Article

Social anxiety disorder in veterans affairs primary care clinics

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Abstract

To examine the prevalence and correlates of social anxiety disorder (SAD) in veterans, 733 veterans from four VA primary care clinics were evaluated using self-report questionnaires, telephone interviews, and a 12-month retrospective review of primary care charts. We also tested the concordance between primary care providers' detection of anxiety problems and diagnoses of SAD from psychiatric interviews. For the multi-site sample, 3.6% met criteria for SAD. A greater rate of SAD was found in veterans with than without post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (22.0% vs. 1.1%), and primary care providers detected anxiety problems in only 58% of veterans with SAD. The elevated rate of comorbid psychiatric diagnoses and suicidal risk associated with SAD was not attributable to PTSD symptom severity. Moreover, even after controlling for the presence of major depressive disorder, SAD retained unique, adverse effects on PTSD diagnoses and severity, the presence of other psychiatric conditions, and suicidal risk. These results attest to strong relations between SAD and PTSD, the inadequate recognition of SAD in primary care settings, and the significant distress and impairment associated with SAD in veterans.

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... Past year prevalence rates of SAD in both civilian and military populations are somewhat comparable, with 2.8% of the general and 3.6% of military populations meeting diagnostic criteria (Grant et al., 2005;Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006). However, veterans suffering from PTSD are significantly more likely to have SAD than those without PTSD (22% vs. 1.1%). ...
... Likewise, veterans are more likely to have PTSD than the general population (11%-22% vs. 8%) (Ainspan, Penk, & Kearney, 2018;National Center on PTSD, 2018). Increasing the concern for veterans is that comorbid PTSD and SAD has been shown to increase risk of suicide (Kashdan et al., 2006) and aggression (Van Voorhees et al., 2018). ...
... They also may use drugs or alcohol to control feelings of discomfort and anxiety, resulting in potentially risktaking behavior and deleterious personal relationships (Gros et al., 2016). Thus, SAD diminishes potential for building a social support network, increasing risk for other mental health issues and suicidality (Kashdan et al., 2006;McMillan, Asmundson, & Sareen, 2017). ...
Article
Virtual environments have been increasingly used in conjunction with traditional cognitive behavioral treatments for disorders, such as posttraumatic stress disorder and social anxiety disorder. Research has found that virtual environments can be effectively used as an alternative to in vivo or imaginal exposure. However, research has yet to compare the costs and benefits of different platforms, such as virtual reality and 360° video, for creating virtual environments. The current qualitative study compares the experiences of veterans with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder and social anxiety disorder as they interact with a virtual grocery store environment. Participants were randomly assigned to experience the virtual reality (n = 7) or 360° video (n = 5) environments. After experiencing the virtual environments, the participants were interviewed about their perceptions of immersion, feasibility, and acceptability of the modality. Portions of the interviews are presented along with recommendations for clinical researchers seeking to use virtual technology with clinical treatments.
... In a sample of 86 veterans diagnosed with PTSD, 73.3% had another anxiety disorder diagnosis (Magruder et al., 2005). Within this sample, 39.3% of these veterans had a comorbid generalized anxiety disorder diagnosis, 37.4% had a comorbid panic dis-order diagnosis, 22.1% had a comorbid social anxiety disorder diagnosis, and 12.8% had a comorbid obsessive-compulsive diagnosis (Gros, Frueh, & Magruder, 2011;Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006;Milanak, Gros, Magruder, Brawman-Mintzer, & Frueh, 2013). Veterans with PTSD and comorbid panic disorder or comorbid social anxiety disorder had more severe PTSD symptoms than veterans with PTSD alone (Gros et al., 2011;Kashdan et al., 2006). ...
... Within this sample, 39.3% of these veterans had a comorbid generalized anxiety disorder diagnosis, 37.4% had a comorbid panic dis-order diagnosis, 22.1% had a comorbid social anxiety disorder diagnosis, and 12.8% had a comorbid obsessive-compulsive diagnosis (Gros, Frueh, & Magruder, 2011;Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006;Milanak, Gros, Magruder, Brawman-Mintzer, & Frueh, 2013). Veterans with PTSD and comorbid panic disorder or comorbid social anxiety disorder had more severe PTSD symptoms than veterans with PTSD alone (Gros et al., 2011;Kashdan et al., 2006). Notably, veterans in these studies were recruited from a master list of veterans who had been seen in VA primary care, and were not specifically seeking treatment for PTSD or other mental health diagnoses. ...
... PCL data from veterans without PTSD were included in the analyses as an indication of whether differences in self-reported PTSD symptom severity reflected genuine differences in PTSD severity or served as a marker of overall distress. The PCL has been commonly used in studies of veteran comorbidity to examine symptom severity (Gros et al., 2011;Gros et al., 2012;Ikin, Creamer, Sim, & McKenzie, 2010;Kashdan et al., 2006;Magruder et al., 2005;Magruder et al., 2004;Milanak et al., 2013;Walter, Barnes, & Chard, 2012). ...
Article
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Objective: Comorbidity is the rule and not the exception among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Examining comorbidities in a veteran population allows us to better understand veterans' symptoms and recognize when mental health treatment may need to be tailored to other co-occurring issues. This article evaluates comorbid mood and anxiety disorders and PTSD symptom severity in a large sample of veterans from multiple eras of service, including the recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Method: The current study used data from veterans who sought treatment for PTSD at a VA PTSD Clinical Team from 2005 to 2013. Veterans were assessed for PTSD, mood, and anxiety disorders using a structured clinical interview and completed self-report symptom measures as part of the PTSD clinic intake procedure. A total of 2,460 veterans were evaluated, and 867 met diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Results: Veterans with PTSD were significantly more likely than those without PTSD to be diagnosed with social anxiety disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, but significantly less likely to be diagnosed with depression. In addition, veterans who had at least one comorbid diagnosis in addition to PTSD reported significantly higher PTSD symptom severity than veterans with PTSD alone. PTSD symptom severity also varied by era of service. Conclusion: These results suggest that among veterans seeking treatment for PTSD, comorbid mood and anxiety disorders may be associated with greater severity of PTSD symptoms. Future work is needed to determine the impact of specific comorbidities on trauma-focused treatment outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record
... In addition, those with comorbid PTSD and SAD demonstrated higher levels of guilt than those with a principal diagnosis of PTSD, lower levels of physical functioning than those with a principal diagnosis of SAD (but with a score equivalent to the principal PTSD group), as well as lower levels of mental functioning compared to either of the other two groups even after adjusting for other comorbid conditions. In addition, a recent study conducted using data from four Veterans Affairs medical centers demonstrated that after adjusting for PTSD severity, veterans diagnosed with SAD (73.1% of whom met criteria for PTSD) remained at an increased risk for suicide and comorbid psychiatric conditions (particularly major depression, dysthymia, and generalized anxiety disorder compared to veterans without SAD (of whom 26.9% met criteria for PTSD; Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006). The high degree of comorbidity and risk for negative psychosocial outcomes documented within the extant literature demonstrates the need for a better understanding of the manner in which these disorders influence one another. ...
... To the best of our knowledge, there is only one study to date that has examined the impact of SAD on PTSD severity and symptom profile. Using a sample of 733 veterans from four Veterans Affairs primary care clinics, Kashdan et al. (2006) observed that the presence of SAD was associated with higher scores on overall measures of PTSD symptom severity and higher scores for each PTSD symptom cluster (assessed using the PTSD Checklist-Military version; Weathers, Litz, Herman, Huska, & Keane, 1993), with the largest differences observed within the Criterion C avoidance symptom domain. After adjusting for the presence of depression, veterans with SAD still demonstrated higher rates of PTSD and greater PTSD symptom severity. ...
... Although Kashdan et al. (2006) appears to represent the first examination of the relationship between SAD and PTSD symptom presentation, it was limited in both scope and sample, restricting the generalizability of the results. Specifically, the authors did not examine within criterion variability and utilized a highly circumscribed sample that was almost exclusively male (93.3%) with nearly half (43%) above 65 years of age (average age 61.2 years, SD = 11.9 years). ...
Article
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) demonstrate a high degree of comorbidity (ranging from 14.8% to 46.0%); however, little is known about the nature of this association. Contemporary research has largely focused on treatment-seeking or veteran samples, and may not generalize to the population as a whole. Large-scale epidemiological studies are needed to fill existing gaps in the literature and to clarify this association for the general population. The current study examined whether the presence of comorbid SAD influenced PTSD symptom presentation. The rate of individual PTSD symptoms was investigated among individuals with PTSD and SAD in comparison to those with PTSD alone. Data were obtained from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiological Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions, a large, nationally representative survey of American adults (n = 34,653). Analyses revealed elevated rates of PTSD symptoms among those with comorbid PTSD and SAD across all symptom clusters, with significant odds ratios ranging from 1.5 to 4.87. Adjusting for depression and other Axis I disorders did not substantially alter study findings. Results suggest that the presence of SAD is associated with differences in the expression of PTSD symptoms.
... Persons with both disorders report greater suicidal risk, poorer scores on quality of life dimensions, and greater distress and impairment in physical, mental, and social functioning relative to those with either disor- der. [8,11,12] Below, we review the available data on the epidemiology of co-occurring trauma, PTSD, SA, and SAD in both veteran and community samples. ...
... [16] We recently found no significant differences in socially related fears between persons reporting assaultive and nonassaultive trauma; however, it is noteworthy that our assessment of socially related fears was limited (i.e. the social concerns subscale of the Anxiety Sensitivity Index [18] and the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale [19] ) and may not generalize to all forms of SA or SAD.Table 1 shows the prevalence of SAD in individuals with a diagnosis of PTSD in veteran and civilian samples. Consistently higher rates of SAD have been observed in veterans with PTSD relative to those without PTSD (ranging from 12.5 to 72% [10,12,20,21] ); however, it is important to note that veterans have shown a consistent tendency to overreport pathol- ogy, [22] which may impact our understanding of cooccurring symptoms. Orsillo et al. [20] found that among 41 male Vietnam veterans, those meeting criteria for a diagnosis of PTSD were more likely (72%) to also warrant a diagnosis of SAD relative to those without PTSD (22%). ...
... panic disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder) were more commonly associated with SAD than was PTSD. [25] Much higher rates of PTSD have been reported in veterans with a diagnosis of SAD (73.1%) relative to those without a diagnosis of SAD (26.9% [12] ). Recent research also suggests that patients with SAD are more likely to interpret extremely stressful social events as traumatic and evidence PTSD-like symptoms in response to this event, relative to nonanxious controls. ...
Article
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) are frequently comorbid among veteran and community samples. Several studies have demonstrated significant comorbidity between trauma, PTSD, and social anxiety (SA), and a growing number of studies have explored the nature of this association. Although a diagnosis of either PTSD or SAD alone can result in significant impairment in social and occupational functioning, these difficulties are often magnified in persons suffering from both disorders. This review describes the current state-of-the-art regarding the co-occurrence of trauma, PTSD, and SA. First, we provide an overview of empirical data on the prevalence of co-occurring trauma, PTSD, and SAD. Second, we describe possible explanatory models of the co-occurrence, with a specific focus on the shared vulnerability model. Third, we review the available empirical data addressing the postulates of this model, including both genetic and psychological vulnerabilities. Fourth, we describe additional factors-guilt, shame, and depressive symptoms-that may help to explain the co-occurrence of PTSD and SA. A better understanding of this complex relationship will improve the efficacy of treatment for individuals suffering from both disorders. We conclude with key areas for future research.
... They further concluded that measurement tools to evaluate the complexities of social support for combat-exposed Veterans are under developed. Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Herbert and Magruder's [21] evaluation of 733 Veterans, found a strong relationship between PTSD and Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD), which was characterized as distress in social interactions, social avoidance patterns and impaired social relationships. Combat Veterans with PTSD had a concurrent diagnosis of SAD at a rate of 22% as compared to veterans without PTSD at 1.1%. ...
... In evaluating the National Sample of Female and Male Vietnam Veterans, King, King, Foy, Keane, and Fairbank [22], reported that functional social support was quite potent in offsetting the deleterious consequences of PTSD. Additionally, Kashdan et al. [21] found that alcohol dependency, but not abuse, was related to Veterans with PTSD-SAD co-morbidity. They propose that Veterans with SAD cope by one of two extremes-binge drinking or alcohol avoidance. ...
Article
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Now that the financial needs of post 9/11 student service members/veterans have begun to be addressed, the attention has shifted to disabilities and recovery strategies of student service members/veterans. Therefore, in a cross sectional design, this study electronically surveyed 189 enrolled student service members/veterans attending a large urban state university about their experiences of returning to school. Specifically, this study described the students’ rates of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and alcohol abuse, perceived stress, adaptive and non-adaptive coping strategies, social support, participation in campus activities, and perceived campus climate. Moreover, correlates of recovery were examined. Although the majority of the returning students were doing well, 36.1% reported a high level of stress, 15.1% reported a high level of anger, 17.3% reported active symptoms of PTSD, and 27.1% screened positive for alcohol problems. Social networks were found to be the most salient factor in recovery. The study’s limitations are discussed and specific support strategies are presented that can be employed by disability services, counseling services and college administrators.
... There has been a growing interest in the co-occurrence of socially related fears and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) (Asmundson & Carleton, 2005;Hofmann, Litz, & Weathers, 2003;Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006;Zayfert, DeViva, & Hofmann, 2005). Although PTSS may co-occur with a variety of symptoms (e.g., mood and substance-use), examining socially related fears in persons who have experienced trauma is particularly important because social activity has a substantial impact on quality of life (Ryff & Singer, 2000). ...
... Comparisons made between the probable PTSD and no PTSD groups showed significant differences on the BFNE with moderate to large effect sizes (Cohen, 1988). These results are in line with previous research where higher levels of other socially related fears were found among individuals with PTSD relative to those without PTSD (e.g., Kashdan et al., 2006;Orsillo, Heimberg, Juster, & Garrett, 1996;Orsillo, Weathers, et al., 1996). Further investigation is needed to examine FNE among traumatized individuals. ...
Article
Few studies have examined why socially related fears and posttraumatic stress commonly, but not invariably, co-occur. It may be that only traumata of human agency (e.g., sexual assault), for which there is an interpersonal component, give rise to co-occurring socially related fears. These symptoms might also co-occur because of shared genetic factors. We investigated these issues using a sample of 882 monozygotic and dizygotic twins. No significant differences in socially related fear (i.e., fear of negative evaluation, fear of socially observable arousal symptoms) were found between participants reporting assaultive or nonassaultive trauma. However, significant differences in socially related fear were found when participants were grouped into probable PTSD and no PTSD groups. Participants with probable PTSD exhibited greater socially related fear (i.e., fear of negative evaluation) than those without PTSD. Using biometric structural equation modeling, trauma exposure was best explained by shared and nonshared environmental influences. The fear of socially observable arousal symptoms was influenced by genetic and nonshared environmental influences. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
... Psychiatric disorders widely studied in relation to trauma exposure include PTSD (by definition; American Psychiatric Association, 1994), social anxiety disorder (e.g., Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006;Green, Lindy, Grace, & Leonard, 1992;Orsillo, Heimberg, Juster, & Garrett, 1996), and depression (e.g., O'Donnell, Creamer, & Pattison, 2004;Shalev et al., 1998). Despite high rates of comorbidity among these conditions, there is evidence for some degree of independent onset and consequences in trauma survivors (Yehuda, McFarlane, & Shalev, 1998). ...
... As a complementary model, experiential avoidance also moderated the effects of SAD on quality of life such that the only trauma survivors at high functioning were those without disorder and low in experiential avoidance; this is the third empirical study to support this model, each with different outcome variables and methodologies (Kashdan & Breen, 2008;. Dovetailing with prior work, the interpersonal problems, diminished positive experiences, and self-regulatory resource drain linked to SAD appears to be a neglected consideration in the study and treatment of trauma survivors (e.g., Frueh et al., 2006;Green et al., 1992;Julian et al., 2006;Orsillo et al., 1996). The current study represents an important, albeit preliminary step toward identifying more complete models of vulnerability and resilience in trauma survivors of war. ...
Article
Few studies have been conducted on psychological disorders other than post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in war survivors. The aim of this study was to examine PTSD, social anxiety disorder (SAD), and major depressive disorder (MDD) and their associations with distress and quality of life in 174 Albanian civilian survivors of the Kosovo War. This included testing of conceptual models suggesting that experiential avoidance might influence associations between anxiety and mood disorders with psychological functioning. Each of the three psychiatric disorders was associated with greater experiential avoidance and psychological distress, and lower quality of life. Being a refugee was associated with a higher likelihood of having SAD and MDD. We found evidence for experiential avoidance as a partial mediator of the respective effects of SAD and PTSD on quality of life; experiential avoidance did not mediate the effects of disorders on global distress. We also found support for a moderation model showing that only war survivors without SAD and low experiential avoidance reported elevated quality of life; people with either SAD or excessive reliance on experiential avoidance reported compromised, low quality of life. This is the third independent study, each using a different methodology, to find empirical support for this moderation model [Kashdan, T. B., & Breen, W. E. (2008). Social anxiety and positive emotions: a prospective examination of a self-regulatory model with tendencies to suppress or express emotions as a moderating variable. Behavior Therapy, 39, 1-12; Kashdan, T. B., & Steger, M. F. (2006). Expanding the topography of social anxiety: an experience sampling assessment of positive emotions and events, and emotion suppression. Psychological Science, 17, 120-128]. Overall, we provided initial evidence for the importance of addressing PTSD, SAD, MDD, and experiential avoidance in primarily civilian war survivors.
... Trait behavioral inhibition (BI), typified by reserved response or inactivity in the face of novel social and nonsocial situations [44,45], is a risk factor for anxiety disorders in children and adults [8,9,41,83,84,89,52,65,39]. The extreme behavioral withdrawal in BI is associated with enhanced stress reactivity, polymorphism of the corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) gene [91,90] and increased reactivity within the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis [100]. ...
... One vulnerability factor for anxiety disorders is behavioral inhibition [8,9,41,83,84,89,52,65,39]. In addition to behavioral withdrawal, BI is associated with enhanced stress reactivity and increased reactivity within the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis [100]. ...
Article
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The relationship between trait stress-sensitivity, avoidance acquisition and perseveration of avoidance was examined using male Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) and Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Behavior in an open field was measured prior to escape/avoidance (E/A) acquisition and extinction. E/A was assessed in a discrete trial lever-press protocol. The signal-shock interval was 60s with subsequent shocks delivered every 3s until a lever-press occurred. A 3-min flashing light safety signal was delivered contingent upon a lever-press (or failure to respond in 5 min). WKY rats displayed phenotypic low open field activity, but were clearly superior to SD rats in E/A performance. As avoidance responses were acquired and reached asymptotic performance, SD rats exhibited "warm up", that is, SD rats rarely made avoidance responses on the initial trial of a session, even though later trials were consistently accompanied with avoidance responses. In contrast, WKY rats did not show the "warm up" pattern and avoided on nearly all trials of a session including the initial trial. In addition to the superior acquisition of E/A, WKY rats demonstrated several other avoidance features that were different from SD rats. Although the rates of nonreinforced intertrial responses (ITRs) were relatively low and selective to the early safety period, WKY displayed more ITRs than SD rats. With removal of the shocks extinction was delayed in WKY rats, likely reflecting their nearly perfect avoidance performance. Even after extensive extinction, first trial avoidance and ITRs were evident in WKY rats. Thus, WKY rats have a unique combination of trait behavioral inhibition (low open field activity and stress sensitivity) and superior avoidance acquisition and response perseveration making this strain a good model to understand anxiety disorders.
... SAD has also been linked to both suicidal ideation and attempts in individuals with comorbid PTSD and SAD, with these individuals being at increased risk of suicide compared to individuals with PTSD alone [25]. In veterans, SAD has also been found to be independently associated with suicidal ideation after adjusting for sociodemographics, military factors (e.g., rank, deployment zone, etc.), trauma, and depression [7,19]. ...
Article
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PurposeSocial anxiety disorder (SAD) is among the most highly prevalent and debilitating psychiatric disorders within the US population, but SAD has gone relatively unnoticed within the US veteran population. Preliminary research has demonstrated that SAD is related to decreased mental and physical functioning as well as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression among veterans.Methods The present study investigated SAD and its relationship with demographic factors, psychiatric disorders, suicidality, treatment seeking, and social support among veterans. Multivariate survey weighted logistic regression analyses were conducted to observe these associations utilizing data from National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions which contained data on 3119 veterans.ResultsSAD was found to be strongly related to PTSD and other anxiety disorder, and these disorders were related to increased treatment seeking for SAD. Further, SAD was associated with lifetime suicide attempts and decreased perceived social support in multivariate models adjusting for demographic factors and psychiatric comorbidities.Conclusion This study highlights the relationships of SAD among veterans by demonstrating its associations with other psychiatric disorders, treatment seeking, suicide attempts, and social support. A deeper understanding of the impact of SAD within the veteran population will inform future prevention and treatment efforts.
... Although there is considerable literature on depression treatment preferences in primary care (Backenstrass et al., 2006;Dobscha et al., 2007;Dwight-Johnson et al., 2000;Lin et al., 2005;van Schaik et al., 2004), no research has specifically examined anxiety treatment preferences in primary care patients or veterans, among whom anxiety disorders are prevalent (Gros et al., 2011;Kashdan et al., 2006;Milanak et al., 2013). Research on general mental health treatment preferences found that individual (psychological) treatment was preferred over class/group treatment or medication (Lang, 2005;Wetherell et al., 2004), and face-to-face treatment was preferred over telephone/Internet formats (Mohr et al., 2010). ...
Article
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Introduction: Anxiety symptoms are common, yet undertreated, among primary care patients. Accommodating patient treatment preferences improves engagement and retention. In contrast to depression, little is known about primary care patients' preferences for anxiety treatment. Method: Participants were 144 veterans experiencing anxiety symptoms but not receiving psychotherapy who were recruited from primary care. Preferences for 11 anxiety treatment attributes (method; location; type; format; provider; frequency, length, and number of appointments; psychotherapy orientation; symptom focus; and topic/skill) and demographic, mental health (e.g., anxiety symptom severity), and treatment-related (e.g., psychotherapy history) variables were assessed via mailed survey. We used chi-square goodness of fit tests to identify patient preferences for each attribute and multivariate multinomial logistic regression models to explore demographic, mental health, and treatment-related correlates of treatment preferences. Results: Patient preferences were largely consistent with integrated primary care models, particularly Primary Care Behavioral Health, with a few exceptions. Patients preferred longer appointments (e.g., 45-60 minutes) and a longer duration of treatment (e.g., ≥13 appointments) than is typically offered in primary care. Several variables, particularly education level, perceived need for help, anxiety symptom severity, and attitudes toward psychotherapy, were repeatedly associated with preferences for various anxiety treatment attributes. Discussion: Results from this study suggest that patients tend to have distinct preferences for anxiety treatment in primary care that are largely consistent with common integrated primary care models. Results also identify several variables that may be associated with specific preferences, which may help match patients to their preferred type of care. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
... Adverse life events and traumatic experiences are associated with higher levels of emotional disorders [2,34], including social anxiety disorder [29]. In our analyses, however, experienced pre-migration traumatic events did not have a unique effect on social anxiety. ...
Article
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Objective Unaccompanied refugee minors (URMs), are at high risk for mental health problems, yet there is a lack of knowledge about social anxiety among these youths. The aim of this study was to investigate symptoms of social anxiety among URMs resettled in Norway, and the combined effects of pre-migration traumatic events, post-migration acculturation related factors (perceived discrimination and culture competence in relation both to the heritage and majority cultures) and demographic background variables, over and above the effect of concurrent depressive symptoms. Methods Cross-sectional self-report questionnaire data were collected from 557 URMs from 31 different countries, mainly from Afghanistan (49,6%), Somalia (11,1%), and Iraq (7,0%). Results: The findings from structural equation model (SEM) showed that the effect of pre-migration traumatic events on social anxiety was non-significant (β = 0.001, p = .09), while perceived discrimination and majority culture competence had unique effects on social anxiety (β = 0.39, p < .001 and β = −0.12, p = .008, respectively) over and above depressive symptoms (β = 0.30, p < .001). Conclusions The findings show that factors of the current socio-cultural developmental context rather than pre-migration war-related traumatic events the youths experienced before migration accounts for variation in social anxiety. Potential practical implications of the findings for social workers, educational staff and clinicians are discussed.
... In the United States, there are approximately 25% of veterans suffering from some form of mental health diagnosis (Trivedi et al., 2015), with potentially 3.6% of military populations meeting diagnostic criteria for social anxiety disorder (SAD; Grant et al., 2005;Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006;Watson & Friend, 1969). SAD is a persistent fear of social or performance situations in which a person is exposed to unfamiliar people and/or potential scrutiny from others (American Psychiatric Association & others, 2013). ...
Article
Virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a promising technological intervention for anxiety disorders. However, there are no existing standards and best practices to evaluate the effectiveness of environments to achieve their intervention goals. The purpose of this study was to develop a VR intervention for student veterans with social anxiety disorder and test feasibility utilizing a three-stage development model. The development of a therapeutic VR environment may benefit from an interdisciplinary collaboration of researchers from various fields of study. Utilizing three stages of prototyping with two virtual reality platforms, fully immersive video (n = 6) and three-dimensional (3-D) immersive virtual reality (n = 8), the research team designed an intervention for student veterans with social anxiety disorder, testing bio-reactivity of participants. Results of prototyping include user feedback validating increased stress levels and increased bio-reactivity specifically in galvanic skin response and heart rate elevation. Implications include the use of 360° video for prototyping 3-D virtual reality interventions.
... This 4-item form assesses the treatment techniques providers used The M.I.N.I. [22] is a structured diagnostic interview for 17 Axis I psychiatric disorders found in the 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), including mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and substance use disorders. This instrument has been used in numerous studies of veteran samples [26]. The M.I.N.I. will be administered by the behavioral outcomes assessors during the first and second patient assessments. ...
Article
This randomized trial examines the dissemination and implementation of prolonged exposure (PE) therapy for posttraumatic stress symptoms in U.S. Army medical treatment facilities. The study compares two PE training models: Standard PE training, comprised of a 4-day workshop only, and Extended PE training, comprised of a 4-day workshop plus expert case consultation. Behavioral health providers (N = 180) across three medium-to-large Army installations will be randomly assigned to either Standard PE training or Extended PE training. Changes in provider attitudes will be examined across groups. After completing PE training, the use of PE components with patients reporting posttraumatic stress symptoms and clinical outcomes of these participating patients (N = 500) will be examined. This article describes the rationale and methods of the study. In addition, a number of methodological issues in conducting a multisite naturalistic study in the U.S. Army are discussed.
... Despite these recommendations, identification of depression and anxiety in patients with COPD and CHF remains remarkably low [18]. Across a variety of samples, only one-third to one-half of patients who meet diagnostic criteria for an anxiety or depressive disorder have a diagnosis of depression or anxiety documented in their electronic medical record (EMR) [9,[19][20][21][22][23]; and in one study < 2% of patients who met criteria for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) were diag-nosed with GAD by their primary care provider [24]. EMR documentation of anxiety and depression is critical to facilitating access to MH treatment. ...
Article
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Objective This study sought to identify patient factors associated with mental health (MH) recognition and treatment in medically ill Veterans. Method Retrospective data from patient electronic medical records (EMR) and self-report data were reviewed for 180 Veterans with cardiopulmonary conditions who met diagnostic criteria for anxiety, depression, or posttraumatic stress disorder on the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview. Multivariate logistic regression examined the association of medical record MH recognition and MH service use with patient factors, including anxiety and depression severity, self-efficacy, locus of control, coping, illness intrusiveness, and health-related quality of life (QOL). Results Seventy veterans (39%) had an MH diagnosis documented in their EMR, and 101 (56%) received at least one MH service (≥1 MH encounter or psychiatric medications). Greater depression (p = 0.047) and adaptive coping (p = 0.012) were associated with increased likelihood of EMR documentation of MH diagnoses. EMR MH diagnosis (p < 0.001), higher internal locus of control (p = 0.037), and poorer physical health-related QOL (p = 0.014) were associated with greater likelihood of MH service use. Discussion Veterans with cardiopulmonary conditions experiencing MH problems are under-recognized. Improved MH screening is needed, particularly for patients with poor adaptive coping skills, low internal locus of control, or poor physical health-related QOL.
... Preliminary evidence from treatment-seeking populations suggests that comorbid PTSD and SAD is associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety, and lower levels of mental and social functioning, compared to those with either disorder alone (Zayfert et al., 2005). Similarly, a study of veterans documented an increased suicide risk when comorbid PTSD and SAD was present compared to PTSD alone, even after adjusting for PTSD symptom severity (Kashdan et al., 2006). The high rates of comorbidity in conjunction with deleterious mental health outcomes underscores the need for a greater understanding of comorbid presentations of PTSD and SAD. ...
... Additionally, if COSR becomes severe and goes untreated it can become Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) which can result in secondary PTSD symptoms developing among service member families (Dirkzwager, Bramsen, Ader and Van de Ploeg, 2005;Figley, 2005). This can also have other undesired effects on spouses and family members (Jordan et al., 1992;Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert and Magruder, 2006) which may increase the financial burden (Solomon, 2003) and decrease quality of life for military families. Ultimately this can impact the retention and recruitment of service members (Cobbold, 2005). ...
Thesis
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Full access to this thesis is available at http://diginole.lib.fsu.edu/etd/185/ Encouraging help-seeking behavior for Combat Operational Stress Reaction (COSR) among military service members is an important factor in maintaining military readiness and military family quality of life. This research explores the role that military spouses play in encouraging help-seeking behavior among service members using a hybrid model that merged the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) with elements of Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) to understand spouses’ behavior intention. Six predictor variables were explored during focus group meetings and ultimately incorporated into questions in an online survey completed by 306 military spouses of service members from all branches of service. The six predictor variables were analyzed using multiple regression and simple regression to determine their significance in predicting spouse behavior intention for service members to seek help at military and NON-military treatment facilities. The research focused on five hypotheses and seven research questions. The hypotheses focused on information sources and usefulness about COSR, the amount of direct experience with COSR, the degree of favorable outcomes of COSR medical treatment, the perceived stigma associated with combat stress, the perceived vulnerabilities which included risk and severity, normative beliefs about help-seeking and the perceived military spouse efficacy to encourage help-seeking behavior at both military and NON-military treatment faculties. The research questions provided a range of generalized information about the variables. Statistical analyses indicated that spouses who report that they have more military sources that provide useful information, about combat stress, are also more likely to (1) report more favorable beliefs about military care outcomes, (2) recognize the risks and severity of combat stress, and (3) feel that they are capable of effectively making recommendations that service members seek care at a military facility. Spouses with more direct experience with combat stress also are more likely to report favorable beliefs about outcomes resulting from military health care. Spouses who have more favorable outcome beliefs, higher perceptions of risk and severity (vulnerability), plus greater general and personal efficacy are more likely to encourage their service members to seek help at a military care facility. ix A positive relationship was found between useful NON-military information sources about combat stress and behavioral intentions to recommend care at a NONmilitary care facility. In addition, spouses who have more useful NON-military information report higher levels of perceived stigma associated with combat stress. Direct behavioral NON-military care experiences are positively related to beliefs about favorable outcomes resulting from care at NON-military facilities. Three variables were found to be predictors of behavior intentions. The spouses who have (1) favorable outcome beliefs, (2) who experience normative expectations and are motivated to comply with these norms, and (3) who feel greater efficacy are more likely to encourage service members to seek help at a NON-military care facility.
... In the case of persons who have experienced MST, comorbidities are the rule rather than the exception. The most common comorbidities identified among women who have experienced MST include posttraumatic stress disorder or PTSD, depression and other anxiety disorders (Bean-Mayberry et al, 2011;Hoge, 2013;Kashdan et al., 2006;Kelly, Skelton & Bradley, 2011). Two WWII psychiatrists eloquently described the unequivocal result of trauma on any military member in a war zone. ...
Article
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Research suggests that there may be unique barriers to accessing care among women who have experienced military sexual trauma. The intent of the current research was to elucidate potential barriers to successful reintegration following deployment and to identify options for mental health care for women who have experienced military sexual trauma (MST). A secondary goal was to explore the feasibility of internet-based technology as a means of expanding options for counselor outreach, service delivery and social support for this population. A comprehensive literature review was conducted which revealed several important points. A strong correlation exists between successful reintegration for women who have experienced MST and a) the availability of social support networks and b) the ability of the individual to utilize these supports. Women who have experienced MST were found to experience high levels of organizational distrust, social isolation, and self-perceived stigma, which create significant barriers for participation in treatment services, and for community reintegration. A comprehensive literature review revealed that the use of social media and other internet technologies show promise, not only as effective therapeutic tools, but also as an effective outreach method to identify and connect with those who are difficult to reach. A summary of this research is provided, ethical implications are discussed, and recommendations are made for the use of these technologies within professional counseling practice. Keywords: Counseling, military sexual trauma, online, social support, women, veterans
... This finding is also true of social anxiety in the children of such veterans [23]. In this study, there was no significant cor relation between the demographic variables and social anxiety, which agrees with the findings of Kashdan [31], while Mokhtaripoor et al. show that there is a significant correlation between these two sets of variables in the students of medical sciences universities (F=2.584, P=0.0086), with the highest negative correlation between the subjects' socioeconomic status and their anxiety [34]. ...
Article
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Aims: Spiritual health is the only force that makes up the physical, mental and social dimensions of man. Social anxiety can cause this negative reaction to react. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between spiritual health and social anxiety in chemical veterans. Methods: This descriptive correlation study used a questionnaire that included demographic, health spiritual and Liebowitz social anxiety. 109 veterans were selected by available sampling in Kermanshah. Data analysis was performed by descriptive statistics and Spearman and Mann-Whitney test. Results: In this study, there was an inverse relationship between spiritual health and social anxiety (P = 0.01, r = -0/363), but there was not statistically significant relationship between spiritual health and social anxiety associated with demographic characteristics. Conclusion: Several studies have confirmed the existence of anxiety in veterans. Strengthening of spiritual health as a strong force on the physical, mental and social health, can control social anxiety. Because the veterans need to promote physical and psychological conditions in their activities. So reinforcing the spiritual health programs is obvious in accordance with the new social conditions.
... In fact, nearly one half of combat veterans endorse three or more comorbid affective disorders and significantly more impaired functioning as a result (Ginzburg et al., 2010). And finally, the prevalence, severity, and overlap of different specific affective disorders varies between civilians and veterans, with some disorders more prevalent/severe in civilian populations (e.g., SOC; Kashdan et al., 2006), and other disorders more prevalent/severe in Veterans populations (e.g., PTSD and PD; Gros et al., 2011). In fact, among the three most investigated transdiagnostic protocols, PTSD, arguably one of the most problematic psychiatric disorders within the DVA (Magruder et al., 2005), was found in less than 5% of the investigated samples (Farchione et al., 2012 Similarly, the majority of existing protocols also did not investigate efficacy in patients with principal diagnoses of MDD, another highly prevalent psychiatric disorder in veterans (Gros et al., 2012). ...
Article
Considerable attention has focused on the growing need for evidence-based psychotherapy for veterans with affective disorders within the Department of Veteran Affairs. Despite, and possibly due to, the large number of evidence-based protocols available, several obstacles remain in their widespread delivery within Veterans Affairs Medical Centers. In part as an effort to address these concerns, newer transdiagnostic approaches to psychotherapy have been developed to provide a single treatment that is capable of addressing several, related disorders. The goal of the present investigation was to develop and evaluate a transdiagnostic psychotherapy, Transdiagnostic Behavior Therapy (TBT), in veterans with affective disorders. Study 1 provided initial support for transdiagnostic presentation of evidence-based psychotherapy components in veterans with principal diagnoses of affective disorders (n=15). These findings were used to inform the development of the TBT protocol. In Study 2, an initial evaluation of TBT was completed in a second sample of veterans with principal diagnoses of affective disorders (n=29). The findings of Study 2 demonstrated significant improvements in symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, posttraumatic stress, and related impairment across participants with various principal diagnoses. Together, the investigation provided preliminary support for effectiveness of TBT in veterans with affective disorders.
... High rates of anxiety disorders, in particular GAD (15.5 %), were also notable, with the third highest prevalence, ranking only below Santiago (18.7 %) and Rio de Janeiro (22.6 %) and more than double the average in this study (7.9 %). The prevalence of SP (3 %) was slightly higher than that reported in a primary care study in Spain (1.9 %) [23], but lower than that reported in a few other primary care studies, in which it ranged from 3.6 % in a veteran administration primary care clinic in the USA [24,35] to around 7 % in two other USA studies [25,26]. The rate of PTSD in primary clinics (2.4 %) was also lower than in the USA where prevalence rates range from 9 to 12 % [27,28]. ...
Article
Objective: Psychiatric morbidity is common among patients in primary care services and leads to disability and increased use of medical services. Comparison of primary care and community prevalence data is of interest in relation to the health services planning for mental disorders. The aim of the present study was to measure prevalence of mental disorders in six primary care clinics in Israel and to assess risk factors for these disorders. Method: Prevalence of mental disorders was measured in a sample of 2,948 primary care consecutive attendees, using two-stage stratified sampling with the General Health Questionnaire 12 (GHQ-12) and the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI). Results: A high rate (46.3%) of current mental disorders was found, with rates of current depressive episode, generalized anxiety disorder, somatization disorder, and neurasthenia being relatively high in comparison with rates in other countries. Low education was a risk factor for all categories of disorders, unemployment a risk factor for depressive disorders, and parenthood was protective for most categories of disorders. Conclusions: High rates of mental disorders were found in this Israeli primary care sample as compared to other countries, while in the community the rates were midrange as compared to other countries, pointing to a relatively higher use of primary care services by patients with mental disorders in Israel than in other countries.
... Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is mainly thought of as an effect of victimization on mental health [11]. SAD co-occurs with PTSD [12] as reported mainly in adult combat veterans [13–15]. The association between SAD and PTSD is less well studied in children and adolescents [16]. ...
Article
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Recent findings from studies on adults show similarities between social anxiety disorder (SAD) and posttraumatic stress in the form of recurrent memories and intrusive and distressing images of earlier aversive events. Further, treatment models for SAD in adults have been successfully developed by using transdiagnostic knowledge on posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). Studies on adolescents are though missing. The present study aimed at exploring the association between PTSS and SAD in Swedish adolescents. A second aim was to study mental health services utilization in relation to these conditions. A total of 5,960 high-school students participated and reported on SAD, life time victimization, PTSS and mental health service utilization. Socially anxious adolescents reported significantly higher levels of PTSS than adolescents not reporting SAD and this difference was seen in victimized as well as non-victimized subjects. Contact with a school counselor was the most common mental health service utilization in subjects with SAD and those with elevated PTSS. In the prediction of contact with a CAP-clinic, significant odds ratios were found for a condition of SAD and elevated PTSS (OR = 4.88, 95 % CI = 3.53-6.73) but not for SAD only. Screening of PTSS in adolescents with SAD is recommended. The service of school counselors is important in detecting and helping young people with SAD and elevated PTSS. Clinical studies on SAD and PTSS in adolescents could aid in modifying treatment models for SAD.
... The use of a random two-week interval might account for why veterans with PTSD, rumination failed to predict changes in negative affect in daily life. A more focused sampling plan before, during and after stress periods might help us better understand and detect the relationships among rumination, affect, and symptoms of PTSD (and other psychological disorders in VA hospital patients; e.g., Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006). Fifth, beyond the presence of PTSD, our two samples also differed on the presence of combat exposure and psychological treatment within the VA system. ...
Article
Prior research suggests that rumination and chronic negative emotions serve to maintain emotional disorders. However, some evidence suggests that pondering the nature and meaning of negative experiences can be adaptive. To better understand the function of this dimension of rumination, we studied the use of this strategy in response to negative emotions as they unfold from day to day in veterans with (n=27) and without (n=27) post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). For two weeks, veterans completed daily questions about when they experienced a bad mood and how often they used rumination to feel differently. It was hypothesized that rumination would attenuate negative emotional reactions in veterans without PTSD, but that rigid, intense negative emotions would persist in veterans with PTSD. Using multilevel modeling, we found that on the same day, rumination was positively associated with negative affect. Because covariation fails to address directionality, we also examined lagged effects from one occasion to the next. For veterans without PTSD, more frequent use of rumination predicted less intense negative affect the next day; there was no support for a model with negative affect predicting rumination the next day. For veterans with PTSD, the prior day's intensity of negative affect was the only predictor of intensity of negative affect the next day. Results support the value of distinguishing within-day and across day effects, and the presence of PTSD, to clarify contexts when rumination is adaptive.
... The potential implications of our findings are far-ranging. Primary care physicians, often the first and only professionals with an opportunity to evaluate and recommend treatment for mental health problems, routinely fail to detect the presence of anxiety disorders (e.g., Fifer, Mathias, Patrick, & Mazonson, 1994;Kashdan, Frueh, Knapp, Hebert, & Magruder, 2006). The inherent difficulties of detecting SAD can be amplified when clients present with atypical patterns of aggression, sexual impulsivity, and substance abuse. ...
Article
Little is known about people with social anxiety disorder (SAD) who are not behaviorally inhibited. To advance knowledge on phenomenology, functional impairment, and treatment seeking, we investigated whether engaging in risk-prone behaviors accounts for heterogeneous outcomes in people with SAD. Using the National Comorbidity Survey-Replication (NCS-R) dataset, our analyses focused on people with current (N = 679) or lifetime (N = 1143) SAD diagnoses. Using latent class analysis on NCS-R risk-prone behavior items, results supported two SAD classes: (1) a pattern of behavioral inhibition and risk aversion and (2) an atypical pattern of high anger and aggression, and moderate/high sexual impulsivity and substance use problems. An atypical pattern of risk-prone behaviors was associated with greater functional impairment, less education and income, younger age, and particular psychiatric comorbidities. Results could not be subsumed by the severity, type, or number of social fears, or comorbid anxiety or mood disorders. Conclusions about the nature, course, and treatment of SAD may be compromised by not attending to heterogeneity in behavior patterns.
Article
Military sexual trauma (MST) is a common experience in veterans and associated with numerous negative outcomes, such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), diagnostic comorbidity, and impairments in multiple domains, including social functioning. Comorbid social anxiety disorder (SOC) may represent a particularly challenging presentation due to added difficulties with social functioning and treatment response. The present study investigated severity, emotion regulation, and perceived support and functioning of comorbid SOC in female MST survivors with PTSD. Participants were recruited for a randomized clinical trial that compared telehealth and in-person delivery of evidence-based psychotherapy for PTSD. Of the 112 participants with PTSD, 30 participants (27%) also met criteria for comorbid SOC on a diagnostic interview. Participants with comorbid PTSD-SOC endorsed poorer emotion regulation, less positive affect, and greater negative affect compared to participants with PTSD without SOC comorbidity. Participants with comorbid PTSD-SOC also were less likely to be involved in a romantic relationship and evidenced increased difficulties in sharing thoughts and feelings with family members and friends. Together, these findings suggest that SOC comorbidity in patients with MST-related PTSD is associated with increased impairments in emotion regulation and social functioning.
Article
Objective: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common psychiatric disorder that frequently presents alongside other comorbid diagnoses. Although several evidence-based psychotherapies have been well-studied for PTSD, limited research has focused on the influence of diagnostic comorbidity on their outcomes. The present study sought to investigate the influence of comorbid social anxiety disorder on treatment outcomes in patients with PTSD. Methods: One hundred and twelve treatment-seeking female veteran participants with PTSD completed baseline assessments and received 12-15 sessions of Prolonged Exposure. Symptom measures were completed biweekly as well as at immediate posttreatment, 3-month, and 6-month follow-ups. Results: Thirty (26.8%) participants seeking PTSD treatment also met diagnostic criteria for social anxiety disorder. Multilevel modeling was used to examine effects of social anxiety disorder diagnosis on post-intervention symptoms and revealed significantly worse outcomes for symptoms of PTSD and depression in participants with comorbid PTSD and social anxiety disorder. Conclusion: Consistent with previous studies of co-occurring PTSD and depression, present findings suggest that comorbid diagnoses may adversely affect disorder-specific treatment outcomes. As such, the presence of diagnostic comorbidity may merit further consideration and potential adaptions to the traditional, disorder-specific assessment and treatment practices for PTSD.
Article
Few studies have examined the longitudinal courses of anxiety disorders in military members. This study examined the prevalence and predictors of courses of any anxiety disorder in members and veterans of the Canadian Armed Forces, including no lifetime, remitted, new onset, and persistent/recurrent anxiety disorder. The 2018 Canadian Armed Forces Members and Veterans Mental Health Follow-up Survey is a 16-year follow-up of n=2,941 participants from the Canadian Community Health Survey: Canadian Forces Supplement in 2002. Diagnoses of any DSM-IV anxiety disorder (i.e., generalized anxiety, social anxiety, and/or panic disorder) in 2002 and 2018 were used to create four anxiety course groups. A large proportion of the sample (36.3%; new onset = 24.6%, remitting = 6.9%, and persistent/recurrent = 4.8%) met criteria for an anxiety disorder during one or both time points. Factors at baseline and/or between 2002 and 2018, including income, education, military rank, comorbidity of PTSD or depression, deployment history, and traumatic events, were positively associated with most anxiety courses relative to no anxiety in analyses. Targeted interventions are needed to help mitigate anxiety disorders among this population. Social support and active coping were protective factors for most anxiety courses and may need to be incorporated into targeted interventions.
Article
Background : Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a chronic and disabling psychiatric disorder associated with low levels of help-seeking. To date, however, scarce research has examined the epidemiology of SAD in veterans. This study examined the prevalence, comorbidities and incremental burden of SAD in relation to suicidality and functioning in a representative sample of U.S. military veterans. Methods : A nationally representative sample of 3,157 U.S. veterans completed a web survey containing measures of SAD symptoms, trauma history, psychiatric history and functioning. Multivariable analyses were conducted to examine associations between SAD and psychiatric comorbidities, suicidality and functioning. Results : A total 9.5% (n=272) of the sample screened positive for lifetime SAD. Veterans with SAD were more likely than those without SAD to be younger, female, single, racial/ethnic minorities and to have experienced childhood abuse. They also had substantially elevated rates of comorbid psychiatric disorders, particularly lifetime major depression (odds ratio [OR]=5.8) and posttraumatic stress disorder (OR=3.1), as well as current suicidal ideation (OR=3.3). Veterans with SAD scored lower on measures of functioning, particularly social, emotional and mental health functioning (d’s=0.21-0.34). Limitations : Data were collected cross-sectionally using self-report. Conclusions : SAD is prevalent and associated with psychiatric comorbidities, functional impairment and a more than 3-fold greater risk for suicidal ideation in U.S. veterans. Given that SAD is associated with low treatment seeking and engagement, it may be undetected and undertreated relative to other psychiatric morbidities. These results underscore the importance of screening, monitoring and treating SAD in this population along with other prevalent mental disorders.
Article
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and social anxiety disorder (SAD) frequently co-occur. Preliminary data from treatment-seeking and veteran samples suggest that the impact of PTSD-SAD comorbidity may be additive, conferring distress and impairment beyond that of either disorder alone. The current study sought to clarify and extend existent research using wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions, an epidemiological sample of American adults. Individuals who met criteria for comorbid PTSD-SAD were compared to those with either disorder alone on measures of lifetime suicide attempts or quality of life as measured by the Medical Outcomes Study Questionnaire. Relative to those with either PTSD or SAD, individuals with comorbid PTSD-SAD demonstrated an elevated risk of lifetime suicide attempts and substantially lower levels of physical and mental quality of life. The psychosocial consequences of PTSD-SAD comorbidity are substantial. Patients may benefit from early interventions to remediate social distress and improve support networks before more intensive psychotherapeutic interventions.
Technical Report
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Suicide is a major public health concern in the United States (US), claiming over 36,000 lives each year and nearly 100 lives each day, and suicide among military and Veteran populations is of particular concern. Veterans returning from the Iraq and Afghanistan conflicts, referred to as Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) Veterans, may be particularly at risk, although the limited available data has shown mixed results. Several aspects of military experience may increase the risk of suicide, including mental health and substance abuse. Many risk factors specific to the OEF/OIF population have yet to be thoroughly evaluated and incorporated into clinical management. Ideally, suicide risk assessment tools need to account for the relationship among different risk factors and identify risk factors or combinations of risk factors that are particularly associated with suicidal self-directed violence. To be practically useful, such tools will be brief enough to be conducted in a primary care setting and will identify a threshold beyond which preventive action should be taken. Risk assessment tools should be able to discriminate those at high- and low-risk for suicidal self-directed violence. Likewise, studies of emerging risk factors need to evaluate the contribution of a new potential predictor of suicide and self-directed violence in the context of known risk factors in order to weigh the contribution of the new risk factor against those that are currently known. The objective of this report is to review recent evidence about risk factors and risk assessment tools within Veteran and military populations to provide evidence for clinical practice guideline development specific to these populations. Available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0042005.
Article
Dissemination and implementation of evidence-based psychotherapies is challenging in real world clinical settings. Transdiagnostic Behavior Therapy (TBT) for affective disorders was developed with dissemination and implementation in clinical settings in mind. The present study investigated a voluntary local dissemination and implementation effort, involving 28 providers participating in a four-hour training on TBT. Providers completed immediate (n=22) and six-month follow-up (n=12) training assessments and were encouraged to collect data on their TBT patients (delivery fidelity was not investigated). Findings demonstrated that providers endorsed learning of and interest in using TBT after the training. At six-months, 50% of providers reported using TBT with their patients and their perceived effectiveness of TBT to be very good to excellent. Submitted patient outcome data evidenced medium to large effect sizes. Together, these findings provide preliminary support for the effectiveness of a real world dissemination and implementation of TBT.
Article
Insomnia is a common feature among individuals with anxiety disorders. Studies of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety report moderate effects on concomitant insomnia symptoms, but further research is still needed especially toward understanding how CBT for anxiety renders beneficial effects on insomnia. The current study examined changes in insomnia symptoms reported by 51 Veterans who participated in a group-based transdiagnostic CBT for anxiety intervention. In addition, insomnia symptoms were examined in relation to symptoms of general distress (GD), anhedonic depression (AD), and anxious arousal (AA) pre- to post-treatment. Results revealed a small, though statistically significant (p < .05) beneficial effect on insomnia symptoms. When changes in GD, AD, and AA were simultaneously examined in relation to changes in insomnia, change in AA was the only significant predictor of insomnia symptoms. The current study highlights the role of AA in the relationship between anxiety disorders and insomnia and demonstrates that reductions in insomnia during transdiagnostic CBT for anxiety can be largely attributed to changes in AA.
Article
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High rates of anxiety disorders at Veteran Affairs (VA) health care centers necessitate increased availability of evidence-based treatments for all anxiety disorders. Group-based transdiagnostic cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety can help to increase the availability of effective treatment for anxiety. The current study examined group-based transdiagnostic CBT for anxiety when implemented in a VA outpatient mental health clinic. Over a 1-year period, 52 veterans with various anxiety disorders completed transdiagnostic group CBT for anxiety. Veterans completing the group treatment reported significant decreases in general distress, anxiety, depression, and individualized fear hierarchy ratings (ps < .01). Additionally, treatment completers reported high satisfaction with the treatment experience. The current study indicates that transdiagnostic group CBT for anxiety can be effectively implemented in a VA outpatient mental health clinic and holds promise for initiatives aimed at broadly increasing the availability of evidence-based treatment for anxiety disorders in VA health care systems.
Article
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may develop as a serious long-term consequence of traumatic experiences, even many years after trauma exposure. The objectives of this study were to examine the prevalence of lifetime and current PTSD as well as to detect the most stressful life events and sociodemographic risk factors of PTSD in a general adult Serbian population. The sample consisted of 640 subjects chosen by random walk technique in five regions of the country. The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview 5 revealed an 18.8% prevalence rate of current PTSD and a 32.3% prevalence rate of lifetime PTSD. According to the Life Stressor Checklist-Revised, the bombardment, being expelled from home, siege, and participation in combat were the stressful events most likely to be associated with PTSD. The prevalence of PTSD increased among widows and widowers, divorced persons, unemployed persons, and retired persons. The high level of PTSD a few years after the trauma exposure classifies as a significant health problem that can cause serious consequences for families and the community as a whole.
Article
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Purpose: Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is a disabling condition that affects almost 5% of the general population. Many types of drugs have shown their efficacy in the treatment of SAD. There are also some data regarding psychotherapies, but no data are available today about the efficacy of brain stimulation techniques. The aim of the study is to compare the efficacy of noninvasive brain stimulation neuro psycho physical optimization (NPPO) protocol performed by radio electric asymmetric conveyor (REAC) with that of sertraline in adults with SAD. Patients and methods: Twenty SAD patients on sertraline were compared with 23 SAD patients who refused any drug treatment and who chose to be treated with NPPO-REAC brain stimulation. This was a 6-month, open-label, naturalistic study. Patients on sertraline received flexible doses, whereas NPPO-REAC patients received two 18-session cycles of treatment. Clinical Global Improvement scale items "much improved" or "very much improved" and Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale total score variation on fear and avoidance components were used to detect the results. The statistical analysis was performed with t-test. All measures <0.05 have been considered statistically significant. Results: Ten of 23 subjects on NPPO-REAC and six of the 20 taking sertraline were much improved or very much improved 1 month after the first NPPO-REAC cycle (t1). Sixteen of the subjects on NPPO-REAC and ten of the subjects taking sertraline were much improved or very much improved 1 month after the second NPPO-REAC cycle (t2). In respect of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale, at t1 NPPO-REAC resulted in statistically more efficacy for sertraline on both fear and avoidance total scores. At t2, NPPO-REAC resulted in statistically more efficacy for sertraline on fear but not on avoidance. Conclusion: NPPO-REAC is an effective treatment for SAD, allowing substantial and clinically meaningful reductions in symptoms and disability in comparison with sertraline.
Article
Military mental health research has rarely investigated social anxiety disorder, despite its known serious consequences in the general population, and what work has been conducted has used specialized samples (e.g., veterans) not representative of all military personnel. Data were from the 2002 Canadian Community Health Survey-Canadian Forces Supplement, a representative survey of 8441 active regular and reserve military personnel. Social anxiety disorder has a high lifetime (8.2%) and past-year (3.2%) prevalence in the military. It is associated with increased odds of depression, panic attacks/disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (AOR range 4.16-16.29). Being female, ages 35-44, or separated/divorced/widowed increases the odds of having social anxiety disorder, while being an officer or a reservist decreases the odds. Treatment-seeking, as in the general population, is relatively rare. Overall, military personnel with social anxiety disorder experience significant rates of role impairment in all domains (53.1-88.3% report some impairment), with the rate of role impairment increasing with the number of social fears. Notably, many (70.6%) report at least some impairment at work (i.e., in their job with the military). Social anxiety disorder is an important disorder to take into account when considering military mental health. Observing low rates of treatment-seeking for social anxiety disorder among military personnel highlights the importance of initiatives to allow its identification and treatment.
Article
Behavioral-genetic (twin) methods are important tools for understanding the etiology of trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The purpose of the present article is to synthesize the results obtained from twin studies and outline important avenues for further investigation. Twin research to date suggests that: (1) exposure to assaultive trauma is moderately heritable whereas exposure to non-assaultive trauma is not, (2) PTSD symptoms are moderately heritable, and (3) comorbidity of PTSD with other disorders may be partly due to shared genetic and environmental influences. Remarkably little is known about whether the observed comorbidity of PTSD with particular personality traits and poor physical health is due to shared genetic or environmental factors. Similarly, little is known about whether gene-environment interactions play an important role in trauma exposure and PTSD. Further research is required to clarify these issues and to determine whether findings to date, obtained mostly from male combat veterans, generalize to other populations. Research programs that integrate behavioral-genetics with molecular genetics and with cognitive-behavioral conceptualizations and research methods may deepen our understanding of the complex links among genes, brain, cognition, emotion, and the environment.
Article
The purpose of the present study was to examine social anxiety as a predictor of positive emotions using a short-term prospective design. We examined whether the effects of social anxiety on positive emotions are moderated by tendencies to openly express or suppress emotions. Over the course of a 3-month interval, people with excessive social anxiety endorsed stable, low levels of positive emotions. In addition, people with low social anxiety who frequently display their emotions openly, whether negative or positive, reported the greatest increases in positive emotions. Similar results were found when using a measure of emotion suppression (low social anxiety and less tendency to rely on these types of regulatory acts led to the greatest positive emotions). These social anxiety main and interactive effects could not be attributed to depressive symptoms. Our findings suggest that relations between social anxiety and positive emotional experiences over time are best understood in the context of meaningful individual differences such as affect regulatory strategies.
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Structural equation modeling procedures were used to examine relationships among several war zone stressor dimensions, resilience–recovery factors, and post–traumatic stress disorder symptoms in a national sample of 1,632 Vietnam veterans (26% women and 74% men). A 9-factor measurement model was specified on a mixed-gender subsample of the data and then replicated on separate subsamples of female and male veterans. For both genders, the structural models supported strong mediation effects for the intrapersonal resource characteristic of hardiness, postwar structural and functional social support, and additional negative life events in the postwar period. Support for moderator effects or buffering in terms of interactions between war zone stressor level and resilience–recovery factors was minimal.
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Interviews were conducted with a nationally representative sample of 1,200 male Vietnam veterans and the spouses or coresident partners of 376 of these veterans. The veteran interview contained questions to determine the presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and items tapping family and marital adjustment, parenting problems, and violence. The spouse or partner (S/P) interview assessed the S/P's view of these items, as well as her view of her own mental health, drug, and alcohol problems and behavioral problems of school-aged children living at home. Compared with families of male veterans without current PTSD, families of male veterans with current PTSD showed markedly elevated levels of severe and diffuse problems in marital and family adjustment, in parenting skills, and in violent behavior. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
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Using outpatients with anxiety and mood disorders (N = 350), the authors tested several models of the structural relationships of dimensions of key features of selected emotional disorders and dimensions of the tripartite model of anxiety and depression. Results supported the discriminant validity of the 5 symptom domains examined (mood disorders; generalized anxiety disorder, GAD; panic disorder; obsessive-compulsive disorder; social phobia). Of various structural models evaluated, the best fitting involved a structure consistent with the tripartite model (e.g., the higher order factors, negative affect and positive affect, influenced emotional disorder factors in the expected manner). The latent factor, GAD, influenced the latent factor, autonomic arousal, in a direction consistent with recent laboratory findings (autonomic suppression); Findings are discussed in the context of the growing literature on higher order trait dimensions (e.g., negative affect) that may be of considerable importance to the understanding of the pathogenesis, course, and co-occurrence of emotional disorders.
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Quality ties to others are universally endorsed as central to optimal living. Social scientists have extensively studied the relational world, but in somewhat separate literatures (e.g., attachment, close relationships, marital and family ties, social support). Studies of intimacy and close connection are infrequently connected to health, whereas studies of health and social support rarely intersect with literatures on relational flourishing. Efforts to probe underlying physiological processes have been disproportionately concerned with the negative (e.g., adverse effects of relational conflict). A worthy goal for the new millennium is promoting greater cross talk between these realms via a focus on the positive health implications of interpersonal flourishing. Vital venues for the future include mapping the emotional configurations of quality social relationships and elaborating their physiological substrates.
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A 36-item short-form (SF-36) was constructed to survey health status in the Medical Outcomes Study. The SF-36 was designed for use in clinical practice and research, health policy evaluations, and general population surveys. The SF-36 includes one multi-item scale that assesses eight health concepts: 1) limitations in physical activities because of health problems; 2) limitations in social activities because of physical or emotional problems; 3) limitations in usual role activities because of physical health problems; 4) bodily pain; 5) general mental health (psychological distress and well-being); 6) limitations in usual role activities because of emotional problems; 7) vitality (energy and fatigue); and 8) general health perceptions. The survey was constructed for self-administration by persons 14 years of age and older, and for administration by a trained interviewer in person or by telephone. The history of the development of the SF-36, the origin of specific items, and the logic underlying their selection are summarized. The content and features of the SF-36 are compared with the 20-item Medical Outcomes Study short-form.
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The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) is a structured interview for assessing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnostic status and symptom severity. In the 10 years since it was developed, the CAPS has become a standard criterion measure in the field of traumatic stress and has now been used in more than 200 studies. In this paper, we first trace the history of the CAPS and provide an update on recent developments. Then we review the empirical literature, summarizing and evaluating the findings regarding the psychometric properties of the CAPS. The research evidence indicates that the CAPS has excellent reliability, yielding consistent scores across items, raters, and testing occasions. There is also strong evidence of validity: The CAPS has excellent convergent and discriminant validity, diagnostic utility, and sensitivity to clinical change. Finally, we address several concerns about the CAPS and offer recommendations for optimizing the CAPS for various clinical research applications. Depression and Anxiety 13:132–156, 2001 © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Interviews were conducted with a nationally representative sample of 1,200 male Vietnam veterans and the spouses or co-resident partners of 376 of these veterans. The veteran interview contained questions to determine the presence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and items tapping family and marital adjustment, parenting problems, and violence. The spouse or partner (S/P) interview assessed the S/P's view of these items, as well as her view of her own mental health, drug, and alcohol problems and behavioral problems of school-aged children living at home. Compared with families of male veterans without current PTSD, families of male veterans with current PTSD showed markedly elevated levels of severe and diffuse problems in marital and family adjustment, in parenting skills, and in violent behavior. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
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A 36-item short-form (SF-36) was constructed to survey health status in the Medical Outcomes Study. The SF-36 was designed for use in clinical practice and research, health policy evaluations, and general population surveys. The SF-36 includes one multi-item scale that assesses eight health concepts: 1) limitations in physical activities because of health problems; 2) limitations in social activities because of physical or emotional problems; 3) limitations in usual role activities because of physical health problems; 4) bodily pain; 5) general mental health (psychological distress and well-being); 6) limitations in usual role activities because of emotional problems; 7) vitality (energy and fatigue); and 8) general health perceptions. The survey was constructed for self-administration by persons 14 years of age and older, and for administration by a trained interviewer in person or by telephone. The history of the development of the SF-36, the origin of specific items, and the logic underlying their selection are summarized. The content and features of the SF-36 are compared with the 20-item Medical Outcomes Study short-form.
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This article addresses the issues of recognition of psychiatric disorders by general physicians (GPs) and the effects of recognition on management and course. Among 1994 patients who were screened with the General Health Questionnaire and who were rated by their GP, 1450 (72.7%) had not been identified by the GP as having a psychiatric disorder in the year before the index visit. Among these "new" patients, 557 (38.4%) had positive General Health Questionnaire scores. Only 47% of the new patients who met Bedford College diagnostic criteria for anxiety, depression, or ill-defined disorder had their psychiatric disorder recognized by their GP. Among patients who met Bedford College criteria, mean episode durations were longer for anxiety disorders (20 to 22 months) than for depressive disorders (9 to 10 months). Among the new patients, those with psychiatric disorders recognized by the GP were more likely to receive mental health interventions. Recognition was associated with shorter episode duration among patients with an anxiety disorder, but not among patients with depressive or ill-defined disorders.
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We examined the relations between coping, locus of control, and social support and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The sample consisted of 262 Israeli soldiers who suffered a combat stress reaction episode during the 1982 Lebanon war and were followed 2 and 3 years after their participation in combat. Cross-sectional analyses revealed significant relations between locus of control, coping, and social support and PTSD at the two points of assessment. Changes in PTSD from Time 1 to Time 2 were also associated with changes in coping. We discuss theoretical and methodological implications of the findings.
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Previous research has found high rates of psychiatric disorders among veterans with war zone-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, many studies in this area are methodologically limited in ways that preclude unambiguous interpretation of their results. The purpose of this study was to address some of these limitations to clarify the relationship between war zone-related PTSD and other disorders. Participants were 311 male Vietnam theater veterans assessed at the National Center for PTSD at the Boston Veterans Affairs Medical Center. The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R were used to derive current and lifetime diagnoses of PTSD, other axis I disorders (mood, anxiety, substance use, psychotic, and somatoform disorders), and two axis II disorders (borderline and antisocial personality disorders only). Participants also completed several self-report measures of PTSD and general psychopathology. Relative to veterans without PTSD, veterans with PTSD had significantly higher rates of current major depression, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, and social phobia, as well as significantly higher rates of lifetime major depression, panic disorder, social phobia, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. In addition, veterans with PTSD scored significantly higher on all self-report measures of PTSD and general psychopathology. These results provide further evidence that PTSD is associated with high rates of additional psychiatric disorders, particularly mood disorders and other anxiety disorders. The implications of these findings and suggestions about the direction of future research in this area are discussed.
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The comorbidity of current and lifetime DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders was examined in 1,127 outpatients who were assessed with the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV: Lifetime version (ADIS-IV-L). The current and lifetime prevalence of additional Axis I disorders in principal anxiety and mood disorders was found to be 57% and 81%, respectively. The principal diagnostic categories associated with the highest comorbidity rates were mood disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). A high rate of lifetime comorbidity was found between the anxiety and mood disorders; the lifetime association with mood disorders was particularly strong for PTSD, GAD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and social phobia. The findings are discussed in regard to their implications for the classification of emotional disorders.
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Research on depression is often conducted with analogue samples that have been divided into depressed and nondepressed groups using a cutoff score on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Although the relative merits of different cut scores are frequently debated, no study has yet determined whether the use of any cut score is valid, that is, whether the latent structure of BDI depression is categorical or dimensional in analogue samples. The BDI responses of 2,260 college students were submitted to 3 taxometric procedures whose results were compared with those of simulated data sets with equivalent parameters. Analyses provided converging evidence for the dimensionality of analogue depression, arguing against the use of the BDI to classify analogue participants into groups. Analyses also illustrated the notable impact of pronounced skew on taxometric results and the value of using simulated comparison data as an interpretive aid.
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The comorbidity of current and lifetime DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders was examined in 1,127 outpatients who were assessed with the Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV :Lifetime version (ADIS-IV-L). The current and lifetime prevalence of additional Axis I disorders in principal anxiety and mood disorders was found to be 57% and 81%, respectively. The principal diagnostic categories associated with the highest comorbidity rates were mood disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). A high rate of lifetime comorbidity was found between the anxiety and mood disorders; the lifetime association with mood disorders was particularly strong for PTSD, GAD, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and social phobia. The findings are discussed in regard to their implications for the classification of emotional disorders.
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Social phobia is increasingly recognized as a prevalent and socially impairing mental disorder. However, little data is available regarding the general and disease-specific impairments and disabilities associated with social phobia. Furthermore, most studies have not controlled for the confounding effects of comorbid conditions. This study investigates: (a) the generic quality of life; (b) work productivity; and, (c) various other disorder-specific social impairments in current cases with pure (n = 65), comorbid (n = 51) and subthreshold (n = 34) DSM-IV social phobia as compared to controls with no social phobia (subjects with a history of herpes infections). Social phobia cases reported a mean illness duration of 22.9 years with onset in childhood or adolescence. Current quality of life, as assessed by the SF-36, was significantly reduced in all social phobia groups, particularly in the scales measuring vitality, general health, mental health, role limitations due to emotional health, and social functioning. Comorbid cases revealed more severe reductions than pure and subthreshold social phobics. Findings from the Liebowitz self-rated disability scale indicated that: (a) social phobia affects most areas of life, but in particular education, career, and romantic relationship; (b) the presence of past and current comorbid conditions increases the frequency of disease-specific impairments; and, (c) subthreshold social phobia revealed slightly lower overall impairments than comorbid social phobics. Past week work productivity of social phobics was significantly diminished as indicated by: (a) a three-fold higher rate of unemployed cases; (b) elevated rates of work hours missed due to social phobia problems; and, (c) a reduced work performance. Overall, these findings underline that social phobia in our sample of adults, whether comorbid, subthreshold, or pure was a persisting and impairing condition, resulting in considerable subjective suffering and negative impact on work performance and social relationships. The current disabilities and impairments were usually less pronounced than in the past, presumably due to adaptive behaviors in life style of the respondents. Data also confirmed that social phobia is poorly recognized and rarely treated by the mental health system.
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• Selected sociodemographic and clinical features of social phobia were assessed in four US communities among more than 13 000 adults from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. Rates of social phobia were highest among women and persons who were younger (age, 18 to 29 years), less educated, single, and of lower socioeconomic class. Mean age at onset was 15.5 years, and first onsets after the age of 25 years were uncommon. Lifetime major comorbid disorders were present in 69% of subjects with social phobia and usually had onset after social phobia. When compared with persons with no psychiatric disorder, uncomplicated social phobia was associated with increased rates of suicidal ideation, financial dependency, and having sought medical treatment, but was not associated with higher rates of having made a suicide attempt or having sought treatment from a mental health professional. An increase in suicide attempts was found among subjects with social phobia overall, but this increase was mainly attributable to comorbid cases. Social phobia, in the absence of comorbidity, was associated with distress and impairment, yet was rarely treated by mental health professionals. The findings are compared and contrasted with prior reports from clinical samples.
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• This article addresses the issues of recognition of psychiatric disorders by general physicians (GPs) and the effects of recognition on management and course. Among 1994 patients who were screened with the General Health Questionnaire and who were rated by their GP, 1450 (72.7%) had not been identified by the GP as having a psychiatric disorder in the year before the index visit. Among these "new" patients, 557 (38.4%) had positive General Health Questionnaire scores. Only 47% of the new patients who met Bedford College diagnostic criteria for anxiety, depression, or illdefined disorder had their psychiatric disorder recognized by their GP. Among patients who met Bedford College criteria, mean episode durations were longer for anxiety disorders (20 to 22 months) than for depressive disorders (9 to 10 months). Among the new patients, those with psychiatric disorders recognized by the GP were more likely to receive mental health interventions. Recognition was associated with shorter episode duration among patients with an anxiety disorder, but not among patients with depressive or illdefined disorders.
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Background: Untreated anxiety may be particularly difficult for primary care physicians to recognize and diagnose because there are no reliable demographic or medical profiles for patients with this condition and because these patients present with a high rate of comorbid psychological conditions that complicate selection of treatment.Method: A prospective assessment of untreated anxiety symptoms and disorders among primary care patients.Results: Approximately 10% of eligible patients screened in clinic waiting rooms of a mixed-model health maintenance organization reported elevated symptoms and/or disorders of anxiety that were unrecognized and untreated. These patients with untreated anxiety reported significantly worse functioning on both physical and emotional measures than "not anxious" comparison patients; in fact these patients reported reduced functioning levels within ranges that would be expected for patients with chronic physical diseases, such as diabetes and congestive heart failure. The most severe reductions in functioning were reported by untreated patients whose anxiety was mixed with depression symptoms or disorders.Conclusion: Primary care physicians may benefit from screening tools and consultations by mental health specialists to assist in recognition and diagnosis of anxiety symptoms and disorders alone and mixed with depression.
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The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) is a short diagnostic structured interview (DSI) developed in France and the United States to explore 17 disorders according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-III-R diagnostic criteria. It is fully structured to allow administration by non-specialized interviewers. In order to keep it short it focuses on the existence of current disorders. For each disorder, one or two screening questions rule out the diagnosis when answered negatively. Probes for severity, disability or medically explained symptoms are not explored symptom-by-symptom. Two joint papers present the inter-rater and test-retest reliability of the Mini the validity versus the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) (this paper) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IH-R patients (SCID) (joint paper). Three-hundred and forty-six patients (296 psychiatric and 50 non-psychiatric) were administered the MINI and the CIDI ‘gold standard’. Forty two were interviewed by two investigators and 42 interviewed subsequently within two days. Interviewers were trained to use both instruments. The mean duration of the interview was 21 min with the MINI and 92 for corresponding sections of the CIDI. Kappa coefficient, sensitivity and specificity were good or very good for all diagnoses with the exception of generalized anxietydisorder (GAD) (kappa = 0.36), agoraphobia (sensitivity = 0.59) and bulimia (kappa = 0.53). Inter-rater and test-retest reliability were good. The main reasons for discrepancies were identified. The MINI provided reliable DSM-HI-R diagnoses within a short time frame, The study permitted improvements in the formulations for GAD and agoraphobia in the current DSM-IV version of the MINI.
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Although decades of research have examined relationships between social anxiety and negative outcomes, this study examined relations with indices of positive psychological functioning. In college students (n = 204), a factor analysis on self-report measures of positive psychological functioning derived 3 conceptually meaningful broad domains: Positive Subjective Experiences, Curiosity, and Appetitive Motivations. Analyses were conducted to test whether social interaction anxiety demonstrated unique relationships with positive psychological domains after controlling for shared variance with social observation anxiety (e.g., eating in public, public speaking) and neuroticism. Social interaction anxiety explained unique variance in all 3 domains after separately controlling for social observation anxiety and neuroticism. In contrast, social observation anxiety demonstrated near-zero relationships with all 3 domains, and neuroticism predicted Positive Subjective Experiences, and to a lesser degree, Curiosity. These data provide evidence for the unique association between social interaction anxiety and positive psychological functioning, with implications for future basic and applied research.
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Maladaptive patterns of social functioning have been widely noted as core features associated with the clinical syndrome of combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), including interpersonal violence, social anxiety and avoidance, marital/family discord, and occupational impairment. Unfortunately, clinical instruments for evaluating the complex domains of social functioning are lacking, and no measures have been developed specifically for combat-related PTSD. Therefore, the development of reliable and valid procedures for assessing the social functioning of this group is sorely needed. A number of strategies currently exist, including symptom severity, symptom chronicity, and monetary gain incentive; however, assessment of this population represents several unique challenges. Until measures of social functioning are developed and validated specifically for combat-related PTSD, comprehensive assessment should consist of a multimethod approach, including (a) self-report measures; (b) structured interviews and clinician ratings; (c) patient ratings (e.g., daily diaries); (d) behavioral performance assessments of social skill strengths and deficits; and (e) other behavioral assessments, including functional analysis, psychophysiological measurements, and objective indicators of functioning. The development of an endstate functioning index, anchored to a normal population, would advance our ability to gage the social functioning of veterans following treatment.
Article
The Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) is a short diagnostic structured interview, developed in clinician (MINI-CR) and patient-rated (MINI-PR) formats, for 17 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-III-R Axis I psychiatric disorders. This study, which investigates the validity of the MINI in relation to the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R Patients (SCID-P), was conducted in conjunction with a similar study, investigating the validity of the MINI in relation to the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) for International Statistical Classification of Disease (ICD)-10. Both studies also examined the inter-rater and test-retest reliability of the MINI. Three hundred and seventy subjects (330 in Florida and 40 in Paris) participated in the validation of the MINI versus the SCID-P. Of these, 308 had at least one psychiatric disorder and 62 were non-patient adult controls. Eighty of the subjects (40 in Florida and 40 in Paris) also participated in the parallel study of the validity of the MINI versus the CIDI. The 330 Florida subjects first completed the patient-rated version of the MINI. All subjects were administered the MINI-CR (after the MINI-PR in the case of the Florida subjects), followed by the SCID-P. The MINI-CR was rated by two interviewers for 42 subjects in Florida and 42 in Paris (inter-rater reliability test) and readministered by a third blind interviewer one to two days after the initial rating (test-retest reliability test). Overall, the results supported the validity and reliability of the MINI. In addition, administration of the MINI-CR took half as long as administration of corresponding sections of the SCID-P. The application of short structured interviews in clinical and research settings is discussed.
Article
Selected sociodemographic and clinical features of social phobia were assessed in four US communities among more than 13,000 adults from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. Rates of social phobia were highest among women and persons who were younger (age, 18 to 29 years), less educated, single, and of lower socioeconomic class. Mean age at onset was 15.5 years, and first onsets after the age of 25 years were uncommon. Lifetime major comorbid disorders were present in 69% of subjects with social phobia and usually had onset after social phobia. When compared with persons with no psychiatric disorder, uncomplicated social phobia was associated with increased rates of suicidal ideation, financial dependency, and having sought medical treatment, but was not associated with higher rates of having made a suicide attempt or having sought treatment from a mental health professional. An increase in suicide attempts was found among subjects with social phobia overall, but this increase was mainly attributable to comorbid cases. Social phobia, in the absence of comorbidity, was associated with distress and impairment, yet was rarely treated by mental health professionals. The findings are compared and contrasted with prior reports from clinical samples.
Article
Individuals with subthreshold social phobia (SSP) in the community are characterized relative to nonphobic, healthy controls (C), and diagnosed social phobics (SP). Data from 1488 subjects from the Duke University Epidemiological Catchment Area Study were examined. Bivariate and multivariate methods were used to compare the SSP, SP, and C groups on 10 sets of variables. Compared with C respondents, SSP respondents were more likely to be female and unmarried and to report less income and education. The SSP respondents were also more likely to report work attendance problems, poor grades in school, symptoms of conduct disturbance, impaired subjective social support, lack of self-confidence, lack of a close friend, use of psychotropic drugs in past year, and a greater number of life changes, chronic medical problems, and mental health visits within the past 6 months. In a multivariate logistic regression model with group membership as the dependent variable, compared with C respondents, SSP respondents were more likely to be female, to have less education, and to report more indicators of poor school performance and symptoms of adolescent conduct disturbance. In contrast, in a similar but separate multivariate model, compared with SP respondents, SSP respondents met the criteria for fewer DSM-III psychiatric disorders and were less likely to report impaired instrumental support. Social phobia adversely affects over 10% of the population. Previous epidemiologic catchment area-based prevalence estimates have probably been unrealistically low.
Article
This study examined the nature of impairment of functioning in persons with social phobia and assessed the validity of two new rating scales for describing impairment in social phobia. In 32 patients with social phobia and 14 normal control subjects, impairment was assessed using the Disability Profile and the Liebowitz Self-Rated Disability Scale, new instruments designed to provide clinician- and patient-rated descriptive measures of current and lifetime functional impairment related to emotional problems. Validity of the new scales was assessed by measuring internal consistency, comparing scores for patients and controls, and comparing scores with those on standard measures of disability, social phobia symptoms, and social support. More than half of all social phobic patients reported at least moderate impairment at some time in their lives, due to social anxiety and avoidance, in areas of education, employment, family relationships, marriage/romantic relationships, friendships/social network, and other interests. Social phobic patients were rated more impaired than normal controls on nearly all items on both measures. Both scales were internally consistent, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients for lifetime and current disability subscales in the range of .87 to .92. Significant positive correlations of scores on the new scales with scores on coadministered standard scales of social phobia symptoms and disability demonstrated concurrent validity. Disability was not significantly correlated with measures of social support. Social phobia is associated with impairment in most areas of functioning, and the new scales appear useful in assessing functional impairment related to social phobia.
Article
Untreated anxiety may be particularly difficult for primary care physicians to recognize and diagnose because there are no reliable demographic or medical profiles for patients with this condition and because these patients present with a high rate of comorbid psychological conditions that complicate selection of treatment. A prospective assessment of untreated anxiety symptoms and disorders among primary care patients. Approximately 10% of eligible patients screened in clinic waiting rooms of a mixed-model health maintenance organization reported elevated symptoms and/or disorders of anxiety that were unrecognized and untreated. These patients with untreated anxiety reported significantly worse functioning on both physical and emotional measures than "not anxious" comparison patients; in fact these patients reported reduced functioning levels within ranges that would be expected for patients with chronic physical diseases, such as diabetes and congestive heart failure. The most severe reductions in functioning were reported by untreated patients whose anxiety was mixed with depression symptoms or disorders. Primary care physicians may benefit from screening tools and consultations by mental health specialists to assist in recognition and diagnosis of anxiety symptoms and disorders alone and mixed with depression.
Article
The authors examined the effect of patients' style of clinical presentation on primary care physicians' recognition of depression and anxiety. The subjects were 685 patients attending family medicine clinics on self-initiated visits. They completed structured interviews assessing presenting complaints, self-report measures of symptoms and hypochondriacal worry, the Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS), and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Physician recognition was determined by notation of any psychiatric condition in the medical chart over the ensuing 12 months. The authors identified three progressively more persistent forms of somatic presentations, labeled "initial," "facultative," and "true" somatization. Of 215 patients with CES-D scores of 16 or higher, 80% made somatized presentations; of 75 patients with DIS-diagnosed major depression or anxiety disorder, 76% made somatic presentations. Among patients with DIS major depression or anxiety disorder, somatization reduced physician recognition from 77%, for psychosocial presenters, to 22%, for true somatizers. The same pattern was found for patients with high CES-D scores. In logistic regression models education, seriousness of concurrent medical illness, hypochondriacal worry, and number of lifetime medically unexplained symptoms each increased the likelihood of recognition, while somatized presentations decreased the rate of recognition. While physician recognition of psychiatric distress in primary care varied widely with different criteria for recognition, the same pattern of reduction of recognition with increasing level of somatization was found for all criteria. In contrast, hypochondriacal worry and medically unexplained somatic symptoms increased the rate of recognition.
Article
Data are presented on the general population prevalences, correlates, comorbidities, and impairments associated with DSM-III-R phobias. Analysis is based on the National Comorbidity Survey. Phobias were assessed with a revised version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Lifetime (and 30-day) prevalence estimates are 6.7% (and 2.3%) for agoraphobia, 11.3% (and 5.5%) for simple phobia, and 13.3% (and 4.5%) for social phobia. Increasing lifetime prevalences are found in recent cohorts. Earlier median ages at illness onset are found for simple (15 years of age) and social (16 years of age) phobias than for agoraphobia (29 years of age). Phobias are highly comorbid. Most comorbid simple and social phobias are temporally primary, while most comorbid agoraphobia is temporally secondary. Comorbid phobias are generally more severe than pure phobias. Despite evidence of role impairment in phobia, only a minority of individuals with phobia ever seek professional treatment. Phobias are common, increasingly prevalent, often associated with serious role impairment, and usually go untreated. Focused research is needed to investigate barriers to help seeking.
Article
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most prevalent psychological disorder experienced by Vietnam veterans. However, there are many other disorders and problems of adjustment, like social anxiety and social phobia, that have not been fully investigated in this population. This study examined the prevalence of social phobia and the comorbidity of social phobia and PTSD, and tested out a theory of the etiology of social anxiety in trauma victims. Forty one Vietnam combat veterans were interviewed and completed self-report measures assessing PTSD and social phobia. Adversity of homecoming was also assessed. Using a conservative multi-method assessment approach, 32% of the sample were found to be positive for both social phobia and PTSD. Veterans with PTSD were significantly more likely to carry an additional diagnosis of social phobia as compared to veterans without PTSD. Adversity of homecoming and shame about one's experience in Vietnam were significant predictors of current level of social anxiety over and above the effects of pre-military anxiety and severity of combat exposure. These observations suggest that social anxiety and social phobia may be significant problems among individuals with PTSD. Further, these findings offer preliminary support for the theory that posttrauma environment may impact upon the later development of social anxiety.
Article
The development and initial evaluation of a new, comprehensive and multicomponent behavioral treatment (Trauma Management Therapy, or TMT) for chronic combat-related Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is described. The program utilizes elements of intensive exposure therapy, programmed practice, and structured social and emotional skills training to target the multiple aspects of chronic combat-related PTSD. The treatment was found to be effective in alleviating a broad spectrum of difficulties in combat veterans with chronic PTSD, most of whom had co-occurring Axis I and/or Axis II disorders. The results are discussed with respect to the implementation of the new treatment and the general need for a comprehensive approach to treating combat-related PTSD. Implications for the potential cost-effectiveness of the treatment program also are discussed.
Article
The psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL), a new, brief, self-report instrument, were determined on a population of 40 motor vehicle accident victims and sexual assault victims using diagnoses and scores from the CAPS (Clinician Administered PTSD Scale) as the criteria. For the PCL as a whole, the correlation with the CAPS was 0.929 and diagnostic efficiency was 0.900 versus CAPS. Examination of the individual items showed wide ranging values of individual item correlations ranging from 0.386 to 0.788, and with diagnostic efficiencies of 0.700 or better for symptoms. We support the value of the PCL as a brief screening instrument for PTSD.
Article
The current paper presents a model of the experience of anxiety in social/evaluative situations in people with social phobia. The model describes the manner in which people with social phobia perceive and process information related to potential evaluation and the way in which these processes differ between people high and low in social anxiety. It is argued that distortions and biases in the processing of social/evaluative information lead to heightened anxiety in social situations and, in turn, help to maintain social phobia. Potential etiological factors as well as treatment implications are also discussed.
Article
This study examined the quality of the intimate relationships of male Vietnam veterans. Heterosexual couples in which the veteran had posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; n = 26) were compared to couples in which the veteran did not have PTSD (n = 24). Over 70% of the PTSD veterans and their partners reported clinically significant levels of relationship distress compared to only about 30% of the non-PTSD couples. Relationship difficulties appeared to encompass a wide range of areas, with PTSD veterans and their partners reporting that they had more problems in their relationships, more difficulties with intimacy, and had taken more steps toward separation and divorce than the non-PTSD veterans and their partners. The degree of relationship distress was correlated with the severity of veterans' PTSD symptoms, particularly symptoms of emotional numbing. Research and clinical implications of the results are discussed.
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The relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and self-reported levels of social anxiety among combat veterans was assessed using the Social Phobia and Anxiety inventory (SPAI). Participants were 45 veterans with combat-related PTSD assessed using a multimeasure assessment package. The veterans reported a high level of social anxiety and agoraphobia-like symptoms. Agoraphobia scores were predicted by PTSD severity and elevated by Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) scales of acute distress and psychopathology. Social phobia scores were predicted by severity of depression. The relationship between social anxiety, depression, and PTSD is discussed. Implications for the assessment and treatment of PTSD are also discussed.
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Social phobia is increasingly recognized as a prevalent and socially impairing mental disorder. However, little data is available regarding the general and disease-specific impairments and disabilities associated with social phobia. Furthermore, most studies have not controlled for the confounding effects of comorbid conditions. This study investigates: (a) the generic quality of life; (b) work productivity; and, (c) various other disorder-specific social impairments in current cases with pure ( n = 65), comorbid ( n = 51) and subthreshold ( n = 34) DSM-IV social phobia as compared to controls with no social phobia (subjects with a history of herpes infections). Social phobia cases reported a mean illness duration of 22.9 years with onset in childhood or adolescence. Current quality of life, as assessed by the SF-36, was significantly reduced in all social phobia groups, particularly in the scales measuring vitality, general health, mental health, role limitations due to emotional health, and social functioning. Comorbid cases revealed more severe reductions than pure and subthreshold social phobics. Findings from the Liebowitz self-rated disability scale indicated that: (a) social phobia affects most areas of life, but in particular education, career, and romantic relationship; (b) the presence of past and current comorbid conditions increases the frequency and severity of disease-specific impairments; and, (c) subthreshold social phobia revealed slightly lower overall impairments than comorbid social phobics. Past-week work productivity of social phobics was significantly diminished as indicated by: (a) a three-fold higher rate of unemployed cases; (b) elevated rates of work hours missed due to social phobia problems; and (c) a reduced work performance. Overall, these findings underline that social phobia in our sample of adults, whether comorbid, subthreshold, or pure was a persisting and impairing condition, resulting in considerable subjective suffering and negative impact on work performance and social relationships. The current disabilities and impairments were usually less pronounced than in the past, presumably due to adaptive behaviors in life style of the respondents. Data also confirmed that social phobia is poorly recognized and rarely treated by the mental health system.
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Previous analysis of data from the U.S. National Comorbidity Survey (NCS) [24] suggested that the lifetime prevalence of social phobia in the community has increased significantly in recent cohorts. Furthermore, a latent class analysis of NCS data [21] revealed two primary classes of persons with social phobia: those with exclusive speaking fears and those with one or more other social-evaluative fears. Social phobia in the other social fear group is more persistent, more impairing, and more highly co-morbid with other DSM-III-R disorders. The current report presents data on whether the cohort effect is a general aspect of social phobia or is specific to one of the NCS social phobia subtypes, and whether the cohort effect varies as a function of socio-demographic characteristics. Data were drawn from the NCS. Social phobia was assessed with a revised version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Retrospective age of onset reports were used to estimate Kaplan-Meier survival curves for first onset of social phobia in each cohort represented in the survey. Comparison of these curves allowed us to make synthetic estimates based on retrospective reports of intercohort trends in lifetime prevalence. The lifetime prevalence of social phobia appears to have increased in recent cohorts. However, this increase does not exist among social phobics with exclusive fears of speaking. The increase is most pronounced among white, educated, and married persons, and it is not explained by increased co-morbidity with other mental disorders. The fact that the cohort effect is more pronounced for social phobia with one or more non-speaking fears is important in that this is generally a more severe form of the disorder with an earlier age of onset than social phobia with pure speaking fears. The fact that the cohort effect is most pronounced among people with social and economic advantage (i.e., white, married, well-educated) is intriguing and raises questions about the etiologic process that warrant further study in future research.
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The Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS) is a structured interview for assessing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnostic status and symptom severity. In the 10 years since it was developed, the CAPS has become a standard criterion measure in the field of traumatic stress and has now been used in more than 200 studies. In this paper, we first trace the history of the CAPS and provide an update on recent developments. Then we review the empirical literature, summarizing and evaluating the findings regarding the psychometric properties of the CAPS. The research evidence indicates that the CAPS has excellent reliability, yielding consistent scores across items, raters, and testing occasions. There is also strong evidence of validity: The CAPS has excellent convergent and discriminant validity, diagnostic utility, and sensitivity to clinical change. Finally, we address several concerns about the CAPS and offer recommendations for optimizing the CAPS for various clinical research applications.
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This study compared Gulf War veterans seeking VA primary care with Gulf War veterans seeking treatment from a Department of Defense primary care clinic on measures of physical symptoms, psychiatric complaints, and functional status. Additionally, the association between employment status and health was examined. Analysis was based on the responses of consecutive patients attending the Gulf War Primary Care clinics at either the VA Puget Sound Health Care System in Seattle, WA (N= 223), or the Walter Reed Army Medical Center in Washington, DC (N= 153), between March 1998 and September 1999. After controlling for demographic variables, Gulf War veterans who sought VA care reported significantly more anxiety and PTSD symptoms than active duty military personnel. The groups did not differ on somatic complaints or summary scores from the SF-36. Employment status was significantly, independently, and consistently associated with greater psychiatric symptoms, physical symptoms, and decreased functional status. Our findings reveal important differences in health status between veterans seeking primary care at a VA and a Department of Defense facility, differences that are in part related to employment status. Both groups report