatory factor analyses provided support for the proposed 6-factor model, with a single second-order super factor. The model was superior in fit over single-factor and other artifactual models. Age and sex differences on the various well-being dimensions replicated prior findings. Comparisons with other frequently used indicators (positive and negative affect, life satisfaction) demonstrated that the latter neglect key aspects of positive functioning emphasized in theories of health and well-being.
Self-esteem lability (SEL), defined as daily event-related variability in state self-esteem, and low trait self-esteem (TSE) were assessed among 205 male and female undergraduates who were currently depressed (CD), previously depressed (PD), and never depressed (ND). SEL scores were derived for the effect of positive, negative, and combined events on state self-esteem over 30 days. Consistent with psychodynamic and cognitive theories, SEL was found to be a better index of depression proneness than TSE. PD Ss showed higher lability on all SEL scores than ND controls but did not differ from controls on TSE. Ss were reassessed 5 months later, and new cases showed higher premorbid SEL than ND controls but did not differ from controls on premorbid TSE. SEL at Time 1 was found to increase risk for depression at Time 2 among Ss reporting high life stress at Time 2. Theoretical and methodological implications are discussed.
This study examined the effects of emotional suppression, a form of emotion regulation defined as the conscious inhibition of emotional expressive behavior while emotionally aroused. Ss (43 men and 42 women) watched a short disgust-eliciting film while their behavioral, physiological, and subjective responses were recorded. Ss were told to watch the film (no suppression condition) or to watch the film while behaving "in such a way that a person watching you would not know you were feeling anything" (suppression condition). Suppression reduced expressive behavior and produced a mixed physiological state characterized by decreased somatic activity and decreased heart rate, along with increased blinking and indications of increased sympathetic nervous system activity (in other cardiovascular measures and in electrodermal responding). Suppression had no impact on the subjective experience of emotion. There were no sex differences in the effects of suppression.
This edition of the Mastery of Your Anxiety and Panic Workbook has been updated to include strategies and techniques for dealing with both panic disorder and agoraphobia. The program outlined is based on the principles of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and is organized by skill, with each chapter building on the one before it. It covers the importance of recordkeeping and monitoring progress, as well as breathing techniques and thinking skills. The main focus of the treatment involves learning how to face agoraphobia situations and the often frightening physical symptoms of panic from an entirely new perspective. Self-assessment quizzes, homework exercises, and interactive forms allow patients to become active participants in treatment and to learn to manage panic attacks, anxiety about panic, and avoidance of panic and agoraphobic situations.
The effect of a grateful outlook on psychological and physical well-being was examined. In Studies 1 and 2, participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 experimental conditions (hassles, gratitude listing, and either neutral life events or social comparison); they then kept weekly (Study 1) or daily (Study 2) records of their moods, coping behaviors, health behaviors, physical symptoms, and overall life appraisals. In a 3rd study, persons with neuromuscular disease were randomly assigned to either the gratitude condition or to a control condition. The gratitude-outlook groups exhibited heightened well-being across several, though not all, of the outcome measures across the 3 studies, relative to the comparison groups. The effect on positive affect appeared to be the most robust finding. Results suggest that a conscious focus on blessings may have emotional and interpersonal benefits.
The ascendance of emotion theory recent advances in cognitive science and neuroscience, and increasingly important findings from developmental psychology and learning make possible an integrative account of the nature and etiology of anxiety and its disorders. This model specifies an integrated set of triple vulnerabilities: a generalized biological (heritable) vulnerability, a generalized psychological vulnerability based on early experiences in developing a sense of control over salient events, and a more specific psychological vulnerability in which one learns to focus anxiety on specific objects or situations. The author recounts rite development of anxiety and related disorders based on these triple vulnerabilities and discusses implications for the classification of emotional disorders.
An ACT Approach Chapter 1. What is Acceptance and Commitment Therapy? Steven C. Hayes, Kirk D. Strosahl, Kara Bunting, Michael Twohig, and Kelly G. Wilson Chapter 2. An ACT Primer: Core Therapy Processes, Intervention Strategies, and Therapist Competencies. Kirk D. Strosahl, Steven C. Hayes, Kelly G. Wilson and Elizabeth V. Gifford Chapter 3. ACT Case Formulation. Steven C. Hayes, Kirk D. Strosahl, Jayson Luoma, Alethea A. Smith, and Kelly G. Wilson ACT with Behavior Problems Chapter 4. ACT with Affective Disorders. Robert D. Zettle Chapter 5. ACT with Anxiety Disorders. Susan M. Orsillo, Lizabeth Roemer, Jennifer Block-Lerner, Chad LeJeune, and James D. Herbert Chapter 6. ACT with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Alethea A. Smith and Victoria M. Follette Chapter 7. ACT for Substance Abuse and Dependence. Kelly G. Wilson and Michelle R. Byrd Chapter 8. ACT with the Seriously Mentally Ill. Patricia Bach Chapter 9. ACT with the Multi-Problem Patient. Kirk D. Strosahl ACT with Special Populations, Settings, and Methods Chapter 10. ACT with Children, Adolescents, and their Parents. Amy R. Murrell, Lisa W. Coyne, & Kelly G. Wilson Chapter 11. ACT for Stress. Frank Bond. Chapter 12. ACT in Medical Settings. Patricia Robinson, Jennifer Gregg, JoAnne Dahl, & Tobias Lundgren Chapter 13. ACT with Chronic Pain Patients. Patricia Robinson, Rikard K. Wicksell, Gunnar L. Olsson Chapter 14. ACT in Group Format. Robyn D. Walser and Jacqueline Pistorello
Objective:
The goal of this consensus statement is to provide primary care clinicians with a better understanding of management issues in social anxiety disorder (social phobia) and guide clinical practice with recommendations for appropriate pharmacotherapy.
Participants:
The 4 members of the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety were James C. Ballenger (chair), Jonathan R. T. Davidson, Yves Lecrubier, and David J. Nutt. Other faculty invited by the chair were Julio Bobes, Deborah C. Beidel, Yukata Ono, and Herman G. M. Westenberg.
Evidence:
The consensus statement is based on the 7 review papers published in this supplement and on the scientific literature relevant to the issues reviewed in these papers.
Consensus process:
The group met over a 2-day period. On day 1, the group discussed each review paper, and the chair identified key issues for further debate. On day 2, the group discussed these issues to arrive at a consensus view. After the group meetings, the consensus statement was drafted by the chair and approved by all attendees.
Conclusions:
The consensus statement underlines the importance of recognizing social anxiety disorder and provides recommendations on how it may be distinguished from other anxiety disorders. It proposes definitions for response and remission and considers appropriate management strategies. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are recommended as first-line therapy, and effective treatment should be continued for at least 12 months. Long-term treatment is indicated if symptoms are unresolved, the patient has a comorbid condition or a history of relapse, or there was an early onset of the disorder.
151 college students to whom the Anxiety Sensitivity Index (ASI) was administered in 1984 were retested in 1987 for anxiety sensitivity and tested for panic attacks, state-trait anxiety, and anxiety disorder history. ASI scores in 1984 predicted the frequency and intensity of panic attacks in 1987. Compared to Ss with low 1984 ASI scores, Ss with high 1984 ASI scores were 5 times more likely to have an anxiety disorder during the period 1984 to 1987. Test-retest reliability for the ASI across 3 yrs was .71. Data provide evidence for the stability of anxiety sensitivity over time and that the concept of anxiety sensitivity should be considered a personality variable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)