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Basic emotions are associated with distinct patterns of cardiorespiratory activity. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 61(1), 5-18
Abstract
The existence of specific somatic states associated with different emotions remains controversial. In this study, we investigated the profile of cardiorespiratory activity during the experience of fear, anger, sadness and happiness. ECG and respiratory activity was recorded in 43 healthy volunteers during the recall and experiential reliving of one or two potent emotional autobiographical episodes and a neutral episode. Univariate statistics indicated that the four emotions differed from each other and from the neutral control condition on several linear and spectral indices of cardiorespiratory activity. Dependent variables were further reduced to five physiologically meaningful factors using an exploratory principal component analysis (PCA). Multivariate analyses of variance and effect size estimates calculated on those factors confirmed the differences between the four emotion conditions. A stepwise discriminant analyses predicting emotions using the PCA factors led to a classification rate of 65.3% for the four emotions (chance=25%; p=0.001) and of 72.0-83.3% for pair-wise discrimination (chance=50%; p's<0.05). These findings may be considered preliminary in view of the small sample on which the multivariate approach has been applied. However, this study emphasizes the need to better characterize the multidimensional factors involved in cardio-respiratory regulation during emotion. These results are consistent with the notion that distinct patterns of peripheral physiological activity are associated with different emotions.
... EEG has proven to be a powerful tool for capturing changes in emotional states, recently demonstrating significant improvements in emotion recognition performance when combined with deep learning [31]. The choice of physiological signals over nonverbal cues is based on emotion theories [32,33]. Physiological signals, being unconscious bodily changes controlled by the autonomic nervous system, can potentially represent emotions more reliably than voluntary or involuntary facial behaviors. ...
... EEG signals underwent bandpass filtering to extract five distinct frequency bands: delta (0.4-4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-13 Hz), beta (13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30), and gamma (30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40)(41)(42)(43)(44)(45). For each frequency band, the power spectral density (PSD) was calculated. ...
Multimodal emotion recognition has emerged as a promising approach to capture the complex nature of human emotions by integrating information from various sources such as physiological signals, visual behavioral cues, and audio-visual content. However, current methods often struggle with effectively processing redundant or conflicting information across modalities and may overlook implicit inter-modal correlations. To address these challenges, this paper presents a novel multimodal emotion recognition framework which integrates audio-visual features with viewers’ EEG data to enhance emotion classification accuracy. The proposed approach employs modality-specific encoders to extract spatiotemporal features, which are then aligned through contrastive learning to capture inter-modal relationships. Additionally, cross-modal attention mechanisms are incorporated for effective feature fusion across modalities. The framework, comprising pre-training, fine-tuning, and testing phases, is evaluated on multiple datasets of emotional responses. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed multimodal approach, which combines audio-visual features with EEG data, is highly effective in recognizing emotions, highlighting its potential for advancing emotion recognition systems.
... Sadness generally results in reduced physiological activity (Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, 1983;Levenson, 2014). Some studies have found that the profile associated with sadness is distinct from other emotional states (e.g., Rainville et al., 2006). For example, a study that compared physiological reactions to sadness (vs. ...
... For example, a study that compared physiological reactions to sadness (vs. anger, happiness, and fear), found that sadness is characterized by increased heart rate, decreased heart rate variability, and increases in respiration variability (Rainville et al., 2006). (Ekman, Friesen, & Hager, 2002). ...
Sadness is a universal part of human experience. We all experience sadness at one time or another – after the dissolution of a romantic relationship, a failure in an important exam, or even just at the end of a great vacation – sadness is part of life. While transient feelings of sadness are common, and may even be beneficial at times, a substantial minority of people experience prolonged periods of sadness that are accompanied by difficulties to experience positive emotions as well as a host of cognitive and physiological symptoms – known together as clinical depression. This chapter discusses both sadness and depression, delineates the differences between them, and examines their physiological and neural markers and functions.
... Somatic theories of emotions posit that afferent physiological signals are essential for experiencing distinct emotional states (Damasio, 1999;Harrison et al., 2010;James, 1894). However, so far the large majority of the studies on the influence of visceral signals on emotions focused on the role of cardiac and respiratory activity (Kreibig, 2010;Rainville et al., 2006), neglecting the potential role of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. ...
... As far as self-report ratings are concerned, we expected that: (i) in accordance with previous findings (Tettamanti et al., 2012) all the emotional video clips would trigger the intended emotion; (ii) basic emotions would be associated with specific visceral sensations mirroring results coming from the cardiac and respiratory domains (e.g. Rainville et al., 2006); (iii) participants would report higher gastric sensations after observing disgusting and happy video clips as suggested by Nummenmaa Figure 1. Illustration of the emotional induction procedure. ...
Although it is generally held that gastrointestinal (GI) signals are related to emotions, direct evidence for such a link is currently lacking. One of the reasons why the internal milieu of the GI system is poorly investigated is because visceral organs are difficult to access and monitor. To directly measure the influence of endoluminal markers of GI activity on the emotional experience, we asked a group of healthy male participants to ingest a pill that measured pH, pressure, and temperature of their GI tract while they watched video clips that consistently induced disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, or a control neutral state. In addition to the objective physiological markers of GI activity, subjective ratings of perceived emotions and visceral (i.e. gastric, respiratory and cardiac) sensations were recorded, as well as changes in heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV) and spontaneous eyes blinks as non-gastric behavioral and autonomic markers of the emotional experience. We found that when participants observed fearful and disgusting video clips, they reported to perceive not only cardiac and respiratory sensations but also gastric sensations, such as nausea. Moreover, we found that there was a clear relation between the physiology of the stomach and the perceived emotions. Specifically, when disgusting video clips were displayed, the more acidic the pH, the more participants reported feelings of disgust and fear; the less acidic the pH, the more they reported happiness. Complementing the results found in the deep gastric realm, we found that disgusting stimuli induced a significant increase in HRV compared to the neutral scenarios, and together with fearful video clips a decrease in HR. Our findings suggest that gastric signals contribute to unique emotional states and that ingestible pills may open new avenues for exploring the deep-body physiology of emotions.
... As early as 1927, Cannon [15] proposed that the autonomic nervous system is the determinant of emotion. By 2006, Rainville [16] specifically described the connection between the autonomic nervous system and emotion in terms of HRV and other features. ...
... Features related to HR, such as RR_ Mean and RR_ The features of Median, as well as the RR interval distribution and entropy features, are most effective in identifying anger. The HRV frequency domain features have lower significance in identifying anger due to resolution issues caused by data length (p>0.05), which is consistent with Rainville's conclusion [16] and Baek [23] This study has some limitations. Firstly, due to limitations in the experimental environment and equipment, this study used conventional emotion recognition materials, which to some extent represent driving anger, but still differ from actual driving scenarios. ...
... Somatic theories of emotions posit that afferent physiological signals are essential for experiencing distinct emotional states (Damasio, 1999;Harrison et al., 2010;James, 1894). However, so far the large majority of the studies on the influence of visceral signals on emotions focused on the role of cardiac and respiratory activity (Kreibig, 2010;Rainville et al., 2006), neglecting the potential role of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. ...
... As far as self-report ratings are concerned, we expected that: i) in accordance with previous findings (Tettamanti et al., 2012) all the emotional video-clips would trigger the intended emotion; ii) basic emotions would be associated with specific visceral sensations mirroring results coming from the cardiac and respiratory domains (e.g. Rainville et al., 2006); iii) participants would report higher gastric sensations after observing disgusting and happy video-clips as suggested by Nummenmaa and collaborators (Nummenmaa et al., 2014); and iv) there would be no differences in self-reported arousal ratings between the emotional video-clips, in line with previous literature (e.g. Posner et al., 2005;Russell and Feldman Barrett, 1999). ...
Although it is generally held that gastro-intestinal (GI) signals are related to emotions, direct evidence for such a link is currently lacking. One of the reasons why the internal milieu of the GI system is poorly investigated is because visceral organs are difficult to access and monitor. To directly measure the influence of endoluminal markers of GI activity on the emotional experience, we asked a group of healthy male participants to ingest a pill that measured pH, pressure, and temperature of their GI tract while they watched video-clips that consistently induced disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, or a control neutral state. In addition to the objective physiological markers of GI activity, subjective ratings of perceived emotions and visceral (i.e. gastric, respiratory and cardiac) sensations were recorded. We found that when participants observed fearful and disgusting video-clips, they reported to perceive not only cardiac and respiratory sensations but also gastric sensations, such as nausea. Moreover, we found that there was a clear relation between the physiology of the stomach and the perceived emotions. Specifically, when disgusting video-clips were displayed, the more acidic the pH, the more participants reported feelings of disgust and fear; the less acidic the pH, the more they reported happiness. Our findings suggest that gastric signals contribute to unique emotional states and that ingestible pills may open new avenues for exploring the deep-body physiology of emotions.
... Our results showed that the film clips that elicited sadness, anger, and fear were all in the same quadrant. These three emotions are distinct from each other not only in subjective feelings but also in peripheral physiological activity (Ekman et al., 1983;Levenson et al., 1990;Rainville et al., 2006) and central nervous system response (Schmidt & Trainor, 2001;Vytal & Hamann, 2010). For example, Rainville et al. (2006) found inhibitory excitation in the parasympathetic nervous system when sadness or fear was induced but not when anger was generated. ...
... These three emotions are distinct from each other not only in subjective feelings but also in peripheral physiological activity (Ekman et al., 1983;Levenson et al., 1990;Rainville et al., 2006) and central nervous system response (Schmidt & Trainor, 2001;Vytal & Hamann, 2010). For example, Rainville et al. (2006) found inhibitory excitation in the parasympathetic nervous system when sadness or fear was induced but not when anger was generated. If we analyzed the different emotions in the same quadrant as a whole, much information would be lost. ...
Film clips are widely utilized to evoke emotional responses in the laboratory. We found, however, that different fields tend to select emotional film clips using different approaches. Specifically, psychologists focus more on the discreteness of emotions, whereas computer scientists focus more on the valence and arousal of emotions. Different concerns lead to distinct film selection methods, which may challenge the validity of the emotional databases and hinder communication between disciplines. In recent years, the hybrid discrete–dimensional model has been developed. Based on this hybrid theory, in this study, we attempted to synthesize the diverse approaches and developed a possible unified criterion for emotional film selection across disciplines. Twenty-eight film clips aimed at eliciting four basic emotions (i.e., anger, sadness, fear, and happiness) were evaluated by 70 participants. We examined both discrete and dimensional indicators and applied a new integrative film selection criterion. The results showed that compared with the discrete model or the dimensional model, the hybrid model presented the most reasonable film clip selection outcomes, and 12 film clips were recommended to induce strong and discrete emotions. These findings may enlighten further research on emotion in both theoretical and methodological ways.
... De manière similaire à la variabilité du rythme cardiaque, les méthodes de calcul du RRV proposées dans la littérature sont diverses : l'écart-type, la décomposition de Fourier ou l'entropie (Seely, 2004). Rarement utilisées durant le sommeil, ces métriques sont plus souvent employées en psychophysiologie pour analyser l'impact de l'émotion sur la respiration (Rainville, 2006). Nous pouvons notamment citer des études sur les crises d'anxiété (Wilhelm, 2001), la peur, la tristesse (Kreibig, 2007) ou encore les émotions induites par la musique (Etzel, 2006). ...
... Cependant, des études sur le sujet ont déjà été réalisées lorsque le participant est éveillé. C'est par exemple le cas de l'étude de Rainville et al. qui ont demandé à 43 participants de se rappeler d'épisodes émotionnels ou non de leur vie (Rainville, 2006). Dans cette étude, le RRV RMSSD a également baissé lorsque la personne se rappelle de moments tristes de sa vie. ...
Les troubles du sommeil peuvent avoir de graves conséquences sur le bien-être et la santé d'un individu. Ils sont également intimement liés aux maladies cardiovasculaires. Le manque de sommeil augmente par exemple les risques d'hypertension, d'accident vasculaire cérébral ou encore de maladie coronaire. La mesure de référence utilisée pour explorer le sommeil et le système cardiorespiratoire durant le sommeil est la polysomnographie. Cependant, cette méthode est intrusive et coûteuse. Les objets connectés offrent une alternative intéressante : ils sont bon marchés, peu ou pas intrusifs et facile d'utilisation. Cette thèse a pour but de mieux comprendre le mode de fonctionnement et d'analyser l'utilité des objets connectés pour la recherche et la surveillance des troubles du sommeil et des maladies cardiovasculaires. L'analyseur de sommeil connecté est le principal objet connecté utilisé durant cette thèse. C'est un coussin d'air connecté à un capteur de pression. Placé sous le matelas au niveau du torse, il est non-intrusif et permet de récupérer des données décrivant la qualité du sommeil du sujet (durée du sommeil, actigraphie...) ou ses données cardiorespiratoires durant le sommeil. Cet analyseur a été utilisé dans trois études. Une première étude composée de personnes apnéiques et saines a permis d'évaluer la fiabilité algorithmique de l'appareil. Une fois la précision évaluée, une deuxième étude composée d'utilisateurs réguliers de l'appareil a été mis en place. Elle a pour but d'analyser les relations entre les variables psycho-comportementales, la qualité de sommeil et les paramètres cardiorespiratoires. Pour cela, des questionnaires ont été soumis à des volontaires et leurs réponses ont été croisées aux données de l'analyseur du sommeil. D'autres objets connectés tels que les analyseurs d'activités ont également été inclus dans l'étude. Enfin, l'analyse des données brutes cardiaques de l'analyseur de sommeil a été approfondie avec la troisième étude composée de personnes saines. Ces données ont été comparées au flux sanguin mesuré par imagerie par résonance magnétique flux 4D afin de mieux comprendre leur origine. Nous avons pu montrer que les mesures de l'analyseur de sommeil étaient fiables, comparées aux mesures de référence. Nous avons montré en population d'usager, que les troubles du sommeil ainsi que les grands facteurs de risques de maladies cardiovasculaires et des maladies respiratoires (notamment l'obésité) étaient corrélés aux données physiologiques durant le sommeil. Enfin, nous avons commencé à mieux comprendre la genèse des signaux de ballistocardiographie enregistrés par l'analyseur de sommeil, ouvrant la voie à une utilisation plus approfondie pour le diagnostic des maladies cardiovasculaires. Le caractère non-intrusif de l'analyseur de sommeil, sa facilité d'utilisation ainsi que la richesse de ses signaux ont permis d'explorer le système cardiorespiratoire durant le sommeil de manière totalement inédite. Au-delà de l'effet de mode actuel, les objets connectés tels que l'analyseur de sommeil sont donc de véritables outils qui peuvent être utilisés à des fins de recherches, de prévention chez le grand public ou de suivi chez les patients.
... The increased oxygen demand during aerobic exercise activates the sympathetic system and reduces parasympathetic activity (29). This, in turn, increases HR and thereby decreases HRV (29,52,53). For example, HR of exercising horses was significantly higher than during rest, with a progressive increase in beats per minute as exercise intensity increased from walking to trotting (54). ...
Play behaviour has been suggested to be inherently rewarding for animals, inducing positive emotional states. The psychophysiological effect of emotions can be assessed through heart rate variability (HRV), serving as a proxy measure of sympathovagal balance. This study investigated how the performance of play influences heart rate (HR) and HRV parameters (RMSSD, SDNN) in pigs. It was hypothesized that HRV would increase during and immediately after play due to predominant vagal activation compared to baseline, indicating a positive emotional state. Gilts ( n = 32, 18 and 19 weeks of age), housed in standard partly-slatted pens, were selected from two pen-level play treatments: Novelty (NOV) and Play Pen (PLP). Play treatment pigs were reared with intermittent play promotion (3x/week) from 10 weeks of age. For HRV recordings, play was promoted for 15-min in pairs of gilts within treatment, with destructible novel objects given either in the home pen (NOV, 1 m ² /pig), or in an enclosed ‘playpen’ area providing extra space (PLP, 2.9 m ² / pig). HRV was measured during a play session in three consecutive periods: (i) baseline (before play bout, no play occurring), (ii) play bout (play expression), and (iii) after-play (immediately after play bout). Twenty-six gilts played at least once. Play bouts lasted between 10 and 30 s (10 s: n = 60, 20 s: n = 18, 30 s: n = 6). In 10-s bouts, compared to baseline, RMSSD was higher during play ( p = 0.027) and after-play ( p = 0.015), while SDNN increased during play ( p ≤ 0.001) and after-play ( p = 0.008) only with ambulation (pig moving forward: walking or running). HR did not differ across periods but was higher at ambulation ( p = 0.003). Twenty-sec bouts followed the same relationship with only numerical differences, while HRV in 30-s bouts did not differ. Treatments did not influence HRV. Results suggest that engaging in play increases HRV, with this effect persisting into the period immediately after play. This indicates that play contributes to positive emotional states in pigs. Physical activity involved in play influences HRV. More dynamic and energetic play involving ambulation might be more rewarding for pigs. This study provides evidence for assessing positive emotions in pigs and underscores the importance of incorporating rewarding experiences into conventional farming practices.
... The EDA latency thus directly reflects elements of EAM: prospection, and the relationship with the self 88,89 . On the contrary to previous literature, we did not find a direct link between emotion and HR or respiration means 68,70 , neither with EDA amplitude 75 . Neither HR nor respiration correlated with the self. ...
Episodic autobiographical memory (EAM) is a long-term memory system of personally experienced events with their context – what, where, when – and subjective elements, e.g., emotions, thoughts, or self-reference. EAM formation has rarely been studied in a controlled, real-life-like paradigm, and there is no predictive model of long-term retrieval from self-rated subjective experience at encoding. The present longitudinal study, with three surprise free recall memory tests immediately, one-week and one-month after encoding, investigated incidental encoding of EAM in an immersive virtual environment where 30 participants either interacted with or observed specific events of varying emotional valences with simultaneous physiological recordings. The predictive analyses highlight the temporal dynamics of the predictors of EAM from subjective ratings at encoding: common characteristics related to sense of remembering and infrequency of real-life encounter of the event were identified over time, but different variables become relevant at different time points, such as the emotion and mental imagery or prospective aspects. This dynamic and time-dependent role of memory predictors challenges traditional views of a uniform influence of encoding factors over time. Current evidence for the multiphasic nature of memory formation points to the role of different mechanisms at play during encoding but also consolidation and subsequent retrieval.
... • Right insula (Bechara et al., 2000) • Posterior insula (Rainville et al., 2006;Ekman et al., 1983). ...
The law assumes that healthy adults are generally responsible for their actions and have the ability to control their behavior based on rational and moral principles. This contrasts with some recent neuroscientific accounts of action control. Nevertheless, both law and neuroscience acknowledge that strong emotions including fear and anger may “trigger” loss of normal voluntary control over action. Thus, “Loss of Control” is a partial defense for murder under English law, paralleling similar defenses in other legal systems. Here we consider the neuroscientific evidence for such legal classifications of responsibility, particularly focussing on how emotional states modulate voluntary motor control and sense of agency. First, we investigate whether neuroscience could contribute an evidence-base for law in this area. Second, we consider the societal impact of some areas where legal thinking regarding responsibility for action diverges from neuroscientific evidence: should we be guided by normative legal traditions, or by modern understanding of brain functions? In addressing these objectives, we propose a translation exercise between neuroscientific and legal terms, which may assist future interdisciplinary research.
... Another crucial aspect to consider is the central role of the ANS in regulating emotional states. 42 The dynamics of social interactions are deeply rooted in empathy and emotional contagion, which occur both intra-species 43 and inter-species, including between humans and animals. 44 By evaluating interaction at the level of the ANS, our framework could potentially be extended to the clinical context, especially in the rapidly expanding field of Animal Assisted Interventions (AAI) that incorporate horses in treating human pathologies. ...
This research investigates the human-horse bond, aiming to unveil the physiological mechanisms regulating interspecies interactions. We hypothesized observing a physiological synchronization in human-horse dynamics, akin to human interactions. Through time-frequency Granger causality analysis of heart rate variability (HRV) and behavioral data, this study reveals the establishment of bidirectional synchronization in HRV between humans and horses. The coupling directionality is influenced by behavior and familiarity. In exploration scenarios led by horses, bidirectional interactions occur, particularly with familiar individuals. Conversely, during human-led activities like grooming, physiological connectivity direction varies based on the familiarity level. In addition, the methodology allows in-depth analysis of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system contributions, highlighting their intricate role in the human-horse relationship. Such a physiological coupling estimate, correlated with behavioral data, provides a quantitative J o u r n a l P r e-p r o o f tool applicable across contexts and species This holds significant promise for assessing animal-assisted therapies and for applications in sports and various animal-related domains.
... EDA and RSA have been used widely to assess the alteration in sympathetic and parasympathetic activities related to emotions during neuropsychological tasks such as the Stroop task (24)(25)(26). The emotional Stroop task is the most commonly practiced tool in psychological studies, also used during the autonomic assessment to produce emotional stress (27). ...
Background
Facial expression, gesture, and posture play an important role in perceiving emotions during communication. In virtual communication platforms, users have devised and learned to use a variety of expressive emojis along with text messages to express certain emotions. The effect of emojis on human psychology and associated autonomic responses is still vague.
Methods
A total of 100 healthy individuals (50 males and 50 females) aged between 18-40 years were recruited. Electrodermal activity (skin conductance level (SCL) and skin conductance response (SCR) amplitude) and Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia (RSA) were assessed during the Emotional Stroop Task (EST). EST having expressive emojis superimposed with the congruent and incongruent words was used.
Result
Mean SCL and SCR amplitude was significantly increased during EST in incongruent and congruent blocks as compared to neutral block (respectively: 14.64 ± 6.73, 12.99 ± 6.26 vs. 7.75 ± 4.93 μS, p < 0.001 and 0.182 ± 0.168, 0.158 ± 0.134 vs. 0.021 ± 0.015 μS, p < 0.001). RSA was significantly decreased in incongruent and congruent blocks as compared to neutral blocks (respectively: 36.47 ± 10.53, 39.40 ± 10.15 vs. 48.66 ± 10.27 msec2, p < 0.001). We found an increased sympathetic activity and parasympathetic withdrawal while performing the task.
Conclusion
The results of this study suggested that emojis are adequate stimuli to elicit autonomic responses and change both sympathetic (EDA) as well as parasympathetic responses (RSA). Males and females showed similar autonomic arousal for emoji but the baseline emotional status was different for both genders.
... Physiological signals, including electrocardiography (ECG), electrodermal activity (EDA), and photoplethysmography (PPG), have been shown to be robust indicators of emotions [14][15][16]. ...
Background
There are a wide range of potential adverse health effects, ranging from headaches to cardiovascular disease, associated with long-term negative emotions and chronic stress. Because many indicators of stress are imperceptible to observers, the early detection of stress remains a pressing medical need, as it can enable early intervention. Physiological signals offer a noninvasive method for monitoring affective states and are recorded by a growing number of commercially available wearables.
Objective
We aim to study the differences between personalized and generalized machine learning models for 3-class emotion classification (neutral, stress, and amusement) using wearable biosignal data.
Methods
We developed a neural network for the 3-class emotion classification problem using data from the Wearable Stress and Affect Detection (WESAD) data set, a multimodal data set with physiological signals from 15 participants. We compared the results between a participant-exclusive generalized, a participant-inclusive generalized, and a personalized deep learning model.
Results
For the 3-class classification problem, our personalized model achieved an average accuracy of 95.06% and an F1-score of 91.71%; our participant-inclusive generalized model achieved an average accuracy of 66.95% and an F1-score of 42.50%; and our participant-exclusive generalized model achieved an average accuracy of 67.65% and an F1-score of 43.05%.
Conclusions
Our results emphasize the need for increased research in personalized emotion recognition models given that they outperform generalized models in certain contexts. We also demonstrate that personalized machine learning models for emotion classification are viable and can achieve high performance.
... In human beings, basic emotions are characterized by particular facial expressions [1,2] and distinct patterns of cardiorespiratory activity [58,59] and neural dynamics [60,61], reflecting differentiated brain states and affecting decision-making. In the Ultimatum Game, the proposer's decision is about resource allocation and the responder's decision depends on the personal aversion to inequity [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]. ...
The Ultimatum Game is a simplistic representation of bargaining processes occurring in social networks. In the standard version of this game, the first player, called the proposer, makes an offer on how to split a certain amount of money. If the second player, called the responder, accepts the offer, the money is divided according to the proposal; if the responder declines the offer, both players receive no money. In this article, an agent-based model is employed to evaluate the performance of five distinct strategies of playing a modified version of this game. A strategy corresponds to instructions on how a player must act as the proposer and as the responder. Here, the strategies are inspired by the following basic emotions: anger, fear, joy, sadness, and surprise. Thus, in the game, each interacting agent is a player endowed with one of these five basic emotions. In the modified version explored in this article, the spatial dimension is taken into account and the survival of the players depends on successful negotiations. Numerical simulations are performed in order to determine which basic emotion dominates the population in terms of prevalence and accumulated money. Information entropy is also computed to assess the time evolution of population diversity and money distribution. From the obtained results, a conjecture on the emergence of the sense of fairness is formulated.
... It is also important to mention that the process of emotion elicitation, as well as the general methodological procedure, may have played a role in the results discrepancy. For instance, depending on the procedure used to elicit emotions and whether or not this elicitation was successful, it may be more difficult to distinguish between different emotional conditions [43,44]. Also, more authentic reactions may be obtained if the subject is not aware of the video's content, and if the emotional inductions are sufficiently spaced in time (which also helps do decrease emotional contagion from one session to another). ...
The Bio-Radar is herein presented as a non-contact radar system able to capture vital signs remotely without requiring any physical contact with the subject. In this work, the ability to use the proposed system for emotion recognition is verified by comparing its performance on identifying fear, happiness and a neutral condition, with certified measuring equipment. For this purpose, machine learning algorithms were applied to the respiratory and cardiac signals captured simultaneously by the radar and the referenced contact-based system. Following a multiclass identification strategy, one could conclude that both systems present a comparable performance, where the radar might even outperform under specific conditions. Emotion recognition is possible using a radar system, with an accuracy equal to 99.7% and an F1-score of 99.9%. Thus, we demonstrated that it is perfectly possible to use the Bio-Radar system for this purpose, which is able to be operated remotely, avoiding the subject awareness of being monitored and thus providing more authentic reactions.
... The RR interval increased in all types of faces, indicating that the heart rate generally decreased. Since the heart rate increases during a state of fear (Rainville et al., 2006), we inferred that our study participants were not afraid of angry expressions. ...
Facial skin blood flow (SkBF) has attracted attention as an autonomic indicator because it influences facial colour, which informs others of emotional states, and facial temperature related to social anxiety. Previous studies have examined the facial SkBF in people experiencing emotions; however, facial SkBF changes in the observers of emotions are poorly understood. Our study clarified facial SkBF changes related to observing others’ emotions by comparing the changes with other physiological indices. Thirty healthy participants (24 females; mean age: 22.17) observed six types of facial expressions (neutral, angry, and embarrassed expressions with and without facial blushing) and rated the emotional intensity of the other person. We measured their facial SkBF, finger SkBF, and cardiac RR interval as they made their observations. Facial SkBF generally decreased in relation to observing emotional faces (angry and embarrassed faces) and significantly decreased for angry expressions with blushing. None of the participants noticed blushing of facial stimuli. For the RR interval and finger SkBF, there was no variation depending on the observed facial expressions, although there was a general increase related to observation. These results indicated that facial SkBF is sensitive and reactive to emotional faces—especially angry faces with blushing— compared with other autonomic indices. The facial SkBF changes were not related to either RR interval changes or the intensity rating, suggesting that facial SkBF changes may be caused by vasoconstriction and have potential functions for our emotions. The decrease in facial SkBF may have a role in calming observers by preventing them from adopting the same emotional state as a person with intense anger. These findings clarify daily facial SkBF fluctuations and their relationship with our emotional processing in interpersonal situations.
... Subsequently, participants were asked to close their eyes and recall some past happy/sad events that were high intensity. Participants were asked to close their eyes and recall past events to evoke emotional stimuli, which would induce strongly happy/sad emotions (Brewer et al., 1980;Lane et al., 1997;Levenson et al., 1991;Marci et al., 2007;Rainville et al., 2006;Siedlecka et al., 2015). Since the self-induced emotions only lasted for a short period, about one to 10 min, to ensure that a valid gait was collected, participants were asked to walk on the walkway immediately after the recall and filled out PANAS afterward as the happy (H) and sad (S) conditions. ...
... De la même façon, le modèle à deux facteurs considère que la réponse physiologique se produit avant l'identification consciente de la stimulation externe à l'origine de l'activation physiologique (Dror, 2017 ;voir Schachter & Singer, 1962 Rainville et al., 2006). Une autre étude indique que le RSA est positivement associé au ressenti d'émotions positives mesurées comme un trait (i.e. ...
Dans l’Égypte ancienne, le cœur était considéré comme le siège de l’intelligence,
de la mémoire et des émotions, et non le cerveau. Quelques siècles plus tard,
des données de plus en plus nombreuses en psychophysiologie ont confirmé le
rôle des signaux cardiovasculaires dans les processus mentaux, soulignant que, en
plus du cerveau le cœur participerait à la cognition. La question alors se pose :
Dans quelle mesure et selon quelles conditions l’adaptation cardiovasculaire est
susceptible de contraindre la cognition ? Cette thèse de doctorat avait pour objectif
d’étudier la relation entre l’adaptation cardiovasculaire et plus précisément de
proposer une vision intégrative des contingences nécessaires à l’existence de cette
relation.
... In other words, when presented with a stressful event, such as a negative memory recall in the present study, a decrease in HRV is indicative of the withdrawal of the parasympathetic nervous system (Ottaviani, 2018), and thus a reduction of emotion and self-regulation. Indeed, there is evidence for a decrease in HRV while recalling sadness-related autobiographical events (e.g., Rainville et al., 2006). Although in contrast to our expectations, there was no significant increase in HRV during the reappraisal phase compared to baseline in the active tDCS condition. ...
Affective control refers to the ability to regulate emotions and is considered a marker of mental health. Transcranial
direct current stimulation (tDCS), a non-invasive brain stimulation technique, holds promise to enhance affective control. In this between-subjects study in healthy individuals, we investigated the effects of bifrontal tDCS on core processes and higher-level markers of affective control. As such, we assessed direct tDCS effects on
emotional interference during an affective control task and indirect effects on an instructed reappraisal task afterward. Results showed that the affective control task combined with active tDCS, compared to sham, resulted in enhanced cognitive emotion regulation. Specifically, participants in the active tDCS condition showed an
increased propensity to use reappraisal and were more successful in doing so. Moreover, there was reduced vagally mediated heart rate variability indicative of attenuated emotion and self-regulation, in the sham, but not in the active condition. Surprisingly, there were no effects of tDCS on emotional interference during the affective
control task, with Bayesian analyses showing extreme evidence against these effects. Nevertheless, there was a positive association between the emotional interference during the affective control task and participants’ reappraisal success afterward for the active, but not the sham tDCS condition. The study offers valuable insights
to guide future work on combined tDCS with affective control tasks or training on the ability to regulate emotions.
... For 8-channel PER signals, we used FFT and classical statistical methods [15,16] to extract skin resistance [25] , skin temperature [26] , heart rate variability [27] , breathing rate [28] , and other features to obtain 89 PER physiological features. For each participant p.p 2 f1; 2; : : : ; 32g/, we denote his or her EEG and PER features as Table S2 (in the ESM). ...
With the development of computers, artificial intelligence, and cognitive science, engagement in deep communication between humans and computers has become increasingly important. Therefore, affective computing is a current hot research topic. Thus, this study constructs a Physiological signal-based, Mean-threshold, and Decision-level fusion algorithm (PMD) to identify human emotional states. First, we select key features from electroencephalogram and peripheral physiological signals, and use the mean-value method to obtain the classification threshold of each participant and distinguish individual differences. Then, we employ Gaussian Naive Bayes (GNB), Linear Regression (LR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and other classification methods to perform emotion recognition. Finally, we improve the classification accuracy by developing an ensemble model. The experimental results reveal that physiological signals are more suitable for emotion recognition than classical facial and speech signals. Our proposed mean-threshold method can solve the problem of individual differences to a certain extent, and the ensemble learning model we developed significantly outperforms other classification models, such as GNB and LR.
... Numerous studies explored the correlation between mood and heart rate variability, and supported the use of physiological measures to evaluate emotional state (Ekman et al., 1983;Cacioppo et al., 2000;Rainville et al., 2006). Two studies employed physiological measures (heart rate) to evaluate the emotional state of the participants. ...
A memória congruente com o humor (MCH) é definida como a facilitação para se recordar de determinado material emocional quando sua valência emocional é congruente ao humor atual. Esse fenômeno tem importantes impli-cações clínicas, principalmente por seu envolvimento com transtornos de humor, como a depressão.
Esta revisão sistemática discute os fatores que contribuem para a ocorrência de MCH em adultos saudáveis, assim como suas implicações teóricas e clínicas. Argumentamos que as características do material usado na tarefa de memória (e.g., estrutura, intensidade de valência, autorreferência vs referência ao outro) e as características dos participantes (e.g., personalidade, excitação fisiológica) são fatores capazes de modular a presença de MCH. Em última análise, há necessidade da realização de estudos que investiguem o fenômeno em ambientes mais ecológicos e que explorem os correlatos neuroanatômicos subjacentes ao efeito de MCH.
... Numerous studies explored the correlation between mood and heart rate variability, and supported the use of physiological measures to evaluate emotional state (Ekman et al., 1983;Cacioppo et al., 2000;Rainville et al., 2006). Two studies employed physiological measures (heart rate) to evaluate the emotional state of the participants. ...
Este estudo aborda, sob a perspectiva da psicologia social jurídica, a atuação de psicólogos em varas de família, tendo como enfoque a temática da guarda
compartilhada, seu uso pelo poder judiciário, as práticas psicológicas executadas
e seus efeitos nas relações familiares. Buscou-se analisar como as mudanças legislativas e sociais afetam as demandas de guarda dos filhos e como psicólogos lidam com esses processos que chegam ao judiciário, quais modificações aconteceram, quais as principais solicitações e as dificuldades encontradas. Como estratégia metodológica, foi realizada análise de conteúdo de entrevistas semiestruturadas com dez psicólogos de um tribunal do sudeste do Brasil. No saber-fazer da psicologia, observou-se como necessário distinguir conjugalidade de parentalidade, bem como esclarecer sobre os modelos de guarda fixados no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. Os lugares parentais e de gênero hegemônicos continuam a influenciar as relações familiares, e as alterações legislativas tendem a afetar a subjetividade dos envolvidos e promover uma judicialização da vida. Assim, é preciso que o psicólogo adote em sua atuação uma postura crítica, ética e interventiva, compreendendo que, a partir da psicologia social jurídica, tal trabalho deve ser voltado para a desconstrução de paradigmas tradicionais sobre a parentalidade, a fim de auxiliar as famílias na condução do pós-divórcio.
Palavras-chave: relações familiares; separação conjugal; parentalidade;
psicologia forense; custódia das crianças.
... Evidence from studies using factor analysis suggests that affect can effectively be characterized as two basic dimensions: positive and negative affect (Crawford & Henry, 2004;Watson & Clark, 1994;Watson et al., 1988). However, emotion researchers point to experimental research showing anxiety, sadness, anger, and happiness can be manipulated independently from one another (Lench et al., 2011) and have unique psychophysiological profiles (Künecke et al., 2014;Rainville et al., 2006). Other research has put forth models with both a discrete emotion structure and a global structure (Watson & Clark, 1994;Watson et al., 1988). ...
Affective functioning is central to most contemporary models of alcohol use. However, the affective structure at the within- and between-person levels is rarely investigated nor is the differential predictive value of specific affect dimensions assessed across state and trait formats. We examined a) the structure of state and trait affect using experience sampling methodology (ESM) and b) predictive associations between the empirically derived affect facets and alcohol use. Participants were 92 heavy drinking college students aged 18-25 who completed 8 momentary assessments of their affect and drinking a day for 28-days. We found evidence for a single positive affect factor at both the within- (i.e., state) and between-person (i.e., trait) levels. We found a hierarchical factor structure for negative affect, represented by a general, superordinate dimension as well as facet-level sadness, anxiety, and anger dimensions. Associations between affect and alcohol use differed across trait and state levels and across specific types of negative affect. Lagged state positive affect, negative affect, and sadness as well as trait positive affect and sadness were inversely associated with drinking. Lagged state anxiety was positively associated with drinking. Thus, our study demonstrates how associations between drinking and affect can be studied in relation to general (e.g., general negative affect) and more specific aspects of affective experiences (e.g., sadness versus anxiety) concurrently within the same study and across trait and state levels of assessment.
... However, the aforementioned methods are relatively efficient and practical in psychological research. In the three experiments mentioned above, these methods of emotional stimulation were applied [9]. ...
Emotions are both subjective feelings and objective physiological responses. Traditional psychology uses questionnaires to conduct research, which has great limitations. This article review some developments of the basic emotion measurement within a new theory about body maps. With a unique topographical self-report method, people could better understand the relationship between body sensations maps and different emotions. This article reviews several studies and compares them with other relevant emotion measurement studies to identify further possibilities and future research directions. Moreover, this paper will cut in from the method and process results of the experiment, and strive to obtain more accurate data for future. This new approach may provide new way of thinking. Meanwhile, the application of emotional bodily maps to various fields, such as artificial intelligence and experimental reference.
... With a proper analysis method, HRV is considered the most precise non-invasive/intrusive method to detect ANS activity [47] but it is difficult to measure while moving or during exercise [48]. HRV also contains evidence of ANS activity traits including emotional changes within an individual [49]. HRV features are the most used indicators for identifying emotions in a physiological-based system [50]. ...
A physiological-based emotion recognition system (ERS) with a unimodal approach such as an electrocardiogram (ECG) is not as popular compared to a multimodal approach. However, a single modality has the advantage of lower development and computational cost. Therefore, this study focuses on a unimodal ECG-based ERS. The ECG-based ERS has the potential to become the next mass-adopted consumer application due to the wide availability of wearable and mobile ECG devices in the market. Currently, ECG-inclusive affective datasets are limited, and many of the existing datasets have small sample sizes. Hence, ECG-based ERS studies are stunted by the lack of quality data. A novel multi-filtering augmentation technique is proposed here to increase the sample size of the ECG data. This technique augments the ECG signals by cleaning the data in different ways. Three small ECG datasets labelled according to emotion state are used in this study. The benefit of the proposed augmentation techniques is measured using the classification accuracy of five machine learning algorithms; k-nearest neighbours (KNN), support vector machine, decision tree, random forest and multilayer perceptron. The results show that with the proposed technique, there is a significant improvement in performance for all the datasets and classifiers. KNN classifier improved the most with the augmented data and the reported classification accuracies of over 90%.
... While the feature did not correlate significantly with relaxation in the AV condition AV, a significant negative correlation was seen in the UR condition. This feature has been linked to stress and anxiety in the past (e.g., [17], [19], [26], [30], [34], [35]), thus further validating the benefits of the proposed Nat(UR)e framework. ...
Stress and anxiety are increasingly present in society, contributing to many chronic diseases and decreasing quality of life. Non-pharmacological therapies to relieve these symptoms and promote relaxation have been developed, including immersing oneself in nature (so-called ‘forest bathing’). Access to nature, however, is not available to many around the world, due to mobility issues, increasing urban spaces, or pollution, to name a few factors. As such, the use of virtual reality tools or digital nature walks have emerged as a possible alternative that can be done at the comfort of one’s home. While promising results have been reported, existing solutions are not completely immersive as they only stimulate the hearing and vision senses. Here, we propose a multisensory (ultra-reality) immersive experience termed Nat(UR)e, where in addition to audio-visual stimuli, users are also exposed to nature smells and somatosensory stimuli, including wind, heat and vibrations. An experiment was conducted on 16 participants that experienced virtual nature under two conditions: audio-visual only and ultra-sensory. Wearable devices were used to track changes in the participants physiological states. Significant changes in relaxation were achieved with the proposed system and changes in physiological parameters were also observed, suggesting the potential of the Nat(UR)e framework for stress and anxiety treatment.
... Change scores reflect the difference between the mean level in a physiological channel during an emotion-inducing task and the mean level during a baseline period and are a straightforward and efficient way of quantifying ANS reactivity. Numerous studies that have used change scores have found dissociable ANS patterns for certain negative and positive emotions (Christie & Friedman, 2004;Ekman et al., 1983;Kragel & LaBar, 2013;Levenson et al., 1990;McGinley & Friedman, 2017;Rainville et al., 2006;Shiota et al., 2011;Stephens et al., 2010). Multivariate approaches, which look for ANS patterns using change scores across numerous physiological channels at once, were also successful in distinguishing among various emotions (Kreibig, 2010;Kragel & LaBar, 2013;Kragel & LaBar, 2014a). ...
The outflow of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) is continuous and dynamic, but its functional organization is not well understood. Whether ANS patterns accompany emotions, or arise in basal physiology, remain unsettled questions in the field. Here, we searched for brief ANS patterns amidst continuous, multichannel physiological recordings in 45 healthy older adults. Participants completed an emotional reactivity task in which they viewed video clips that elicited a target emotion (awe, sadness, amusement, disgust, or nurturant love); each video clip was preceded by a pre-trial baseline period and followed by a post-trial recovery period. Participants also sat quietly for a separate 2-min resting period to assess basal physiology. Using principal components analysis and unsupervised clustering algorithms to reduce the second-by-second physiological data during the emotional reactivity task, we uncovered five ANS states. Each ANS state was characterized by a unique constellation of patterned physiological changes that differentiated among the trials of the emotional reactivity task. These ANS states emerged and dissipated over time, with each instance lasting several seconds on average. ANS states with similar structures were also detectable in the resting period but were intermittent and of smaller magnitude. Our results offer new insights into the functional organization of the ANS. By assembling short-lived, patterned changes, the ANS is equipped to generate a wide range of physiological states that accompany emotions and that contribute to the architecture of basal physiology.
Nonverbal emotional vocalizations play a crucial role in conveying emotions during human interactions. Validated corpora of these vocalizations have facilitated emotion-related research and found wide-ranging applications. However, existing corpora have lacked representation from diverse cultural backgrounds, which may limit the generalizability of the resulting theories. The present paper introduces the Chinese Nonverbal Emotional Vocalization (CNEV) corpus, the first nonverbal emotional vocalization corpus recorded and validated entirely by Mandarin speakers from China. The CNEV corpus contains 2415 vocalizations across five emotion categories: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and neutrality. It also includes a database containing subjective evaluation data on emotion category, valence, arousal, and speaker gender, as well as the acoustic features of the vocalizations. Key conclusions drawn from statistical analyses of perceptual evaluations and acoustic analysis include the following: (1) the CNEV corpus exhibits adequate reliability and high validity; (2) perceptual evaluations reveal a tendency for individuals to associate anger with male voices and fear with female voices; (3) acoustic analysis indicates that males are more effective at expressing anger, while females excel in expressing fear; and (4) the observed perceptual patterns align with the acoustic analysis results, suggesting that the perceptual differences may stem not only from the subjective factors of perceivers but also from objective expressive differences in the vocalizations themselves. For academic research purposes, the CNEV corpus and database are freely available for download at https://osf.io/6gy4v/.
The use of brain-computer interface (BCI) technology to identify emotional states has gained significant interest, especially with the rise of virtual reality (VR) applications. However, the extensive calibration required for precise emotion recognition models presents a significant challenge, particularly for sensitive groups such as children, elderly, and patients. This study presents a novel approach that utilizes heterogeneous adversarial transfer learning (HATL) to synthesize electroencephalography (EEG) data from various other signal modalities, reducing the need for lengthy calibration phases. We benchmark the efficacy of three generative adversarial network (GAN) architectures, such as conditional GAN (CGAN), conditional Wasserstein GAN (CWGAN), and CWGAN with gradient penalty (CWGAN-GP) within this framework. The proposed framework is rigorously tested on two conventional open sourced datasets, SEED-V and DEAP. Additionally, the framework was applied to an immersive three-dimensional (3D) dataset named GraffitiVR, which we collected to capture the emotional and behavioral reactions of individuals experiencing urban graffiti in a VR environment. This expanded application provides insights into emotion recognition frameworks in VR settings, providing a wider range of contexts for assessing our methodology. When the accuracy of emotion recognition classifiers trained with CWGAN-GP-generated EEG data combined with non-EEG sensory data was compared against those trained using a combination of real EEG and non-EEG sensory data, the accuracy ratios were 93% on the SEED-V dataset, 99% on the DEAP dataset, and 97% on the GraffitiVR dataset. Moreover, in the GraffitiVR dataset, using CWGAN-GP-generated EEG data with non-EEG sensory data for emotion recognition models resulted in up to a 30% reduction in calibration time compared to classifiers trained on real EEG data with non-EEG sensory data. These results underscore the robustness and versatility of the proposed approach, significantly enhancing emotion recognition processes across a variety of environmental settings.
I argue that the controversy between Basic Emotion Theory and Psychological Constructionism lies in differences regarding the role of folk concepts of emotion in the scientific domain. To do so, I analyze the discussions surrounding the universality of facial expressions and the existence of neurophysiological correspondences for each emotion. I show that in both discussions we are in a space of empirical under-determination, that precludes settling the controversy by appealing to experimental results. Finally, I conclude with some suggestions as to how to settle the controversy.
Neuroscientific research on emotion has developed dramatically over the past decade. The cognitive neuroscience of human emotion, which has emerged as the new and thriving area of 'affective neuroscience', is rapidly rendering existing overviews of the field obsolete. This handbook provides a comprehensive, up-to-date and authoritative survey of knowledge and topics investigated in this cutting-edge field. It covers a range of topics, from face and voice perception to pain and music, as well as social behaviors and decision making. The book considers and interrogates multiple research methods, among them brain imaging and physiology measurements, as well as methods used to evaluate behavior and genetics. Editors Jorge Armony and Patrik Vuilleumier have enlisted well-known and active researchers from more than twenty institutions across three continents, bringing geographic as well as methodological breadth to the collection. This timely volume will become a key reference work for researchers and students in the growing field of neuroscience.
Neuroscientific research on emotion has developed dramatically over the past decade. The cognitive neuroscience of human emotion, which has emerged as the new and thriving area of 'affective neuroscience', is rapidly rendering existing overviews of the field obsolete. This handbook provides a comprehensive, up-to-date and authoritative survey of knowledge and topics investigated in this cutting-edge field. It covers a range of topics, from face and voice perception to pain and music, as well as social behaviors and decision making. The book considers and interrogates multiple research methods, among them brain imaging and physiology measurements, as well as methods used to evaluate behavior and genetics. Editors Jorge Armony and Patrik Vuilleumier have enlisted well-known and active researchers from more than twenty institutions across three continents, bringing geographic as well as methodological breadth to the collection. This timely volume will become a key reference work for researchers and students in the growing field of neuroscience.
Neuroscientific research on emotion has developed dramatically over the past decade. The cognitive neuroscience of human emotion, which has emerged as the new and thriving area of 'affective neuroscience', is rapidly rendering existing overviews of the field obsolete. This handbook provides a comprehensive, up-to-date and authoritative survey of knowledge and topics investigated in this cutting-edge field. It covers a range of topics, from face and voice perception to pain and music, as well as social behaviors and decision making. The book considers and interrogates multiple research methods, among them brain imaging and physiology measurements, as well as methods used to evaluate behavior and genetics. Editors Jorge Armony and Patrik Vuilleumier have enlisted well-known and active researchers from more than twenty institutions across three continents, bringing geographic as well as methodological breadth to the collection. This timely volume will become a key reference work for researchers and students in the growing field of neuroscience.
In the study of emotions associated with staying in a specific space, in addition to the subjective approach based on describing one’s feelings caused by the environment, an objective approach is also used, using ambulatory sensors to measure the body’s reaction to external stimuli. The aim of the article is, on the one hand, to formulate guidelines regarding the methodology of using electrodermal activity (EDA) sensors in public space research, and, on the other hand, to indicate the practical application of this type of research. The device was tested during a walk along the Krakowskie Przedmieście Street in Warsaw. The study confirmed that the effect of measurements using biosensors is not so much an objectively identified cause-and-effect relationship between a stimulus and a specific reaction of the body, but an in-depth reflection on the way we experience the space. Due to the multitude of stimuli coming from the environment and the individual emotional, as well as mental state of each person, biosensors are currently a better solution for static research in microspace. However, geographers should continue rigorous research on whether and how these devices should be used in field research, how to standardize the conditions under which recordings are made, and how to standardize measurement methodology and participant selection.
Emotions have a significant impact on an individual’s life, and positive emotions can enhance their quality of life. Moreover, emotions play a crucial role in the field of medicine. However, the complexity of human emotions has hindered their rapid development in the medical field. Therefore, it is crucial to rapidly and accurately identify human emotions. In the field of emotion recognition, radar is widely used for monitoring human physiological features due to its strong penetrability and non-contact advantages. In deep learning, the Transformer model has been introduced into radar signal processing due to its excellent global perception ability, offering new possibilities for fast and accurate detection of human emotions. In this paper, we propose a human emotion recognition system based on ultra-wideband radar, utilizing the Convolutional Vision Transformer (CvT) model as the deep learning model for emotion classification. The CvT model incorporates convolution into the Vision Transformer architecture, combining the advantages of both in image recognition tasks. Unlike previous works with convolutional networks, CvT fully leverages the benefits of convolution while retaining the characteristics of the Transformer. We pre-trained the model on a publicly available radar dataset and then conducted experimental validation using our collected dataset. The experimental results demonstrate that our network outperforms traditional convolutional approaches, achieving a test accuracy of 86.25%, which is of significant importance for radar-based emotion recognition.
Previous research on the physiological and eliciting correlates of sadness has provided controversial results. Sadness has been associated with failure, defeat, and positive cognitive changes, positive reappraisal, and also diverse physiological responses. This could be interpreted to suggest that different emotional states associated with prototypical sadness could be empirically distinguished. In the current set of studies, we explored this hypothesis. In a first stage, participants were asked to select sad emotional faces and scene stimuli either characterized or not by a single key sadness-related characteristic: loneliness, melancholy, misery, bereavement or despair. In a second stage, another set of participants was presented with the selected emotional faces and scene stimuli. They were assessed for differences in emotional, physiological and facial-expressive responses. The results showed that melancholy, misery, bereavement and despair provided empirical evidence for displaying dissociable physiological responses. Critical evidence, in a final stage, showed that a new set of participants could match eliciting emotional scenes to emotional faces characterized with the same label with close to perfect precision performance. These findings suggest that melancholy, misery, bereavement and despair are distinguishable emotional states associated with sadness.
Social platforms such as MySpace, Facebook and Twitter have rekindled the initial excitement of cyberspace. Text-based, computer-mediated communication has been enriched with face-to-face communication such as Skype, as users move from desktops to laptops with integrated cameras and related hardware. Age, gender and culture barriers seem to have crumbled and disappeared as the user base widens dramatically. Other than simple statistics relating to e-mail usage, chatrooms and blog subscriptions, we know surprisingly little about the rapid changes taking place. This book assembles leading researchers on nonverbal communication, emotion, cognition and computer science to summarize what we know about the processes relevant to face-to-face communication as it pertains to telecommunication, including video-conferencing. The authors take stock of what has been learned regarding how people communicate, in person or over distance, and set the foundations for solid research helping to understand the issues, implications and possibilities that lie ahead.
We explore in a series of incentivized experiments how stock market developments affect emotional arousal (proxied by pupil dilation, electrodermal activity, and heart rate variation), and how this emotional arousal affects investment behavior. Experiencing stock market downswings increases emotional arousal, while upswings do not trigger such an effect. The subsequent interplay between emotional arousal and investment behavior is by no means one-dimensional. The heightened level of emotional arousal after downswings reduces financial risk taking and thus the money put at stake, while the exposure to financial risks itself increases subsequent emotional arousal.
Social platforms such as MySpace, Facebook and Twitter have rekindled the initial excitement of cyberspace. Text-based, computer-mediated communication has been enriched with face-to-face communication such as Skype, as users move from desktops to laptops with integrated cameras and related hardware. Age, gender and culture barriers seem to have crumbled and disappeared as the user base widens dramatically. Other than simple statistics relating to e-mail usage, chatrooms and blog subscriptions, we know surprisingly little about the rapid changes taking place. This book assembles leading researchers on nonverbal communication, emotion, cognition and computer science to summarize what we know about the processes relevant to face-to-face communication as it pertains to telecommunication, including video-conferencing. The authors take stock of what has been learned regarding how people communicate, in person or over distance, and set the foundations for solid research helping to understand the issues, implications and possibilities that lie ahead.
Social platforms such as MySpace, Facebook and Twitter have rekindled the initial excitement of cyberspace. Text-based, computer-mediated communication has been enriched with face-to-face communication such as Skype, as users move from desktops to laptops with integrated cameras and related hardware. Age, gender and culture barriers seem to have crumbled and disappeared as the user base widens dramatically. Other than simple statistics relating to e-mail usage, chatrooms and blog subscriptions, we know surprisingly little about the rapid changes taking place. This book assembles leading researchers on nonverbal communication, emotion, cognition and computer science to summarize what we know about the processes relevant to face-to-face communication as it pertains to telecommunication, including video-conferencing. The authors take stock of what has been learned regarding how people communicate, in person or over distance, and set the foundations for solid research helping to understand the issues, implications and possibilities that lie ahead.
We investigated psychophysiological responses to fear and anger inductions during real-life and imagination. Female participants (N = 158) were assigned to a fear-treatment, fear-control, anger-treatment, or anger-control group. Context (real-life, imagination) was varied in two sessions of fixed order. Eleven self-report and 29 somatovisceral variables were registered. Results showed that (a) except during anger imagination, control groups were emotionless; (b) in control groups, contexts prompted diverging somatovisceral responses, but similar emotion self-reports; except during fear imagination, the emotion inductions (c) were successful and (d) produced specific emotion reports; (e) during real-life, somatovisceral fear and anger responses exhibited a marked cardiovascular defense reflex: (f) in addition, real-life fear showed an adrenaline-like specific response pattern, whereas real-life anger showed specific forehead temperature and EMG extensor increases, accompanied by an elevated DBP during imagination. A Component Model of Somatovisceral Response Organization is proposed.
In the article by S. Schachter and J. Singer, which appeared in Psychological Review (1962, 69(5), 379-399) the following corrections should be made: The superscript "a" should precede the word "All" in the footnote to Table 2. The superscript "a" should appear next to the column heading "Initiates" in Table 3. The following Tables 6-9 should be substituted for those which appeared in print. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 196306064-001.) It is suggested that emotional states may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropriate to this state of arousal. From this follows these propositions: (a) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will label this state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him. (b) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has a completely appropriate explanation, no evaluative needs will arise and the individual is unlikely to label his feelings in terms of the alternative cognitions available. (c) Given the same cognitive circumstances, the individual will react emotionally or describe his feelings as emotions only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal. An experiment is described which, together with the results of other studies, supports these propositions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
(
This reprinted article originally appeared in Psychological Review,
1894, Vol 1, 516–529.) Responds to criticisms of a theory of emotional consciousness, first proposed in 1884 by C. Lange and W. James, independently, which views emotional consciousness as the effect of organic changes, muscular and visceral, of which the expression of the emotion consists. James addresses specific criticisms of Wundt (1891), W. L. Worcester (1893), D. Irons (1894), and draws support for the theory from Lehman (1892) and M. Sollier. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The aim of this study was to test the assumption that the autonomic nervous system responses to emotional stimuli are specific. A series of six slides was randomly presented to the subjects while six autonomic nervous system (ANS) parameters were recorded: skin conductance, skin potential, skin resistance, skin blood flow, skin temperature and instantaneous respiratory frequency. Each slide induced a basic emotion: happiness, surprise, anger, fear, sadness and disgust. Results have been first considered with reference to electrodermal responses (EDR) and secondly through thermo-vascular and respiratory variations. Classical as well as original indices were used to quantify autonomic responses. The six basic emotions were distinguished by Friedman variance analysis. Thus, ANS values corresponding to each emotion were compared two-by-two. EDR distinguished 13 emotion-pairs out of 15. 10 emotion-pairs were separated by skin resistance as well as skin conductance ohmic perturbation duration indices whereas conductance amplitude was only capable of distinguishing 7 emotion-pairs. Skin potential responses distinguished surprise and fear from sadness, and fear from disgust, according to their elementary pattern analysis in form and sign. Two-by-two comparisons of skin temperature, skin blood flow (estimated by the new non-oscillary duration index) and instantaneous respiratory frequency, enabled the distinction of 14 emotion-pairs out of 15. 9 emotion-pairs were distinguished by the non-oscillatory duration index values. Skin temperature was demonstrated to be different i.e. positive versus negative in response to anger and fear. The instantaneous respiratory frequency perturbation duration index was the only one capable of separating sadness from disgust. From the six ANS parameters study, different autonomic patterns were identified, each characterizing one of the six basic emotion used as inducing signals. No index alone, nor group of parameters (EDR and thermovascular for instance) were capable of distinguishing each emotion from another. However, electrodermal, thermo-vascular and respiratory responses taken as a whole, redundantly separated each emotion thus demonstrating the specificity of autonomic patterns.
In summary, this work extends previous findings by demonstrating that anger produces a sympathetically dominated power spectrum, whereas appreciation produces a power spectral shift toward MF and HF activity. Results suggest that positive emotions lead to alterations in HRV, which may be beneficial in the treatment of hypertension and in reducing the likelihood of sudden death in patients with congestive heart failure and coronary artery disease.
This paper addresses the issue of the functional correlates of motor imagery, using mental chronometry, monitoring the autonomic responses and measuring cerebral blood flow in humans. The timing of mentally simulated actions closely mimic actual movement times. Autonomic responses during motor imagery parallel the autonomic responses to actual exercise. Cerebral blood flow increases are observed in the motor cortices involved in the programming of actual movement (i.e. premotor cortex, anterior cingulate, inferior parietal lobule and cerebellum). These three sources of data provide converging support for the hypothesis that imagined and executed actions share, to some extent, the same central structures.
Spectral analysis of RR interval and systolic arterial pressure variabilities may provide indirect markers of the balance between sympathetic and vagal cardiovascular control.
We examined the relationship between power spectral measurements of variabilities in RR interval, systolic arterial pressure, and muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) obtained by microneurography over a range of blood pressures. In eight healthy human volunteers, MSNA, RR interval, intra-arterial pressure, and respiration were measured during blood pressure reductions induced by nitroprusside and during blood pressure increases induced by phenylephrine. Both low-frequency (LF; 0.10 +/- 0.01 Hz) and high-frequency (HF; 0.23 +/- 0.01 Hz) components were detected in MSNA variability. Increasing levels of MSNA were associated with a shift of the spectral power toward its LF component. Decreasing levels of MSNA were associated with a shift of MSNA spectral power toward the HF component. Over the range of pressure changes, the LF component of MSNA variability was positively and tightly correlated with LF components of RR interval (in normalized units; P < 10(-6)) and of systolic arterial pressure variability (both in millimeters of mercury squared and normalized units; P < 5 x 10(-5) and P < 5 x 10(-6), respectively). The HF component of MSNA variability was positively and tightly correlated with the HF component (in normalized units) of RR-interval variability (P < 3 x 10(-4)) and of systolic arterial pressure variability (P < .01).
During sympathetic activation in normal humans, there is a predominance in the LF oscillation of blood pressure, RR interval, and sympathetic nerve activity. During sympathetic inhibition, the HF component of cardiovascular variability predominates. This relationship is best seen when power spectral components are normalized for total power. Synchronous changes in the LF and HF rhythms of both RR interval and MSNA during different levels of sympathetic drive are suggestive of common central mechanisms governing both parasympathetic and sympathetic cardiovascular modulation.
Independent discoveries in several laboratories suggest that the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG), the cell-dense region surrounding the midbrain aqueduct, contains a previously unsuspected degree of anatomical and functional organization. This organization takes the form of longitudinal columns of afferent inputs, output neurons and intrinsic interneurons. Recent evidence suggests: that the important functions that are classically associated with the PAG--defensive reactions, analgesia and autonomic regulation--are integrated by overlapping longitudinal columns of neurons; and that different classes of threatening or nociceptive stimuli trigger distinct co-ordinated patterns of skeletal, autonomic and antinociceptive adjustments by selectively targeting specific PAG columnar circuits. These findings call for a fundamental revision in our concept of the organization of the PAG, and a recognition of the special roles played by different longitudinal PAG columns in co-ordinating distinct strategies for coping with different types of stress, threat and pain.
To explore the neural substrates of autonomic regulation during emotion, we correlated the vagal [high frequency (HF)] component of heart rate variability (HRV) with cerebral blood flow in a PET 15O-water study in 12 healthy women. Happiness, sadness, disgust, and three neutral conditions were each induced by film and recall of personal experiences (12 conditions). Interbeat intervals during scans were spectral analyzed, generating 12 measures of HF-HRV in each subject. Correlations between HR-HRV and rCBF specifically due to emotion were observed in medial prefrontal cortex (Z = 3.20, p < .001) and left posterior orbitofrontal/ anterior insular cortices (Z = 3.58, p < .001). These findings are consistent with an inhibitory role of prefrontal cortex and evidence that the anterior insular cortex and medial prefrontal cortex participate in visceral interoception and autonomic regulation.
The mechanisms by which cognitive processes influence states of bodily arousal are important for understanding the pathogenesis and maintenance of stress-related morbidity. We used PET to investigate cerebral activity relating to the cognitively driven modulation of sympathetic activity. Subjects were trained to perform a biofeedback relaxation exercise that reflected electrodermal activity and were subsequently scanned performing repetitions of four tasks: biofeedback relaxation, relaxation without biofeedback and two corresponding control conditions in which the subjects were instructed not to relax. Relaxation was associated with significant increases in left anterior cingulate and globus pallidus activity, whereas no significant increases in activity were associated with biofeedback compared with random feedback. The interaction between biofeedback and relaxation, highlighting activity unique to biofeedback relaxation, was associated with enhanced anterior cingulate and cerebellar vermal activity. These data implicate the anterior cingulate cortex in the intentional modulation of bodily arousal and suggest a functional neuroanatomy of how cognitive states are integrated with bodily responses. The findings have potential implications for a mechanistic account of how therapeutic interventions, such as relaxation training in stress-related disorders, mediate their effects.
• Many aspects of panic attacks, eg, palpitations, tremor, sweating, and an emotional sense of "fear," have been theorized to arise from sympathetic nervous system activation. However, most studies have not demonstrated clearly increased levels of catecholamines during an attack, which is contrary to this hypothesis. To explore another possible cause for the physiological changes known to occur during a panic attack, we assessed parasympathetic nervous system activity by measuring vagal tone during treatments known to produce panic symptoms: sodium lactate administration and hyperventilation. Our findings showed a marked reduction in vagal tone during both procedures. We postulate that withdrawal of parasympathetic activity may explain some of the physiological changes occurring in panic attacks and be contributing to the origin of panic.
Linear and quadratic discriminant analysis are considered in the small-sample, high-dimensional setting. Alternatives to the usual maximum likelihood (plug-in) estimates for the covariance matrices are proposed. These alternatives are characterized by two parameters, the values of which are customized to individual situations by jointly minimizing a sample-based estimate of future misclassification risk. Computationally fast implementations are presented, and the efficacy of the approach is examined through simulation studies and application to data. These studies indicate that in many circumstances dramatic gains in classification accuracy can be achieved.
This study investigated measures of nonlinearity (NL) and a measure of predictability and chaoticity of heart rate time series by quantifying the Largest Lyapunov Exponent (LLE) in 23 normal control subjects (31.3 6 7.6 years) and 32 patients with a diagnosis of panic disorder (31.6 6 5.1 years). The mean supine and standing heart rates were significantly higher in patients with panic disorder (Controls: 61.7 6 8.2 and 71.3 6 8.7; Patients: 71.3 6 8.7 and 85.9 6 10.0 beats per minute; p , 0.05). NL score was significantly higher in patients with panic disorder, especially in supine posture (6.1 6 2.9 vs 10.6 6 2.7; t 5 5.94; p 5 0.00001), possibly due to an increased sympathetic activity. Embedding dimension was significantly higher in patients in supine posture compared to controls (12.1 6 1.8 vs 14.2 6 1.8; t 5 4.4; p 5 0.0001) possibly due to an increase in the number of parameters that were
affecting the system. LLE was significantly lower in patients in supine (0.138 6 0.024 vs 0.110 6 0.017; t 5 5.13; p 5 0.00001) as well as in standing (0.183 6 0.036 vs 0.153 6 0.014; t 5 4.13; p 5 0.0001) postures. Decreased LLE signifies increased predictability and decreased
chaoticity in patients, which may be due to a decrease in some aspects of cardiac vagal function. Sex did not have any effect on these measures. Analysis of covariance using heart rate as a covariate did not change the significance of the results.
The author here answers the article
Cannon's Theory of Emotion, by Neuman, Perkins, and Wheeler, (
Psychol. Rev., 1930, 37, 305-326) criticizing his thalamic theory of emotions, and defending the James-Lange theory of felt visceral disturbances. He explains the essential differences between the two theories, which he believes are misapprehended by his critics; and he gives additional evidence in support of the thalamic hypothesis. The James-Lange theory ignores the fact that, in the thalamic region, all afferent impulses are interrupted and probably regrouped and redistributed. The thalamic region is the coordinating center for emotional reactions. After removal in lower animals of all the cerebrum anterior to the thalamus, the behavior designated "rage" is exhibited. The same is true if the visceral innervations are severed. But when, in addition, the thalamus is removed, the reaction disappears. The author points to sources of error in the thinking of his critics, such as the confusion between the experienced emotion and emotional behavior, or emotional expression; the confusion between thalamus and organic processes; between viscera which are relatively insensitive, and other organic changes which are acutely sensed; and between the minimum latent period of visceral reaction and the total time elapsing between the arousal of the efferent impulse to the viscera and the return of the afferent impulse to the brain with enough intensity to produce sensory experience. Reference is made to Dana's patient, who experienced normal emotions even though her whole skeletal system was severed with the exception of the cranial, upper cervical and diaphragm. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) is being used increasingly in psychophysiological studies as an index of vagal control of the heart and may be among the most selective noninvasive indices of parasympathetic control of cardiac functions. A comprehensive understanding of RSA, however, requires an appreciation of its multiple autonomic and physiological origins. We review the physiological bases of RSA and show that RSA arises from multiple tonic and phasic processes of both central and peripheral origin. These underlying mechanisms are at least partially differentiated, have distinct dynamics and consequences, and may be differentially sensitive to behavioral and cognitive events. These multiple mechanisms are relevant for psychophysiological studies of RSA, and a thorough understanding of RSA can only be achieved through an appreciation of the dynamics of its underlying origins. There is a distinction between the psychophysiological and neurophysiological domains, and conceptual and empirical bridges between these domains are needed.
Contemporary findings reveal that autonomic control of dually innervated target organs cannot adequately be viewed as a continuum extending from parasympathetic to sympathetic dominance. Rather, a two-dimensional autonomic space, bounded by sympathetic and parasympathetic axes, is the minimal representation necessary to characterize the multiple modes of autonomic control. We have previously considered the theoretical implications of this view and have developed quantitative conceptual models of the formal properties of autonomic space and its translation into target organ effects. In the present paper, we further develop this perspective by an empirical instantiation of the quantitative autonomic space model for the control of cardiac chronotropy in the rat. We show that this model (a) provides a more comprehensive characterization of cardiac response than simple measures of end-organ state, (b) permits a parsing of the multiple transformations underlying psychophysiological responses, (c) illuminates and subsumes psychophysiological principles, such as the Law of Initial Values, (d) reveals an interpretive advantage of expressing cardiac chronotropy in heart period rather than heart rate, and (e) has fundamental implications for the direction and interpretation of a broad range of psychophysiological studies.
The aim of this study was to link the effects of odorants with the emotional process, through autonomic nervous system (ANS) responses. Taking Ekman's data and our previous results into account, we tried to verify a possible evocation by odorants of some basic emotions, i.e. anger, fear, sadness, surprise, disgust and happiness. The question investigated was: would it be possible to associate any of these emotions with a pattern of autonomic responses? A total of 15 subjects inhaled five odorants: lavender, ethyl aceto acetate, camphor, acetic acid and butyric acid acting as olfactory stimuli. After inhaling the odorant, subjects were requested to fill out an 11-point hedonic scale to rate its `pleasantness' vs. `unpleasantness'. ANS parameters monitored were skin potential and resistance, skin blood flow and temperature, instantaneous respiratory frequency and instantaneous heart rate. Simultaneous recording of these six autonomic parameters permitted the analysis of phasic responses through specific ANS patterns. An analysis of variance made it possible to differentiate among the five odorants. Two-by-two odorant comparisons for autonomic responses using Tukey's HSD multiple comparison test only permitted differentiation between `pleasant' and `unpleasant' odors. Camphor was differentiated from both types. For instance, long duration responses were associated with `unpleasant' odors whereas camphor elicited intermediate responses. Taking into account each subject's preferential channel, it was possible to associate each ANS pattern with a basic emotion by means of a decision tree. The computation of subjects' responses made it possible to associate an odorant with a basic emotion, over the whole group: lavender elicited mostly `happiness', as did, to a lesser degree ethyl aceto acetate; camphor induced either `happiness', `surprise' or `sadness' according to subjects' past histories; butyric and acetic acids mainly induced negative emotions: `anger' and `disgust'. A high correlation was evidenced between subjects' hedonic evaluation and autonomic estimation of basic emotions. These results obtained from 15 subjects were compared to those observed in two similar experiments. These approaches showed comparable results. Thus, more than 60 subjects showed similar autonomic responses which can be transcribed into basic emotions. Thus, a multiparametric autonomic analysis allows the identification of the quality of the response, i.e. the type of basic emotion in addition to the intensity.
With the use of advanced equipment, respiratory measures can unobtrusively and reliably be assessed in a variety of psychophysiological research settings. New computerized analysis techniques can break down respiration into a number of components that provide valid estimates of variations in respiratory control mechanisms in the brain stem. Thus analysed, respiratory responses may vary in at least two dimensions: (A) with regard to drive and timing aspects, and (B) with regard to the metabolic appropriateness of the respiratory response. Assessment of respiratory responses may be relevant for a broad variety of research areas, including studies of the physiological effects of mental load and stress, investigations of physiological correlates of emotions and affect, and research linking physiological responses to subjective distress and psychosomatic disorders.
A consistent link appears to exist between predominance of vagal or sympathetic activity and predominance of HF or LF oscillations, respectively: RR variability contains both of these rhythms, and their relative powers appear to subserve a reciprocal relation like that commonly found in sympathovagal balance. In this respect, it is our opinion that rhythms and neural components always interact, just like flexor and extensor tones or excitatory and inhibitory cardiovascular reflexes, and that it is misleading to separately consider vagal and sympathetic modulations of heart rate. In humans and experimental animals, functional states likely to be accompanied by an increased sympathetic activity are characterized by a shift of the LF-HF balance in favor of the LF component; the opposite occurs during presumed increases in vagal activity. In addition, LF oscillation evaluated from SAP variability appears to be a convenient marker of the sympathetic modulation of vasomotor activity. Although based on indirect markers, the exploration in the frequency domain of cardiovascular neural regulation might disclose a unitary vision hard to reach through the assemblage of more specific but fragmented pieces of information.
We have previously reported decreased heart rate variability upon standing in panic disorder patients compared with controls. In this study, we extend our report to include patients with major depression (n = 19). Compared to normal controls (n = 20) and panic disorder patients (n = 30), there was no significant difference in the immediate changes in heart rate upon standing in the depressed group. The standing heart rate variability (R-R variability) was significantly lower in panic disorder patients compared to both normal controls and depressed patients as indicated by the corrected standard deviations, the corrected mean consecutive difference, the corrected standard deviation of the mean consecutive difference of the R-R intervals, and the high frequency variability in successive R-R intervals, suggesting an increased vagal withdrawal in panic disorder patients, especially upon standing. There was no significant difference in any of the heart rate variability measures between depressed patients and normal controls.
The empirical literature has shown that respiratory sinus arrhythmia is a sensitive noninvasive index of parasympathetic cardiac control. Nevertheless there has been no general agreement among investigators as to the most preferable quantification technique for assessing respiratory sinus arrhythmia, although there has been much speculation that specific estimation techniques are more or less reflective of vagal processes and could be more or less contaminated by other influences upon heart period variability unrelated to respiration. This study compared three quantification procedures for estimating respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA): (1) a spectral analytic technique, (2) a complex detrending approach removing periodic and aperiodic cardiac variations unrelated to respiration, and (3) a time-domain, peak-valley procedure employing inspiratory and expiratory periods as windows for determining range of cardiac-interval fluctuations associated with respiratory phase. Measures derived from these techniques were intra- and interindividually compared using three different samples of male subjects, including students, adult normotensives, and adult hypertensives. All interindividual correlations between measures yielded coefficients above .92 and the mean within-subject correlation across 42 individuals was .96, thus indicating a marked degree of comparability between measures. Additionally, given that much evidence indicates lawful within-individual relations between RSA amplitude and respiratory parameters, we employed respiratory period as an external criterion and compared intraindividual correlations between this variable and (2) and (3); results showed that (3) was significantly more highly associated with respiration than was (2), although the mean r's for the two measures did not diverge greatly (.91 vs. .84). Finally, inspection of the data and further regression analyses did not suggest that any of the RSA estimates were differentially contaminated by other components of cardiac variability. Our findings suggest that the three techniques are almost equivalent as indices of cardiac vagal tone and would appear to ease concerns about the inferiority of any of the procedures. Choice of a quantification procedure should therefore be tailored to the specific empirical needs of an investigation. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed.
Four experiments were conducted to determine whether voluntarily produced emotional facial configurations are associated with differentiated patterns of autonomic activity, and if so, how this might be mediated. Subjects received muscle-by-muscle instructions and coaching to produce facial configurations for anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise while heart rate, skin conductance, finger temperature, and somatic activity were monitored. Results indicated that voluntary facial activity produced significant levels of subjective experience of the associated emotion, and that autonomic distinctions among emotions: (a) were found both between negative and positive emotions and among negative emotions, (b) were consistent between group and individual subjects' data, (c) were found in both male and female subjects, (d) were found in both specialized (actors, scientists) and nonspecialized populations, (e) were stronger when the voluntary facial configurations most closely resembled actual emotional expressions, and (f) were stronger when experience of the associated emotion was reported. The capacity of voluntary facial activity to generate emotion-specific autonomic activity: (a) did not require subjects to see facial expressions (either in a mirror or on an experimenter's face), and (b) could not be explained by differences in the difficulty of making the expressions or by differences in concomitant somatic activity.
Many aspects of panic attacks, eg, palpitations, tremor, sweating, and an emotional sense of "fear," have been theorized to arise from sympathetic nervous system activation. However, most studies have not demonstrated clearly increased levels of catecholamines during an attack, which is contrary to this hypothesis. To explore another possible cause for the physiological changes known to occur during a panic attack, we assessed parasympathetic nervous system activity by measuring vagal tone during treatments known to produce panic symptoms: sodium lactate administration and hyperventilation. Our findings showed a marked reduction in vagal tone during both procedures. We postulate that withdrawal of parasympathetic activity may explain some of the physiological changes occurring in panic attacks and be contributing to the origin of panic.
Emotion-specific activity in the autonomic nervous system was generated by constructing facial prototypes of emotion muscle
by muscle and by reliving past emotional experiences. The autonomic activity produced distinguished not only between positive
and negative emotions, but also among negative emotions. This finding challenges emotion theories that have proposed autonomic
activity to be undifferentiated or that have failed to address the implications of autonomic differentiation in emotion.
We used spectral analysis of heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), and respiration to examine the effects of lactate on cholinergic and adrenergic influences on HR and BP variability, a technique found to be very useful in cardiovascular research. We specifically used high frequency (0.2-0.5 Hz) and midfrequency (0.07-0.15 Hz) powers to study cholinergic and adrenergic activity in nine normal control subjects before and after lactate and placebo infusions. Our results demonstrate a marked decrease in cholinergic activity and a significant increase in sympathovagal ratios of HR modulation after lactate infusions. This altered sympathovagal balance may contribute to the panicogenic effects of lactate in panic disorder patients.
Independent discoveries in several laboratories suggest that the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG), the cell-dense region surrounding the midbrain aqueduct, contains a previously unsuspected degree of anatomical and functional organization. This organization takes the form of longitudinal columns of afferent inputs, output neurons and intrinsic interneurons. Recent evidence suggests: that the important functions that are classically associated with the PAG--defensive reactions, analgesia and autonomic regulation--are integrated by overlapping longitudinal columns of neurons; and that different classes of threatening or nociceptive stimuli trigger distinct co-ordinated patterns of skeletal, autonomic and antinociceptive adjustments by selectively targeting specific PAG columnar circuits. These findings call for a fundamental revision in our concept of the organization of the PAG, and a recognition of the special roles played by different longitudinal PAG columns in co-ordinating distinct strategies for coping with different types of stress, threat and pain.
The literature on emotions and respiration is reviewed. After the early years of experimental psychology, attention to their relationship has been sparse, presumably due to difficulties in adequate measurement of respiration. The available data suggest nevertheless that respiration patterns reflect the general dimensions of emotional response that are linked to response requirements of the emotional situations. It is suggested that the major dimensions are those of calm-excitement, relaxation-tenseness, and active versus passive coping. Research on the emotion-respiration relationships has been largely restricted to the correlates of respiration rate, amplitude, and volume. Finer distinctions than those indicated may well be possible if a wider range of parameters, such as the form of the respiratory cycle, is included in the investigation.
( This reprinted article originally appeared in Psychological Review, 1894, Vol 1, 516–529. ) Responds to criticisms of a theory of emotional consciousness, first proposed in 1884 by C. Lange and W. James, independently, which views emotional consciousness as the effect of organic changes, muscular and visceral, of which the expression of the emotion consists. James addresses specific criticisms of Wundt (1891), W. L. Worcester (1893), D. Irons (1894), and draws support for the theory from Lehman (1892) and M. Sollier. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Beat-by-beat variations in blood pressure and RR-interval are interrelated by the actions of baroreflex and non-baroreflex responses. This study had two purposes: (1) to examine the spontaneous relationships between RR-interval and systolic blood pressure to determine the relative occurrence of baroreflex and non-baroreflex responses in humans, and (2) to compare the beat-sequence method with a cross spectral estimate of the baroreflex response slope. Eight healthy men were studied during 10 h of quiet, seated rest, and six men and three women were studied during rest, rest plus fixed pace breathing, and a cold pressor test. RR-interval and continuous, non-invasive arterial blood pressure were measured with a computerized system. A baroreflex sequence was defined by a series of at least three consecutive heart beats in which systolic pressure and the following RR-interval either both increased or both decreased. A non-baroreflex relationship was defined by sequences of at least three beats by opposite directional changes of RR-interval and systolic pressure of that beat. The results showed that there were approximately 30% as many non-baroreflex compared to baroreflex slopes. Individual subject mean baroreflex and non-baroreflex slopes were highly correlated (r = 0.72, P < 0.001). Absolute slope values were not different, and they were unaffected by time, fixed pace breathing, or cold pressor test. The data showed the relatively simple beat-by-beat sequence method to yield spontaneous baroreflex response slopes that were quantitatively similar to, and highly correlated with (r = 0.85-0.94), baroreflex response slopes calculated by spectral analysis methods.
Heart rate variability (HRV) spectral analysis has been used as a tool for short-term assessment of parasympathetic (PNS) and sympathetic nervous system (SNS) control of heart rate. However, it has been suggested that the PNS and SNS indicators are superimposed on a broad-band noise spectrum in which the power spectral densities are inversely proportional to their frequency (1/f beta). In this study, we have used coarse-graining spectral analysis to extract the harmonic components for calculation of PNS and SNS indicators and to obtain the slope (beta) of the 1/f beta component to estimate fractal dimension (DF) of a trail of HRV. DF was regarded as an indicator of cardiovascular system complexity. Ten healthy young subjects (6 women and 4 men) were studied in supine rest and with sequential applications of four levels of lower body negative pressure (LBNP; -10, -20, -30, and -50 mmHg) and head-up tilt (HUT; 10, 20, 30, and 70 degrees). In the 20 tests, there were six occurrences of presyncopal symptoms that required the test to be terminated before the planned end point. At low levels of LBNP or HUT, arterial pulse pressure (PP) was not changed from rest, and calculated DF was very high (beta approximately 1.00). At the higher levels of LBNP and HUT, PP decreased. Coincident with this reduction in PP, PNS activity decreased, SNS activity increased, and DF was reduced, each with a significant linear relationship to the change in PP (PNS: r = 0.56; SNS: r = 0.57; DF: r = 0.70, P < 0.01). Each occurrence of presyncope was associated a low PNS indicator as well as DF < 2.50 (beta > or = 1.80). These data indicate that the cardiovascular system is operating at a reduced level of complexity and further suggest that reduced complexity might not be compatible with cardiovascular homeostasis.
Previous studies suggested that heart rate (HR) time series may be more appropriately analyzed by nonlinear techniques because of the nonlinear nature of these data. In this study, we quantified the complexity of the HR time series, using fractal dimension, a previously described measure developed to study axonal growth, which quantifies the space-filling propensity and convolutedness of a waveform, and compared these results with another recently used measure, approximate entropy. Fractal dimension and approximate entropy of HR time series (unfiltered) correlate highly with each other and also with the high-frequency power (0.2-0.5 Hz) and, hence, appear to reflect vagal modulation of HR variability. These measures were also statistically more consistent and effective than measures of spectral analysis. Fractal dimension of the midfrequency time series of HR (filtered with a pass band of 0.05-0.15 Hz) also appears to be a statistically effective measure of relative sympathetic activity, especially in the standing posture.
Contemporary findings reveal that autonomic control of dually innervated target organs cannot adequately be viewed as a continuum extending from parasympathetic to sympathetic dominance. Rather, a two-dimensional autonomic space, bounded by sympathetic and parasympathetic axes, is the minimal representation necessary to characterize the multiple modes of autonomic control. We have previously considered the theoretical implications of this view and have developed quantitative conceptual models of the formal properties of autonomic space and its translation into target organ effects. In the present paper, we further develop this perspective by an empirical instantiation of the quantitative autonomic space model for the control of cardiac chronotropy in the rat. We show that this model (a) provides a more comprehensive characterization of cardiac response than simple measures of end-organ state, (b) permits a parsing of the multiple transformations underlying psychophysiological responses, (c) illuminates and subsumes psychophysiological principles, such as the Law of Initial Values, (d) reveals an interpretive advantage of expressing cardiac chronotropy in heart period rather than heart rate, and (e) has fundamental implications for the direction and interpretation of a broad range of psychophysiological studies.
The vagus nerve exerts a profound influence on the heart, regulating the heart rate and rhythm. An extensive vagal innervation of the cardiac ventricles and the central origin and extent of this innervation was demonstrated by transynaptic transport of pseudorabies virus with a virulent and two attenuated pseudorabies viral strains. The neurons that innervate the ventricles are numerous, and their distribution within the nucleus ambiguus and dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus is similar to that of neurons innervating other cardiac targets, such as the sino-atrial node. These data provide a neuroanatomical correlate to the physiological influence of the vagus nerve on ventricular function.
The central nervous system through its modulation of autonomic activity plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis in the cardiovascular system and in integrating cardiovascular responses with behaviors. Thus, central and autonomic disturbances can lead to profound alterations in cardiac function manifested by cardiac arrhythmias and signs of myocardial injury. These disturbances can further compromise patients with primary central lesions. Rapid recognition and appropriate treatment of the cardiac complications as well as the underlying condition are critical for effective management of many such patients.