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Doing Better but Feeling Worse: Looking for the "Best" Job Undermines Satisfaction
Abstract
Expanding upon Simon's (1955) seminal theory, this investigation compared the choice-making strategies of maximizers and satisficers, finding that maximizing tendencies, although positively correlated with objectively better decision outcomes, are also associated with more negative subjective evaluations of these decision outcomes. Specifically, in the fall of their final year in school, students were administered a scale that measured maximizing tendencies and were then followed over the course of the year as they searched for jobs. Students with high maximizing tendencies secured jobs with 20% higher starting salaries than did students with low maximizing tendencies. However, maximizers were less satisfied than satisficers with the jobs they obtained, and experienced more negative affect throughout the job-search process. These effects were mediated by maximizers' greater reliance on external sources of information and their fixation on realized and unrealized options during the search and selection process.
... In tandem with this, Sheena Iyengar's work on the psychology of choice has elucidated how maximizing tendencies can lead to the phenomenon of "choice overload", wherein an excess of options can result in reduced motivation to make a decision, as well as diminished satisfaction with the chosen option (Iyengar et al., 2006). Her research has particular significance for consumer behavior, showing how retailers and marketers must carefully consider the paradoxical effects of offering too many choices. ...
... For example, e-commerce platforms can implement advanced filtering systems or personalized recommendations based on the consumer's past preferences. This would reduce the overwhelming number of options and guide maximizers toward informed decisions without the emotional exhaustion of evaluating countless alternatives (Botti and Iyengar, 2006). Retailers could also provide curated product lists or expert recommendations that help maximizers narrow their choices based on key attributes, minimizing their reliance on external validation (Schwartz et al., 2002). ...
... Follow-up communications that highlight the benefits of their purchase, or product guarantees that assure them of its quality, can help reduce regret (Carmon et al., 2003). Flexible return policies also provide peace of mind, allowing maximizers to feel secure in their decision while reducing immediate postpurchase dissatisfaction (Iyengar et al., 2006). ...
Purpose
This study aims to consolidate fragmented literature on maximizing decision-making styles in consumer behavior, developing a comprehensive framework that synthesizes key antecedents, mechanisms, moderators and outcomes to clarify maximizing’s effects on consumer decision-making.
Design/methodology/approach
Using the SPAR-4-SLR protocol, the authors review 99 empirical studies published from 2002 to 2023. This analysis emphasizes recurring themes like decision difficulty, choice overload and regret within maximizing contexts in consumer behavior.
Findings
This analysis reveals a network of cognitive, emotional and contextual factors driving maximizing behavior. Key findings include the influence of cognitive dispositions such as frugality and subjective knowledge, the role of emotional states like sadness and the significant effect of complex decision tasks on consumer decision paralysis. Maximizing tendencies often result in post-purchase regret and decreased loyalty, moderated by task complexity and individual differences. These insights led to a conceptual framework illustrating how these factors interact to shape maximizing’s unique impact on consumer satisfaction and engagement.
Research limitations/implications
This review focuses on the English language and largely Western literature.
Practical implications
Marketers can leverage maximizing insights to improve targeted strategies, enhancing satisfaction and loyalty.
Social implications
Understanding maximizing aids in consumer education and policy development, supporting informed decisions in complex purchasing environments.
Originality/value
This study presents a unifying framework that integrates previous insights and highlights gaps, such as the need for methodological diversity and cross-cultural perspectives. Practical strategies include decision aids and post-purchase support to reduce decision fatigue and build loyalty.
... We fill this gap in the literature by examining the effect of SNS users' decision mindsets on their propensity to use privacy setting defaults. The concept of decision mindset comes from BRT (Simon, 1955) and subsequent work by Schwartz and colleagues (Cheek and Schwartz, 2016;Chowdhury et al., 2009;Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002). BRT relies on the premise that individuals have limited cognitive abilities and attention. ...
... Despite their expanded effort, maximizers often experience dissatisfaction and decision paralysis (Ma and Roese, 2014;Parker et al., 2007;Schwartz et al., 2002). They use more external information sources and engage in more social comparison, particularly upward comparison, leading to increased regret when others' choices fare better (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002;Weaver et al., 2015). Compared to satisficers, who settle when they find a good enough option and are generally content, maximizers consistently report more post-choice regret as they reflect on missed opportunities (Besharat et al., 2014;Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Huang and Zeelenberg, 2012;Iyengar et al., 2006;Ma and Roese, 2014;Schwartz et al., 2002). ...
... They use more external information sources and engage in more social comparison, particularly upward comparison, leading to increased regret when others' choices fare better (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002;Weaver et al., 2015). Compared to satisficers, who settle when they find a good enough option and are generally content, maximizers consistently report more post-choice regret as they reflect on missed opportunities (Besharat et al., 2014;Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Huang and Zeelenberg, 2012;Iyengar et al., 2006;Ma and Roese, 2014;Schwartz et al., 2002). ...
... We fill this gap in the literature by examining the effect of SNS users' decision mindsets on their propensity to use privacy setting defaults. The concept of decision mindset comes from BRT (Simon, 1955) and subsequent work by Schwartz and colleagues (Cheek and Schwartz, 2016;Chowdhury et al., 2009;Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002). BRT relies on the premise that individuals have limited cognitive abilities and attention. ...
... Despite their expanded effort, maximizers often experience dissatisfaction and decision paralysis (Ma and Roese, 2014;Parker et al., 2007;Schwartz et al., 2002). They use more external information sources and engage in more social comparison, particularly upward comparison, leading to increased regret when others' choices fare better (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002;Weaver et al., 2015). Compared to satisficers, who settle when they find a good enough option and are generally content, maximizers consistently report more post-choice regret as they reflect on missed opportunities (Besharat et al., 2014;Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Huang and Zeelenberg, 2012;Iyengar et al., 2006;Ma and Roese, 2014;Schwartz et al., 2002). ...
... They use more external information sources and engage in more social comparison, particularly upward comparison, leading to increased regret when others' choices fare better (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002;Weaver et al., 2015). Compared to satisficers, who settle when they find a good enough option and are generally content, maximizers consistently report more post-choice regret as they reflect on missed opportunities (Besharat et al., 2014;Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Huang and Zeelenberg, 2012;Iyengar et al., 2006;Ma and Roese, 2014;Schwartz et al., 2002). ...
Purpose
In light of increasing public concern over social media privacy breaches, this study aims to unveil the context-dependent and individual-specific nature of social media disclosure decisions. In particular, this paper aims to examine the disclosure choices of maximizers and satisficers in the presence of privacy setting defaults on social networking sites (SNSs).
Design/methodology/approach
Data are collected through an online scenario-based experiment with 200 Mechanical Turk participants. The study uses a 2 (Privacy setting default: No Sharing [“Only Me”] vs. Public Sharing [“Everyone”]) × 2 (Decision mindset: maximizing vs. satisficing) between-subject design.
Findings
Analyzing responses using ordered logistic regression models, this paper found a general tendency toward default settings, with maximizers exhibiting a stronger default preference than satisficers. For instance, maximizers were eight times more likely, and satisficers were only three times more likely to choose “Everyone” in the presence of the “Everyone” (vs. “Only Me”) default when deciding who can post on their private page. The perceived level of privacy risk further shaped satisficers and maximizers’ preferences.
... The concept of decision-making styles originated in BRT and was initially developed by Simon (1955). Building on this seminal work, Schwartz et al. (2002) revisit the model and distinguish between two types of individuals based on the amount of information that they are willing to process and the allocation of time and effort invested during their decision-making process (Iyengar et al., 2006;Karimi et al., 2015;Polman, 2010). On one hand, there are individuals who strive to gather as much information as possible to arrive at an optimal solution by evaluating a larger number of alternatives, named maximisers (Kokkoris, 2019). ...
... While some studies suggest that maximisers experience less satisfaction and more post-purchase regret than satisficers (Hassan et al., 2019;Kokkoris, 2018;Newman et al., 2018), other studies have found that maximisers achieve better outcomes, such as higher salaries and more successful job interviews, than satisficers (Giacopelli et al., 2013;Iyengar et al., 2006;Polman & Maglio, 2022). Interestingly, most marketing studies on decision-making styles focus on contrasting maximisers and satisficers regarding the quality of and satisfaction with their immediate shopping outcomes, while our knowledge of how they assess a shopping experience during the pre-decision stage remains unclear (Saltsman et al., 2021). ...
... This propensity has been shown to yield benefits for maximisers in various contexts. For example, a study by Iyengar et al. (2006) found that graduate students with a higher tendency to maximise decisions secured jobs with 20% higher salaries compared to satisficers. According to Kim (2022), maximisers conduct post-purchase information searches, such as continuing to read product reviews. ...
This research examines evolving shopping behaviours as emerging technologies and digital touchpoints increasingly draw shoppers to navigate digital omnichannel environments. While consumers transition from simple interactions with touchpoints to embarking on complex digital journeys, there remains a scarcity of relevant theorising to examine the holistic omnichannel experience. Therefore, our approach adopts a consumer-centric perspective wherein we argue that the specific mindset adopted by consumers during the digital shopping journey significantly shapes their perception of the omnichannel experience. Using three experiments and a survey, we demonstrate that consumers' perceived quality of the omnichannel journey is mindset dependant, with a maximiser mindset exerting an increased positive effect compared to a satisficer mindset. Furthermore, we delve into the underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon to show that consumers' self-efficacy evaluations mediate the relationship while the quality of the omnichannel configuration moderates it. Finally, we discuss a range of theoretical contributions, providing actionable insights for practitioners seeking to enrich the digital omnichannel experience and effectively engage today's digital-savvy consumers.
... These negative reactions often transfer to other aspects of life. For example, despite securing positions with 20% more salary, maximizers report less satisfaction with professional life (Iyengar et al., 2006). Furthermore, maximizers set high standards, tending toward perfectionism (Schwartz et al., 2002), especially toward unrealistic goals (Bergman et al., 2007), risking emotional exhaustion and burnout (Zhang et al., 2007). ...
... They may even avoid decision-making situations, especially when no single option is clearly best (Arunachalam et al., 2009;Parker et al., 2007). Despite maximizers making objectively better decisions, they report lower satisfaction with their decisions (Iyengar et al., 2006). Most existing research has either assessed decisions in an abstract sense (Diab et al., 2008), on small (Iyengar & Lepper, 2000) or large (Weaver et al., 2015) material product purchases, functional experiences such as work or school (Iyengar et al., 2006;Luan & Li, 2017), or a mix of these (Schwartz et al., 2002), leaving a substantial research gap. ...
... Despite maximizers making objectively better decisions, they report lower satisfaction with their decisions (Iyengar et al., 2006). Most existing research has either assessed decisions in an abstract sense (Diab et al., 2008), on small (Iyengar & Lepper, 2000) or large (Weaver et al., 2015) material product purchases, functional experiences such as work or school (Iyengar et al., 2006;Luan & Li, 2017), or a mix of these (Schwartz et al., 2002), leaving a substantial research gap. Trait-level maximizing has rarely been examined in relation to complex, experiential, and high involvement decision-making processes such as vacations. ...
Maximizing theory differentiates between individuals who accept minimally sufficient purchase options and those who strive to maximize their value for money. Maximizers are less satisfied with their decisions and suffer diminished subjective well-being. We analyzed 376 questionnaires and conducted 12 interviews of working Germans to extend maximizing theory to vacations, which are more complex, experiential, and hedonic than products studied in previous research on maximizing. Path analysis of questionnaire data showed significant, negative indirect effects of maximizing on subjective well-being through aspects of the vacation decision process and subsequent vacation satisfaction. Deductive thematic analysis of interviews showed that maximizers’ time-consuming searching through alternatives created doubt and stringent expectations, thus explaining how maximizing degrades vacation satisfaction and subjective well-being. Thus, we suggest that individuals be conscious of the personal resources and expectations that they invest in vacation decisions. Furthermore, the tourism industry should emphasize inspiration and customization instead of variety.
... Past research has drawn a pessimistic picture of maximizers in that maximizers tend to set unattainable goals and have problematic decision-making styles (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2002;Parker et al., 2007;Purvis et al., 2011;Hughes and Scholer, 2017). Regarding the influence of having a maximizing tendency on psychological well-being, it has been considered dysfunctional for general well-being due to its negative associations with various well-being indicators (i.e., life satisfaction, depression, and happiness; Schwartz et al., 2002;Iyengar et al., 2006;Parker et al., 2007;Cheek and Schwartz, 2016;Kim and Miller, 2017;Newman et al., 2018). For instance, compared to satisficers, maximizers are known to be less happy (Schwartz et al., 2002;Purvis et al., 2011), less optimistic (Schwartz et al., 2002), and less open (Purvis et al., 2011). ...
... Furthermore, being a maximizer is positively correlated with perfectionism (Schwartz et al., 2002;Chang et al., 2011;Dahling and Thompson, 2013), depression (Schwartz et al., 2002;Bruine de Bruin et al., 2016) and often engaging in counterfactual thinking (Schwartz et al., 2002;Leach and Patall, 2013) and social comparison (Schwartz et al., 2002;Weaver et al., 2015;Cheek and Schwartz, 2016;Luan and Li, 2019). Iyengar et al. (2006), for example, showed that even though graduating college seniors with maximizing inclinations got jobs with higher salaries than seniors with satisficing inclinations, maximizers' satisfaction levels were lower than those for satisficers. ...
... Furthermore, maximizers tend to possess stronger aspirations and a more unwavering dedication to achieving favorable goals and success than those with lower maximizing tendencies (Peng et al., 2018;Zhu et al., 2022). Therefore, despite lots of demands such as planning and preparation (Iyengar et al., 2006;Polman, 2010), maximizers work harder (e.g., Schwartz et al., 2002), investing more time (Nenkov et al., 2008) and resources (Misuraca et al., 2016) while resisting temptations (Besharat et al., 2014) and risky behaviors (Lai, 2010) that may reduce the likelihood of goal achievement. Indeed, maximizers exhibit greater levels of achievement motivation (Peng et al., 2018), which leads to a stronger internal drive and motivation system for overcoming external challenges and addressing difficulties (Te Wang and Eccles, 2013;Michou et al., 2014). ...
Introduction
Maximization, the tendency to make the best choices by thoroughly searching and comparing alternatives, has long been considered a negative correlate of well-being. However, recently, it was proposed that having a maximizing tendency can lead to better coping efforts in some stressful situations and thus could be more adaptive. The objective of the present research was to demonstrate positive features of maximization and identify the coping strategies that mediate the relationship between maximization and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Methods
A sample of 3,493 participants responded to an online survey from January 20 to October 11 of 2020. The 13-item Maximization Scale assessed individuals’ maximizing tendency in terms of the maximization index and its three subdimensions (i.e., high standards, alternative search, and decision difficulty). The use of four coping strategies (i.e., preventive measures, cognitive appraisal, self-distraction, and social connection) during the COVID-19 pandemic was assessed. Hedonic and eudaimonic aspects of well-being were measured. We developed a mediation model and examined both whether there was an indirect link between maximization and well-being through the coping strategies and whether there was a direct link between maximization and well-being.
Results
Path analysis revealed negative direct associations between maximization measures (i.e., an index and three subdimensions) and well-being. In addition, significant indirect paths were found with varying directions depending on maximization dimensions and coping strategy types. There were positive indirect associations between the maximization index and well-being via preventive measures, between high standards and well-being through preventive measures and cognitive appraisal, and between alternative search and well-being through self-distraction and social connection. Negative indirect associations were found between decision difficulty and well-being through cognitive appraisal, self-distraction, and social connection.
Discussion
The current study confirmed the existence of inconsistent mediation effects between maximization and well-being via coping and highlighted coping efforts as one of the positive aspects of maximization. Discussion addressed the double-edged effect of maximization on well-being and its beneficial nature in times of distress. Future studies should examine other potential situations and moderators that can delineate maximization’s various characteristics with a longitudinal design and samples from diverse backgrounds.
... The maximization and satisfying concepts can be seen as a special case of the reflection in decision making [6]. Maximizers seek for the only best and sustainable option and not setting for everything less, requiring an exhaustive search of all possibilities [32,7]. On the other hand, satisfiers would seek well enough until encountering an option that crosses the verge of acceptability [7]. ...
... Maximizers seek for the only best and sustainable option and not setting for everything less, requiring an exhaustive search of all possibilities [32,7]. On the other hand, satisfiers would seek well enough until encountering an option that crosses the verge of acceptability [7]. For instance, in selecting a television show from 400 cable channels, a maximizer would surf all channels and spend time to get the best show for watching while a satisficer would surf channels until they encounter the first acceptable show and watch it. ...
This study examined the relationship between performance in examination questions types, decision-making styles, sleep deprivation and performance in general performance average in a sample of 598 students in the Community Development Training Institutes in Tanzania. The study responded to the quests as to whether or not could maximizers and satisficers differ in reporting sleep deprivation and Grade Performance Average; Could maximizers and satisficers differ in terms of performance with type of examination questions such as multiple choice items (MC), matching items (MI), true/false items (T/F), short answers (SA), or Essay; and what could be the relationship between sleep deprivation and academic performance in terms of GPA. Participants concurrently responded to the Sleep Deprivation scale (SDS) and Maximization Scale (MS). Then, performance scores in the examination questions types were traced directly to the examination scripts of the Community Psychology course purposely selected to match the researcher’s area of specialization. Data were analyzed using MANOVA and Pearson’s Moment Correlation Coefficient with an assistance of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). It was found that only 6.5% of respondents reported being maximizers while 93.3% reported being satisficers. Further, while there was a significant difference between Maximizers and satisficers in sleep deprivation, F (1, 593) = 6.50, p = 0.011, partial eta squared = 0.011; no significant difference between maximizers and satisficers was found in performance in GPA or in the examination questions types. In addition, there were from low to strong positive correlations between examination question types and performance in GPA. Although psychological factors such as sleep deprivation and decision-making have a reciprocal influence, their influence to students’ GPA and scores in question types is not as clear as it is between scores in the question types and GPA, being an indication of malleability of maximization with domain and context specificity.
... Second, it is questionable whether saving effort and cognitive resources is a relevant concern for people making the most important decisions in their lives-never mind whether investing an excess of cognitive and emotional resources is beneficial in the first place. In fact, more exhaustive deliberation over career choices has been linked to lower life satisfaction (Jaensch et al., 2015), increased negative affect (Gati et al., 2012;Iyengar et al., 2006), and lower choice satisfaction (Iyengar et al., 2006). In other words, investing excessive effort in searching for an optimal course of action in transformative life decisions is no guarantee of success and may be detrimental (see also Schwartz et al., 2002) and agonizing (see . ...
... Second, it is questionable whether saving effort and cognitive resources is a relevant concern for people making the most important decisions in their lives-never mind whether investing an excess of cognitive and emotional resources is beneficial in the first place. In fact, more exhaustive deliberation over career choices has been linked to lower life satisfaction (Jaensch et al., 2015), increased negative affect (Gati et al., 2012;Iyengar et al., 2006), and lower choice satisfaction (Iyengar et al., 2006). In other words, investing excessive effort in searching for an optimal course of action in transformative life decisions is no guarantee of success and may be detrimental (see also Schwartz et al., 2002) and agonizing (see . ...
Research on judgment and decision making typically studies “small worlds”—highly simplified and stylized tasks such as monetary gambles—among homogenous populations rather than big real-life decisions made by people around the globe. These transformative life decisions (e.g., whether or not to emigrate or flee a country, disclose one’s sexual orientation, get divorced, or report a sexual assault) can shape lives. This article argues that rather than reducing such consequential decisions to fit small-world models, researchers need to analyze their real-world properties. Drawing on principles of bounded and ecological rationality, it proposes a framework that identifies five dimensions of transformative life decisions: conflicting cues, change of self, uncertain experiential value, irreversibility, and risk. The framework also specifies simple, versatile choice strategies that address these dimensions by, for instance, breaking down a decision into steps, avoiding trade-offs between present and future selves, or sampling others’ experiences. Finally, it suggests benchmarks for assessing the rationality of transformative life decisions. Methodologically, this framework adapts a long tradition of mainly lab-based judgment and decision-making research to a text-based approach, thereby setting the stage for empirical work that analyzes real-world decisions using natural-language processing. Only by understanding decisions with the potential to transform life trajectories—and people in the process—will it be possible to develop encompassing and inclusive theories of human decision making.
... According to a theory on self-regulation, the act of making choices and exercising self-control is an effortful process drawing on a limited resource (Baumeister et al., 2018). Relatedly, larger assortments often demand greater time and effort from individuals, potentially triggering concerns about their ability to make optimal choices, resulting in regret (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz, 2015). For example, in one study, although participants were initially more attracted to an extensive selection of jams, they were more likely to purchase a . ...
... As the number of options exceeded 10, however, the proportion of participants who bought pens declined. Moreover, adult participants reported lower satisfaction (Iyengar et al., 2006) and greater regret (Carmon et al., 2003;Sagi and Friedland, 2007;Inbar et al., 2011) with their choice when the set of available options was more extensive. These effects have been termed "choice overload" (Iyengar and Lepper, 2000;Diehl and Poynor, 2010). ...
Psychological theory and research demonstrate the positive effects of personal choice on human motivation. However, there is evidence in adults that an overabundance of options can lead to choice overload, when choices become demotivating. Little is known about the early development of behaviors involving choice. Across two studies, we investigated whether toddlers ( M age = 2.5 years) preferred choice over non-choice and tested for the presence of choice overload using a novel sticker-book task. Moreover, we explored associations between children's executive function (EF) skills and choice preference behavior. In Study 1 ( N = 106), children preferred choice on 70% of trials, and this preference increased as a function of the number of options from 2-26. There was no evidence of choice overload. Study 2 ( N = 52) replicated findings from Study 1 with up to 53 options, but there was no linear effect. Age (inversely) and sex (female) predicted choice preference in Study 2. Some aspects of parent-reported EF were inversely related to children's preference for choice, whereas a direct assessment of EF was positively correlated, independent of age. Future research should test for choice overload using alternative measures with a wider age range and clarify associations between EF and choice preference.
... Satisficing refers to the strategy where individuals cease searching for better options once they find one that meets their minimum requirements or is deemed satisfactory, rather than pursuing the optimal choice (Conlisk, 1996;Iyengar, Wells and Schwartz, 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002;Simon, 1957Simon, , 2008. Given their limited resources, including time and cognitive capacity, students may settle for a satisfactory option rather than striving for the absolute best one (Hadsell and Mac-Dermott, 2010). ...
This study explores the relationship between institutional financial aid and undergraduate academic performance within a European context, grounded in Rational Choice Theory. Analysing data from 1776 Business Administration students at a selective European university, the research reveals that financial aid recipients achieve higher first-year grade point average (GPA) than non-recipients, with class attendance partially mediating this relationship. Unexpectedly, the study identifies a non-linear relationship between aid amount and GPA, where GPA improves with low to moderate aid levels but plateaus at higher amounts. Both merit-based and need-based aid similarly increase GPAs. These findings suggest that financial aid recipients invest more effort in college, with some interesting nuances. Given that financial aid is a significant expense for institutions, these findings have substantial policy implications. They underscore the importance of institutional financial aid, the impact of class attendance, the determination of the optimal amount of aid, and the choice between merit-based and need-based aid.
... Essentially, consumers adopting a maximizing mindset rely on objective quality indicators (e.g., restaurant ratings and product price) to determine whether an option meets their "the best" standard (Nardini and Sela 2019), even if the best one requires more effort (Luan and Li 2017;Schwartz et al. 2002). Driven by a concern about missing out on the optimal choice, they believe that the benefits of a larger choice set outweigh the additional effort invested in exploring the available options (Dar-Nimrod et al. 2009;Iyengar et al. 2006). Therefore, a maximizing mindset is characterized by a dual focus on pursuing the absolute best option (from the quality perspective) and actively seeking alternatives (from the quantity perspective) (Cheek and Schwartz 2016;Ma and Roese 2014;Schwartz et al. 2002). ...
A maximizing mindset, the tendency to seek the best choice through increased effort, plays a vital role in consumer decision‐making. While extensive research has explored the consequences of maximizing mindset on consumer behaviors, investigations into its antecedents remain nascent. Notably, consumption decisions often occur in either individual or joint contexts, which may influence consumers’ maximizing tendencies. In this study, we investigate the effect of consumption context—joint versus individual consumption—on consumers’ maximizing mindset. Through four studies using varying decision scenarios, we find that consumers in joint (vs. individual) consumption settings are more likely to adopt a maximizing mindset, evidenced by a preference for the “best” product and a choice for the larger choice set. This effect arises from perceived uncertainty regarding partners’ preferences. Such uncertainty heightens the feeling of anticipated guilt, which in turn fosters consumers’ maximizing mindset. Consistent with the serial mediation mechanism, we further uncover that this effect is attenuated when partners’ preferences are explicitly communicated or when the decision outcome is inconsequential. These findings not only advance the literature on maximizing mindset and joint consumption but also offer practical insights for improving the effectiveness of scene marketing.
... To compare decision-making styles, we used a median-split method based on participants' maximizing tendency (median high standards 5 5.44; median alternative search 5 5.25). Participants scoring above the median were classified as maximizers (n 5 14 for both high standards and alternative search), and those below as satisficers (n 5 15 for both), enabling a clearer comparison of decision-making styles, consistent with prior research by Iyengar et al. (2006). Using hierarchical coding following King (2012), we grouped similar codes and identified key patterns in how these groups utilize AI for financial decisions. ...
Purpose
This study investigates the impact of experimentally priming a maximizing decision-making style on individuals’ likelihood of using artificial intelligence (AI) advisors for making complex financial decisions, such as building an investment portfolio for their retirement. It examines whether individuals with stronger maximizing tendencies are more likely to perceive algorithms as effective, thereby reducing their algorithm aversion, and ultimately increasing the likelihood of using AI advisors in their financial decision-making.
Design/methodology/approach
A qualitative pre-study amongst individuals differing in their maximizing tendencies to learn more about the existing usage patterns of AI advisors for financial decisions was combined with a quantitative study to experimentally test our hypotheses. For both studies, US participants were recruited through Prolific. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis in NVivo and regression analysis in the SPSS Process macro.
Findings
The results show that individuals primed with a maximizing mindset demonstrated a higher likelihood of using AI advisors for their financial decisions. This effect was serially mediated by the perception of enhanced algorithm effectiveness and reduced algorithm aversion.
Practical implications
This study provides actionable insights for financial service providers such as banks, pension funds and insurance companies into strategies on how to reduce algorithm aversion and encourage greater AI usage in decision-making amongst their (potential) clients. In particular, to increase the likelihood that consumers will rely on AI advisors for financial decisions, financial service providers can induce a maximizing mindset in these individuals by adjusting the wording of their marketing communications material.
Originality/value
This study extends our understanding of how maximizing tendencies influence the likelihood of using AI advisors. It contributes to the literature by highlighting the role of perceived effectiveness and algorithm aversion and by demonstrating that experimentally inducing a maximizing mindset can increase AI usage for financial decisions; doing so is important as AI can help provide consumers with personalized advice in a cost-effective way.
... And once this division is made, it turns out that the maximisers are less happy with individual choices, and with their life in general. This finding has been extended to work on career choice (Iyengar, Wells, and Schwartz, 2006) where the maximisers end up with higher salaries but less job satisfaction, and to friend choice (Newman, Schug, Yuki, Yamada, and Nezlek, 2018), where again the maximisers seem to end up less satisfied. ...
In this book the author argues for a groundbreaking perspective that knowledge is inherently interest-relative. This means that what one knows is influenced not just by belief, evidence, and truth, but crucially by the purposes those beliefs serve. Drawing from classical Nyāya epistemologies, the book asserts that knowledge rationalizes action: if you know something, it is sensible to act on it—and the best way to square this with an anti-sceptical epistemology is to say that knowledge is interest-relative.
While versions of this view have been debated, they haven’t gained wide acceptance. The author addresses common objections with a refined formulation and explores how this perspective elucidates the role of knowledge in inquiry, daily life, and the history of thought. Key distinctions include the impact of “long odds” situations on knowledge, the distinctive role knowledge has a starting point for inquiry, and the importance of using non-ideal models in theorising about knowledge.
Building on decades of scholarship, the author offers a cohesive theory that integrates and clarifies previous works, demonstrating that not only knowledge but also belief, rational belief, and evidence are interest-relative. This book is essential for those seeking a deeper understanding of the intricate relationship between knowledge and practical interests.
... Rational choice theory is grounded in the premise that individuals are rational agents, aiming to maximise their utility when presented with available options (Scott, 2000). The "maximisers" in this decision-making paradigm are willing to devote substantial time and effort to thoroughly investigate all possibilities to arrive at the optimal outcome (Iyengar et al., 2006). Nonetheless, behavioural economists assert that individuals frequently defy the precepts of rational choice theory, and the notion of "complete information" in decision-making is unrealistic (Kahneman, Tversky, 1984). ...
The present research endeavours to ascertain the rational decision-making style of public sector workers (PSWs) and their impact on entrepreneurial opportunities in Ghana. In particular, the study examines the mediating role of entrepreneurial intention and the moderating effect of social capital. To test the hypotheses, a sample of 358 PSWs was analysed using a structural equation modelling (SEM). The findings reveal that decision-making style has a significant effect on entrepreneurial intention, opportunity development, and opportunity creation, respectively. Furthermore, the research supports the mediating role of entrepreneurial intention, which manifests itself as a crucial conduit between decision-making style and both opportunity development and opportunity creation. The study emphasises the imperative for policymakers to foster a robust social environment that nurtures the Ghanaian PSW community. The study posits that entrepreneurial opportunity creation can be substantially enhanced by encouraging these workers to explore and create business ventures.
... This influence the retailers to put up their outlets inside the malls and be better placed against their competition. Schwartz et al. (2002) , knowledge to influence the 'harried shopper' where grocers considerably vary when it comes to striving for a decision to patronage (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz 2004;Schwartz et al., 2002). Artificial Intelligence has powered the shoppers using their smart phone like Amazon Go experience ,the machine learning techniques to use the AI. ...
This study investigated to analyze the customer preference of retail supermarket chain store (grocery outlet) based on store attributes like location, service, communication etc., The study was conducted through a self designed questionnaire, and the data was collected from the customers of Chennai urban city. The size of the sample was restricted to 199. The types of retail format concentrated on this study are supermarket chain stores like MORE, Spencer's and Reliance branded stores location etc. The MDS technique was applied to identify the preference based on convenience (Dimension 1) and Exclusive Design of stores (Dimension 2). The findings from the study reveals that the malls, specialty stores and hyper/super markets are preferred but grocers find specialty stores more convenient than others. This influence the retailers to put up their outlets inside the malls and be better placed against their competition. Grocers identifies the satisfied shoppers building them as patron shoppers. Consequently, retailers must develop strategies intended to build relationships that result in customers returning to make more purchases. So, the retailers can adopt a suitable strategy to sustain in the market and to meet the economic crisis situations.
... Maximizers attracted considerable attention from researchers because of the paradoxical finding that even though they make objectively better decisions than satisficers, they report greater regret and dissatisfaction. Specifically, Iyengar et al. (2006), analyzed the job search outcomes of college students during their final college year and found that maximizer students selected jobs with 20% higher salaries compared to satisficers, but they felt less satisfied and happy, as well as more stressed, frustrated, anxious, and regretful than students who were satisficers. The reasons for these negative feelings of maximizers lies in their tendency to believe that a better option is among those that they could not evaluate, given their time and cognitive limitations. ...
Researchers investigating the psychological effects of choice have provided extensive empirical evidence that having choice comes with many advantages, including better performance, more motivation, and greater life satisfaction and disadvantages, such as avoidance of decisions and regret. When the decision task difficulty exceeds the natural cognitive resources of human mind, the possibility to choose becomes more a source of unhappiness and dissatisfaction than an opportunity for a greater well-being, a phenomenon referred to as choice overload. More recently, internal and external moderators that impact when choice overload occurs have been identified. This paper reviews seminal research on the advantages and disadvantages of choice and provides a systematic qualitative review of the research examining moderators of choice overload, laying out multiple critical paths forward for needed research in this area. We organize this literature review using two categories of moderators: the choice environment or context of the decision as well as the decision-maker characteristics.
... Moreover, the likelihood of a sufficient condition also appears to be higher. Thus, although individuals may fall into the categories of maximisers and satisficers, with the latter being more content with their decisions (Schwartz et al., 2002;Iyengar et al., 2006), it appears that when evaluating positive objects, a satisfying strategy is not our natural modus operandi (as evident in Figure 1). Future research should delve into these issues, exploring the interplay between similarity and probability judgments of objects with different valences, as well as potential disparities between maximisers and satisficers in their similarity and plausibility judgments. ...
Introduction
This study examines the consistency between subjective similarity evaluations and the theoretical predictions derived from Tversky’s ratio model of similarity, alongside the impact of additional positive and negative features on perceived similarity to ideal and bad politicians.
Methods
Using a sample of 120 participants, we assessed the similarity of eight candidate profiles to an ideal and bad politician, varying in positive and negative features. Participants’ subjective evaluations were compared with theoretical predictions derived from Tversky’s ratio model. The analysis focused on how candidate and referent valence influenced observed versus theoretical similarity.
Results
Subjective similarity judgments deviated systematically from theoretical predictions, especially for positively featured candidates, indicating a negativity effect. Additional positive features decreased the perceived similarity of favorable candidates to an ideal politician, while additional negative features did not significantly affect similarity judgments of unfavorable candidates.
Discussion
Our findings underscore a significant disparity between subjective and objective similarity judgments, notably for favorable candidates. While the ratio model performs well for unfavorable candidates, its applicability diminishes for favorable ones, emphasizing the role of feature valence in decision-making. Further research on feature valence is crucial for a comprehensive understanding across contexts.
... A vast body of research highlights the link between academic performance and employment outcomes, consistently demonstrating a positive correlation between higher GPAs and securing desirable jobs (8). (9), for example, found that graduates with higher GPAs enjoyed more job offers and higher salaries. ...
The transition from academia to industry can be unpredictable, but what if we could forecast college graduate employment outcomes with both accuracy and robust security? This study introduces an innovative framework that leverages secure data analysis and machine learning to predict the employment trajectories of college graduates. By integrating homomorphic encryption, we safeguard the privacy of sensitive personal and academic data while enabling complex machine learning operations. Our approach involves meticulous data collection, feature engineering, encryption, and model development, resulting in a robust model that addresses privacy concerns without sacrificing prediction accuracy. We demonstrate our model's superiority over traditional approaches, achieving a notable increase in both security and stability. This research illuminates the potential of encrypted data analysis in reshaping predictive modeling methods, offering insights for educational institutions, policymakers, and students. Our findings not only address a pressing issue in employment forecasting but also lay the groundwork for secure and ethical big data applications across various domains.
... Conversely, a less intense orientation, whether it involves prevention or promotion, is likely to lead consumers to settle for the "good enough" option, making them what Simon (1955) refers to as "satisficers". Maximizers devote more time and effort to decision-making processes, such as thoroughly searching for alternatives (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002;Sparks et al., 2012), than satisficers do. ...
In a competitive omni-channel retail environment, consumers can easily compare products and prices across retailers and channels, thus adopting cross-channel free-riding behaviors such as “showrooming" and "webrooming".
This study examines the similarities and differences between showrooming and webrooming by investigating the higher-order motivations that drive individuals' decisions. Two components of consumer regulatory orientation are considered: the intensity of regulatory orientation and the type of regulation (promotion/prevention).
The results of a questionnaire survey of 700 respondents show, firstly, that high intensity of regulatory orientation explains channel and retailer switching. Secondly, while showroomers and webroomers share the same level of prevention orientation, they differ in their promotion orientation. Showroomers are more promotionoriented
than webroomers, which means that they take more risks to achieve their goal, may delay their purchase if this allows them to find a more suitable offer, and break the rules more than webroomers. Finally, this study identifies a segment of consumers who are accustomed to adopting both behaviors. These findings have several relevant managerial implications for omnichannel retailers in terms of customer segmentation and communication strategy.
... However, this golden promise gradually waned, giving way to the pernicious spectre of information overload (Grisé & Gallupe, 1999;Chen et al., 2009). This predicament is exacerbated by the inherent limitations of human information processing capacities (Simon, 1956;Tversky & Kahneman, 1990;Iyengar et al., 2006), giving rise to cognitive overload (Sweller et al., 1990;Chang & Yang, 2010). ...
In the realm of e-commerce website development, a digital funnel serves as a structured guide for online visitors, leading them from initial entry to the ultimate goal of completing a transaction. The primary objective is to optimize the shopping experience, simplifying decision-making, increasing satisfaction, and reducing cognitive load. Implementing a digital funnel involves various steps, such as boosting conversion rates, enhancing user satisfaction, facilitating informed decisions, and personalizing recommendations. These steps play a crucial role in creating an effective digital funnel. To achieve this, e-commerce platforms offer several services, including intuitive product exploration, personalized recommendations, dynamic filtering, comprehensive product information, and comparison tools. These services cater to the diverse aspects of the buyer's journey, ensuring a seamless and satisfying shopping experience. This paper presents an online survey that evaluates the usefulness of these services from buyers' perspectives, highlighting the gap between seller offerings and buyer expectations. It emphasizes the importance of aligning digital funnels with desired services to enhance the e-commerce experience. In summary, a digital funnel in e-commerce serves as a strategic approach to guide users through the purchasing process. By providing valuable services, it aims to meet individual user needs while achieving platform goals. This paper revisits the digital funnel concept in light of desired services, emphasizing the importance of bridging the gap between sellers and buyers for a more effective e-commerce experience
... However, it is likely that the relationships between environmental unpredictability and focused job search would be buffered differently in cultural settings where young people are encouraged to explore various career paths or possibilities. In this situation, other job search strategies, such as maximizing versus satisficing strategies (Iyengar et al., 2006), could be considered. For example, when resources are abundant, young people might be more likely to maximize their outcomes by alternatively searching for and setting a "best" job goal, whereas they might be more likely to set a satisficing goal when resources are limited. ...
The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has created challenges for young people in the labor market. Based on an evolutionary life history perspective, we tested how and when perceived scarcity of job opportunities during the pandemic related to job search outcomes. Using a sample of Master’s student graduates (N = 1434; 40.2% female; mean age 25.6 years) from one Chinese university, we found that scarcity was related to higher anxiety, which then related to more haphazard job search strategies and, in turn, to fewer job offers and poorer person-job fit. Anxiety also related to more exploratory strategies and then to more offers and better fit. In addition, scarcity related to poorer fit through decreased focused strategies. Finally, the direct relationship between scarcity and anxiety, as well as the indirect relationships with job search outcomes, were amplified for those from disadvantaged backgrounds. Findings support life history theory and have implications for career practice.
... It is also a viewpoint that is important to take into account in the next part as it considers the associations of the decision-making styles with another subjectively assessed decision outcome -mental health. Indeed, when turning to maximization as another decision-making style, people with a higher score have better objective outcomes (higher starting salary after university), but are less satisfied with them [47]. This also highlights the subjectivity of our evaluations of decision outcomes. ...
While previous research has demonstrated the role of decision‐making styles in attaining various real‐life outcomes, it has neglected to explore the underlying goal‐related processes in terms of goal dimensions (ways in which people appraise their goals during goal striving). The present study examines whether the most studied decision‐making styles are related to self‐reported effort, goal progress, and action crisis as well as other goal dimensions. We conducted 14 studies (mutual conceptual replications) with N total = 2574 (70% females) which included the General Decision‐Making Styles questionnaire and various goal‐related scales. The results from the mini meta‐analysis showed that the rational and intuitive styles were positively related to the goal dimensions associated with successful goal pursuit (e.g., goal commitment, goal attainability, positive emotions, and goal progress), while the avoidant style was mainly related to various difficulties associated with goal striving (e.g., controlled motivation, negative emotions, and action crisis). The dependent and especially spontaneous styles were found to be very weakly associated with the selected goal dimensions. When the separate studies were analyzed in the regression analyses and more process‐oriented goal dimensions were accounted for, decision‐making styles were only minor predictors of self‐reported effort expenditure, goal progress and action crisis. The study highlights the need and usefulness of a more nuanced processual approach in the research of individual decision‐making differences in goal‐directed behavior.
... Schwartz (2000) sınırlı rasyonalite temelinde yürüttüğü çalışmalarda, Simon (1955) tarafından öne sürülen seçim stratejilerindeki "maksimize ediciler" ve "tatmin ediciler" ayrımının üzerinde durmuş, bireyin karar alma aşamasında, faydasını ne kadar maksimize etmek istediği ile alakalı olarak bireysel farklılıkların olabileceğini savunmuştur. Burada maksimize etmek, en iyiyi aramak olarak tanımlanırken; tatmin etmek, "yeterince iyi"yi aramak, diğer bir deyişle kabul edilebilirlik eşiğini geçen bir seçenekle karşılaşana kadar aramak olarak tanımlanmıştır (Iyengar, Wells ve Schwartz, 2006). Schwartz vd. ...
Bu çalışma Schwartz vd. (2002) tarafından geliştirilen Maksimizasyon Ölçeği’ni Türkçeye uyarlayarak geçerliliğini tespit etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Maksimize etme eğilimini ölçmeye yönelik gerçekleştirilen çevrimiçi anketlere 400 gönüllü kişi katılmıştır. Yapılan Açımlayıcı (AFA) ve Doğrulayıcı Faktör Analizleri (DFA) sonucunda ölçek, 3 faktörlü bir yapı göstermiştir ve 11 maddeden oluşmaktadır. Ortaya çıkan bu ölçekte yer alan faktörler toplam varyansın %52,35’ini açıklamaktadır. İç tutarlılık analizi için ölçeğe ait Cronbach’s Alpha katsayısı hesaplanmış ve güvenilirliği 0,74 olarak tespit edilmiştir. DFA sonrasında elde edilen modelin uygunluğunun tespiti için uyum iyilik endekslerinden yararlanılmıştır. Bu uyum endeksleri CFI=0.902, GFI=0.953, AGFI= 0.925, NFI=0.855, RMSEA=0.065, IFI=0.904 şeklinde tespit edilmiş olup, modelin iyi uyum sağlayan bir modelin kriterlerini karşıladığı tespit edilmiştir.
... Maximizing refers to a behavioral tendency of striving for the most optimal choice, whereas satisficing (i.e., satisfy and suffice) refers to a behavioral tendency of choosing and being satisfied with a "good enough" option [18,19]. A typical maximizer invests additional time and explores a broader array of options in order to arrive at the best decision [20][21][22], generally leading to objectively better decision outcomes compared to satisficers [23]. ...
The previous literature has provided mixed findings regarding whether consumers appreciate or are opposed to algorithms. The primary goal of this paper is to address these inconsistencies by identifying the maximizing tendency as a critical moderating variable. In Study 1, it was found that maximizers, individuals who strive for the best possible outcomes, exhibit greater reactance toward algorithm-recommended choices than satisficers, those who are satisfied with a good-enough option. This increased reactance also resulted in decreased algorithm adoption intention. Study 2 replicated and extended the findings from Study 1 by identifying the moderating role of choice goals. Maximizers are more likely to experience reactance to algorithm-recommended options when the act of choosing itself is intrinsically motivating and meaningful (i.e., autotelic choices) compared to when the decision is merely a means to an end (i.e., instrumental choices). The results of this research contribute to a nuanced understanding of how consumers with different decision-making styles navigate the landscape of choice in the digital age. Furthermore, it offers practical insights for firms that utilize algorithmic recommendations in their businesses.
Purpose
Promoting pro-environmental behaviors like proper waste sorting in the workplace is crucial for organizations seeking to reduce their environmental footprint. This study aims to investigate the role of maximizing decision-making style – the tendency to pursue the optimal alternative – on employees’ waste sorting intentions and behaviors through the lens of the comprehensive action determination model.
Design/methodology/approach
Online survey data collected from 374 Chinese employees. The statistical tool SmartPLS 4.0 was used to analyze the data.
Findings
The results revealed that maximizing decision-making style positively predicted attitude, personal norm, waste sorting self-efficacy and waste sorting habit, which in turn increased intentions to sort waste properly in the workplace.
Originality/value
The study highlights the role of decision-making style in promoting waste sorting practices among employees and offers significant theoretical implications for understanding individual differences in environmental decision-making. In addition, it provides practical implications for designing effective workplace sustainability initiatives, including insights into social marketing strategies aimed at fostering sustainable behaviors in organizational settings.
Our emotion plays a crucial role in evaluating and choosing a suitable alternative, though they may not be rational. Experimental studies on Gratitude show that the feeling of Gratitude has its own bias in decision-making. The influence of Gratitude on evaluating alternatives, related to maximizing tendency, is explored in this paper by studying the students’ decision-making process (n = 157 and n =126) through two studies. We found that Gratitude does influence ‘maximizing tendency.’ We found a logarithmic relationship between Gratitude and that ‘maximizing tendency.’ The results have been discussed, followed by future research directions.
Purpose
Extended warranties typically have a negative expected value, as they charge high premiums (10–50% of the product price) while product failure rates in the initial years remain low (typically below 5%). Therefore, experts advise against purchasing them. However, many consumers still do. This paper aims to examine how the difficulty consumers experience when choosing products influences their decision to purchase an extended warranty. Difficult product choices often evoke negative affect, and this paper proposes that consumers experiencing greater choice-induced negative affect are more likely to purchase a warranty. Such plans guarantee product replacement or repair during the coverage period, effectively shielding consumers from future similar choice decisions. By mitigating potential future discomfort, extended warranties serve as a psychological safeguard against recurring negative emotions associated with difficult choices.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper tested authors’ hypotheses across four studies: three experimental studies, including one with consequential choice, and one study analyzing actual consumer choices. Study 1 included 293 MTurk participants, Study 2 included 286 MTurk participants, Study 3 comprised 267 undergraduate students in a consequential choice experiment, and Study 4 examined the actual purchase decisions of 981 MTurk participants.
Findings
It finds that greater choice difficulty increases the likelihood of purchasing an extended warranty. This effect emerges when consumers pursue maximizing goals (Study 1) or face difficult tradeoffs between product attributes and their values (Studies 2 and 3). Consequently, these consumers are not only more likely to buy extended warranties (Studies 3 and 4) but also willing to pay more for them (Studies 1 and 2). Additionally, it finds that choice-induced negative affect and the desire to avoid similar future decisions drive this effect (Studies 3 and 4).
Research limitations/implications
This research focuses on extended warranties for durable goods. Future studies could explore how choice difficulty influences consumer willingness to purchase insurance for temporary products or one-time events.
Practical implications
Retailers should weigh short-term warranty profits against potential brand reputation risks associated with exploiting choice complexity. Public policy makers should strengthen consumer protection through mandatory disclosures of product failure rates, implementing cooling-off periods, and regulating practices that intentionally increase choice difficulty. These findings emphasize the need for balanced approaches that protect consumer welfare while preserving legitimate warranty services.
Originality/value
This research offers significant implications for policy makers, businesses and consumers by emphasizing the role of decision-making processes in protecting consumers from irrational purchases.
This chapter delves into the intricate relationship between phubbing, smartphone addiction, and social media use, emphasizing how personality traits mediate their impact on psychological well-being. Phubbing, a blend of “phone” and “snubbing,” involves ignoring others in favor of mobile phone engagement and has been associated with feelings of loneliness, depression, and social exclusion. Additionally, the chapter examines how the big five personality traits (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness) influence smartphone addiction and phubbing behaviors. Individuals with high levels of fear of missing out (FoMO) tend to display compulsive phone use, reinforcing these negative social behaviors. The chapter concludes by underscoring the psychological consequences of these behaviors, including reduced life satisfaction and heightened stress.
Prior research in social psychology has shown that when people feel anxious, they seek advice from others. Yet, companies that operate in high-anxiety settings (like financial services, healthcare, and education) are increasingly deploying self-service technologies (SSTs), through which anxious customers transact without access to human contact. These companies may therefore face a classic efficiency–service trade-off where gains in operational efficiency through automation also hamper service outcomes by neglecting customer anxiety. This paper, set in the high-anxiety domain of financial services, investigates the value of facilitating access to human contact during SST usage. In a field experiment conducted within the context of a credit union’s SST loan-approval process, an invitation to connect with a human loan agent increases the customer uptake rate of approved loans by 24%. Subsequent controlled laboratory experiments, which explicitly investigate the linkages among anxiety, choice satisfaction, and firm trust during SST encounters show that compared with participants without anxiety, those who are anxious consistently report lower satisfaction with their choices and less trust in the firm, regardless of the source of their anxiety. When anxiety is related to the SST encounter, facilitating access to human contact dampens anxiety’s negative effects on choice satisfaction and, by extension, increases firm trust. We further observe that these benefits of facilitating access to human contact arise even though very few customers choose to access a person. Taken together, this research reveals an opportunity for firms to maintain operational efficiency in high-anxiety self-service settings without compromising customer experiences and service outcomes.
This paper was accepted by Charles Corbett, operations management.
Funding: Funding for this research, apart from internal business costs incurred by our field study partner to support the experiment, was primarily provided by Harvard Business School and partially provided by Dartmouth College.
Supplemental Material: The online appendix and data files are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.01029 .
The present study aimed to understand rural–urban differences in decision-making in India, a developing country, with a particular focus on the urban context. The decision preference assessed in the study was that of maximizing, that is, searching for superior options, and satisficing, that is, choosing an adequate option. The main prediction was that people in the urban metropolitan context would maximize more than people in the rural context, and this difference would be mediated by a complex interplay of cultural, market, and economic factors. The cultural factors considered were relational mobility and perception of a tight–loose society. Further, the socio-market value of hierarchic self-interest, economic factors of income and ease of spending, and perceptions of necessity and luxury were considered. A field survey was conducted in a rural and a metropolitan region of Northern India, involving farmers and corporate employees, respectively ( N = 378). The findings show that urban participants maximized more than rural participants. This difference was mediated by factors of success orientation in hierarchic self-interest, perception of luxury, and ease of spending, highlighting the intricate nature of decision-making in different contexts. These findings have practical implications for individuals and policymakers in developing countries, particularly in the context of the transition of urbanization and the opening of markets.
Wallas’ (1926) model, The Art of Thought , is the most popular model of the creative process, coexisting with other later models. It encompasses only cognitive processes: preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification, within a limited stage of the process, excluding other crucial non-mental activities, such as the materialization of the idea or its communication. The 25 models of the creative process analyzed in this study apply a linear temporal framework to a process that is inherently nonlinear. The most popular tests and programs to evaluate and enhance creativity primarily intervene in the ideation stage, and by ignoring other parts of the creative process, they are not effective. Unlike previous models, The Houses of Creativity identify the phases with a conceptual rather than a temporal criterion, structured in a honeycomb pattern, addressing the non-linearity of the process. Additionally, its phases apply not only to creative production but to all tasks susceptible to the process. It includes: supermarket (selecting), temple (observing, perceiving, questioning), library (informing), cabin (ideating), bar (distracting and socializing), warehouse (stockpiling), hobby house (enjoying), laboratory (developing and verifying), and gallery (communicating and convincing). A person who is only good at ideation in the cabin (according to Torrance tests) will not be able to successfully complete the creative process. This theoretical research could pave the way for developing personalized tools to assess and enhance creativity, or to form interdisciplinary teams that incorporate them.
The Impact of Mobile Data Cost on Consumer Price Sensitivity: A Study of a Hotel Booking App
Mobile data cost arises from the perception that mobile data are more expensive than Wi-Fi because of additional charges incurred when exceeding fixed data quotas. Understanding mobile data cost is a global and industry-wide concern as the perception of this cost is common in both developed and developing countries, and even subtle behavioral shifts because of this cost can have significant impacts given the prevalence of mobile shopping. Using hotel search data, we find that consumers are approximately twice as price sensitive when using mobile data compared with Wi-Fi, leading to an average revenue reduction of $17 per hotel booking. Additionally, consumer search effort decreases across decision stages when using mobile data rather than Wi-Fi, showing that mobile data users pursue satisfactory options without extensive search effort, obtain less product information, and therefore rely more on price information, becoming more price sensitive. This study provides implications for mobile shopping environments in which limited mobile data plans are common, suggesting that firms should consider consumers’ connectivity types in marketing strategies, offer data subsidies to encourage more thorough searches, and develop customized recommendations and app versions for mobile data users and that policymakers should monitor potential price discrimination to protect consumer interests.
Prior research has established that decision‐makers engage in a bolstering process by magnifying the value of a previously made choice in order to justify their choices. The current research examines the impact of bolstering on attribute importance weights and future choices. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrate that after making a choice between a priori comparable options, consumers prefer attributes (e.g., sunlight in an apartment) that they associate with positive features of their chosen option (lot of sunlight) more than attributes they associate (a) with negative features of their chosen option or (b) with positive features of their nonchosen option. These postchoice associations and altered attribute importance weights drive subsequent preferences. In an incentive‐compatible study, Experiment 3 demonstrates that bolstering goes beyond choice justification and impacts subsequent choice. After an initial choice, participants choose new products that have positive features consistent with their original chosen option rather than products with positive features consistent with their original nonchosen option. This research contributes to the literature on preference construction by examining the impact of justification for one's previous choices on constructed attribute preferences and subsequent choices.
ChatGPT is expected to have significant implications for trip planning from a traveler’s perspective. ChatGPT has the potential to be a revolutionary search tool, enabling travelers to bypass an often complicated and disturbing process with a simple conversation with ChatGPT. This research aimed to explain the impact of ChatGPT on travelers’ trip planning behavior; specifically, it examined how travelers perceive ChatGPT when they narrow down multiple travel options. Based on the choice overload effect, we conducted five experimental studies to determine the negative effect of reducing options from the initial recommendations using ChatGPT. The results showed the importance of a hybrid decision-making process involving both humans and ChatGPT. Using our empirical results, we provide significant theoretical and practical implications for travelers’ trip planning behavior incorporating ChatGPT.
Modern e-commerce websites often provide users with a variety of components, such as faceted filters and conversational recommender systems, that act as product advisors to help them find relevant products. However, these components are often treated separately and presented as independent components, leading to increased cognitive load and disruption in the search process. Also, the reasoning behind the resulting product recommendations is often not transparent. To address these limitations, we propose a novel approach that relies on a knowledge graph structure to seamlessly integrate faceted filtering and conversational advisors based on graphical user interfaces (GUI). Concretely, the knowledge graph is used to suggest filter values and products based on the user’s answers in the advisor, and, conversely, to determine follow-up questions based on the user’s selected filter values. The user interface also visualizes and explains the underlying relationships between answers given to the advisor and relevant product features in the filter component in order to increase the transparency of the search process. We conducted two user studies with a total of 448 participants to compare a system that integrates the different components according to our approach with a baseline system in which the mechanisms operate separately. Sequence analysis of the logged interaction data provided insights into participants’ behavior as they interacted with both systems. The results indicate that displaying recommended products and related explanations directly in the filter component increases acceptance and trust in the system. Also, the combination of a conversational advisor with values displayed in a filter interface, along with explanations of the underlying relationships, significantly contributes to the knowledge and understanding of those product features that are important in terms of the current search goal.
zet Ülkelerin kalkınmasında lokomotif görevini üstlenen girişimcilerin sayısını artırmak ve girişimciliği teşvik etmek amacıyla pek çok çalışma yapılmakta ve bu kapsamda özellikle son yıllarda, girişimci kişilik kavramını tanımaya yönelik psikoloji temelli kişilik özellikleri incelenmektedir. Bu konuya katkı yapabilmek için yapılan inceleme ile alan yazında pek az değinilmiş ya da hiç değinilmemiş olan ve girişimciliği yordayabileceği düşünülen değişkenler tespit edilmiş ve araştırmaya dâhil edilmiştir. Bu kuramlardan biri olan Temel Benlik Değerlendirmeleri ile girişimcinin kendi yeteneklerine ilişkin biliş sahibi olabileceği ve fırsatları değerlendirme konusundaki becerilerine ilişkin algısının girişimci kişiliğini belirleyebileceği öne sürülmüştür. Ayrıca bu etkileşimde bilişsel psikoloji kuramlarından Ençoklamacı Karar Verme davranışının aracılık etkisinin olup olmadığı da incelenmiştir. Örneklemdeki bireylerin Temel Benlik Değerlendirmeleri, girişimciliklerinin yaklaşık % 72'sini açıklarken; modele Ençoklamacı Karar Verme davranışı eklendiğinde bu oran % 65'e düşmektedir. Ayrıca Ençoklamacı Karar Verme davranışının girişimcilik üzerindeki olumsuz ancak istatistiki olarak anlamlı etkisi, girişimci özellikler ile Ençoklamacı Karar Verme psikolojisinin bir arada olamayacağını göstermesi bakımından önemli sayılabilir. Abstract A lot of effort has been put to increase the number of entrepreneurs, the engines of the countries' economic progress, and to promote entrepreneurship. In this regard, within the recent years in particular, studies, based on psychology and personality relationship are done to understand the entrepreneurial personality. To contribute to this topic and after searching the relevant literature, variables that might predict entrepreneurship have been incorporated into the model. It has been argued that one of
Previous studies have divided people into maximizers and satisficers based on their tendency to seek the best in decision‐making. In the present research, we aim to unravel the time estimation process of maximizers in decision‐making through four studies. The results indicate that maximizers tend to underestimate the time spent in decision‐making, which is due to the difference in their memory reduction for decision‐related information compared to that of satisficers. Specifically, maximizers' memories of special information (rather than common information) become worse than those of satisficers, which leads to their underestimation of decision time. These findings provide a deeper understanding of how maximizers estimate their decision time, which offers important insights into how maximizers make their decisions. Overall, this research contributes to the literature by shedding new light on maximization from the perspective of memory.
Sınırlı rasyonaliteden yola çıkarak ortaya konan maksimize etme-tatmin etme ayrımı Schwartz vd.’nin (2002) çalışmasıyla teorik temellere oturtulmuştur. Literatür incelediğinde konuyla ilgili çalışmaların çoğunlukla ölçek geliştirme çabalarında yoğunlaştığı görülmektedir. Bununla birlikte az sayıda çalışma maksimize etme eğiliminin farklı değişkenlerle ele alınmasını kapsamaktadır. Bu bakımdan, bu çalışma maksimize etme eğilimi ile kayıptan kaçınma, riskten kaçınma, mutluluk ve bilişsel önyargılara düşme eğilimi arasındaki ilişkileri araştırmaya yönelik gerçekleştirilmiştir. 272 kişilik örneklemle gerçekleştirilen çalışmada öncelikle maksimize etme eğilimi, kayıptan kaçınma ve riskten kaçınma ölçekleri Türkçe’ye uyarlanmış ve geçerlilik/güvenilirlik analizleri yapılmış, sonrasında ise oluşturulan hipotezler test edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular, maksimize etme eğiliminin sadece medeni duruma göre farklılık gösterdiği; kayıptan kaçınma, riskten kaçınma, mutluluk ve bilişsel önyargılara düşme eğilimleri ile ilişkilerinin ise cinsiyetler arasında farklılık gösterdiği şeklindedir. Buna göre kadınlarda maksimize etme eğilimi ile kayıptan kaçınma ve riskten kaçınma arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir ilişki tespit edilmiş olmasına karşılık erkeklerde her iki değişkenle de maksimize etme eğilimi arasında bir ilişki bulunmamaktadır. Yine kadınlarda maksimize etme eğilimi ile mutluluk ve batık maliyete düşme eğilimi arasında bir ilişki saptanmazken; erkeklerde maksimize etme eğilimi ile mutluluk arasında ve batık maliyete düşme eğilimi arasında anlamlı bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Burada kadın ve erkeklerin maksimize etme eğilimi noktasında motivasyonlarının farklı olduğu görülmektedir. Çalışma, maksimize etme eğilimini bahsi geçen değişkenlerle birlikte ele alan çalışmaya rastlanmaması bakımından özgün değer taşımaktadır. Ayrıca, Maksimizasyon Eğilimi Ölçeği, Kayıptan Kaçınma Ölçeği ve Riskten Kaçınma Ölçeği’nin Türkçe uyarlamalarının ve analizlerinin de ilk kez gerçekleştirilmesi bakımından da önem taşımaktadır.
People are faced with an oversupply of almost ever type of good. Due to the large number of options, it has become very important for service providers to understand, how customers act when they book leisure activities online. As far as the researcher knows, no one has looked into how having too many options affects people's decisions when they book leisure activities online before. This study looks at the difference between leisure activities done at home and while on holiday, taking into account the issue of choice overload when booking leisure activities online. There is a plan to use an integrated research approach that utilizes cognitive dissonance as well as spillover theories to testhypotheses. This study employed Gen Y (17-37 years) who have visited Goa in the last six months. The study's conclusions have consequences for both tourism-related businesses and consumers, guiding how they act, their emotions, judgments, and behaviors toward evaluating the alternatives.
This paper explores users' two different decision-making styles, maximizers and satisficers, in the context of human-computer interactions. Maximizers are those individuals who go through great lengths to choose the best possible option, while satisficers are content with a good enough option that meets their minimum requirements. Although users' decision-making experiences have been extensively studied in human-computer interaction and design research, users' different decision-making styles and their implications for creating decision-influencing computing systems have been understudied. In a focus group interview with 28 participants , this study identified four differences between maximizers and satisficers in daily decision-making experiences with computing systems: (1) maximization goals, (2) maximization strategies, (3) perception of decision-making experiences, and (4) preferred aspects of decision-supportive tools. The paper also discusses the five design implications of these findings to design for personalized positive decision-making experiences, along with future research directions.
Stereotypes often link female employees with increased family–work conflicts and low work outcomes. Nevertheless, female employees may excel in both home and work environments. This study aimed to examine the effect of maximizing tendency on female employees' family‐to‐work enrichment and adaptivity. A three‐wave survey involving 1074 female employees was conducted. Results indicated that maximizing tendency positively predicts adaptivity via family‐to‐work enrichment. Spousal relationship quality weakens the effect of maximizing on family‐to‐work enrichment and employee adaptivity. The findings highlight the benefits of maximizing tendency in female employees, suggesting a bright side to maximizing as it enhances adaptability in dynamic work situations. The study also identifies maximizing tendency as a novel personal characteristic that facilitates resource transfer from family to work domain. The findings offer a valuable perspective for promoting female employees' success in the workplace.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper addresses the issue of inconsistent findings regarding the impact of consumers' need for touch (NFT) on webrooming behavior. It investigates the moderator of maximization by drawing on maximizing mindset theory.
Design/methodology/approach
Three studies were carried out to test the hypothesized relationships. The first study investigated the impact of autotelic NFT on webrooming intention. The second study examined the impact of instrumental NFT on webrooming intention. The third study tested all hypotheses by the structural equation modeling approach.
Findings
The results confirm moderation by consumers' maximizing mindset. The moderated mediation analyses show that the interaction effect of autotelic NFT and maximization influences webrooming intention indirectly via anticipated sensory pleasure. Likewise, the interaction effect of instrumental NFT and maximization influences webrooming intention indirectly via product fit uncertainty.
Originality/value
The study draws on maximizing mindset theory to show that consumers' autotelic NFT and instrumental NFT drive their webrooming intentions depending on the activation of their maximizing mindset. The nonsignificant relationship between autotelic NFT and webrooming intention in the context of satisficers explains the conflicting findings reported in the literature. Consumers' affective and cognitive responses were also studied to uncover the underlying mechanisms of their webrooming intention. This research contributes to the literature by enhancing the understanding of webrooming behavior.
Scant research has addressed how maximizing, or the tendency to seek the ‘best’ alternative and not settle (Schwartz et al., 2002; Simon, 1955), relates to adolescents’ vocational behavior. In this exploratory study, high school seniors completed measures of maximizing, choice/commitment anxiety, career decidedness, and career exploration time. Seniors also expressed why they considered themselves maximizers or not and described reasons behind feelings of anxiety about career selection. Results showed that adolescents high in maximizing tendency also had heightened choice/commitment anxiety, higher decidedness, and had spent less time exploring careers. Adolescents explained reasons behind maximizing tendencies, such as finding stable careers and challenging themselves. They also provided reasons behind their career choice anxiety, including fear of failure or regret, inadequate work environments, and lack of opportunities. Overall, these findings clarify cognitive and emotional aspects influencing career decision-making in adolescents. Career counseling services can use this information to anticipate concerns and develop prevention programs.
Consumers of electricity increasingly participate in demand-side management programs aimed at shifting the demand for electricity from peak hours to non-peak hours. At present, energy corporations primarily nudge such participants toward energy reduction by providing them with monetary incentives. Drawing on the psychological literature on social values for cooperation, we will argue that it is important to also consider the use of incentives tapping prosociality. Research shows that people with a prosocial value orientation tend to exhibit an intrinsic motivation to positively contribute to the maintenance of collective goods and resources. Their behavioral response is often characterized by an alleviated willingness to make common cause. Presenting electricity as a common-pool resource—shared by all but to be used with moderation by the individual—may suffice to establish sustained peak-shaving behavior among the more prosocial consumers of electricity. In this book chapter, first, the research on social value orientation and its measurement will be presented. Second, an overview will be provided of the most relevant situational factors that influence social value orientation. Finally, recommendations will be formulated on how to include social values for cooperation in the Power Trading Agent Competition.
Two studies tested the hypothesis that self-rated unhappy individuals would be more sensitive to social comparison information than would happy ones. Study 1 showed that whereas unhappy students’ affect and self-assessments were heavily affected by a peer who solved anagrams either faster or slower, happy students’ responses were affected by the presence of a slower peer only. These between-group differences proved to be largely independent of 2 factors associated with happiness, i.e., self-esteem and optimism. Study 2 showed that whereas the unhappy group's responses to feedback about their own teaching performance were heavily influenced by a peer who performed even better or even worse, happy students’ responses again were moderated only by information about inferior peer performance. Implications for our appreciation of the link between cognitive processes and “hedonic” consequences are discussed.
(This partially reprinted article originally appeared in Psychological Review, 1956, Vol 63, 81–97. The following abstract of the original article appeared in PA, Vol 31:2914.) A variety of researches are examined from the standpoint of information theory. It is shown that the unaided observer is severely limited in terms of the amount of information he can receive, process, and remember. However, it is shown that by the use of various techniques, e.g., use of several stimulus dimensions, recoding, and various mnemonic devices, this informational bottleneck can be broken. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies tested the hypothesis that self-rated unhappy individuals would be more sensitive to social comparison information than would happy ones. Study 1 showed that whereas unhappy students' affect and self-assessments were heavily affected by a peer who solved anagrams either faster or slower, happy students' responses were affected by the presence of a slower peer only. These between-group differences proved to be largely independent of 2 factors associated with happiness, i.e., self-esteem and optimism. Study 2 showed that whereas the unhappy group's responses to feedback about their own teaching performance were heavily influenced by a peer who performed even better or even worse, happy students' responses again were moderated only by information about inferior peer performance. Implications for our appreciation of the link between cognitive processes and "hedonic" consequences are discussed.
Conventional wisdom and decades of psychological research have linked the provision of choice to increased levels of intrinsic motivation, greater persistence, better performance, and higher satisfaction. This investigation examined the relevance and limitations of these findings for cultures in which individuals possess more interdependent models of the self. In 2 studies, personal choice generally enhanced motivation more for American independent selves than for Asian interdependent selves. In addition, Anglo American children showed less intrinsic motivation when choices were made for them by others than when they made their own choices, whether the others were authority figures or peers. In contrast, Asian American children proved most intrinsically motivated when choices were made for them by trusted authority figures or peers. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Current psychological theory and research affirm the positive affective and motivational consequences of having personal choice. These findings have led to the popular notion that the more choice, the better-that the human ability to manage, and the human desire for, choice is unlimited. Findings from 3 experimental studies starkly challenge this implicit assumption that having more choices is necessarily more intrinsically motivating than having fewer. These experiments, which were conducted in both field and laboratory settings, show that people are more likely to purchase gourmet jams or chocolates or to undertake optional class essay assignments when offered a limited array of 6 choices rather than a more extensive array of 24 or 30 choices. Moreover, participants actually reported greater subsequent satisfaction with their selections and wrote better essays when their original set of options had been limited. Implications for future research are discussed.
Can people feel worse off as the options they face increase? The present studies suggest that some people--maximizers--can. Study 1 reported a Maximization Scale, which measures individual differences in desire to maximize. Seven samples revealed negative correlations between maximization and happiness, optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, and positive correlations between maximization and depression, perfectionism, and regret. Study 2 found maximizers less satisfied than nonmaximizers (satisficers) with consumer decisions, and more likely to engage in social comparison. Study 3 found maximizers more adversely affected by upward social comparison. Study 4 found maximizers more sensitive to regret and less satisfied in an ultimatum bargaining game. The interaction between maximizing and choice is discussed in terms of regret, adaptation, and self-blame.
A variety of researches are examined from the standpoint of information theory. It is shown that the unaided observer is severely limited in terms of the amount of information he can receive, process, and remember. However, it is shown that by the use of various techniques, e.g., use of several stimulus dimensions, recoding, and various mnemonic devices, this informational bottleneck can be broken. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
This empirical investigation tested the hypothesis that the benefits of personal choosing are restricted to choices made from among attractive alternatives. Findings from vignette and laboratory studies show that contrary to people's self-predictions prior to actually choosing, choosers only proved more satisfied than nonchoosers when selecting from among more preferred alternatives. When selecting from among less preferred alternatives, nonchoosers proved more satisfied with the decision outcome than choosers. Subsequent analyses revealed that differences in outcome satisfaction between choosers and nonchoosers emerge even before the decision outcome is experienced and that interventions during the decision-making process can serve to attenuate these differences. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The statistic p(rep) estimates the probability of replicating an effect. It captures traditional publication criteria for signal-to-noise ratio, while avoiding parametric inference and the resulting Bayesian dilemma. In concert with effect size and replication intervals, p(rep) provides all of the information now used in evaluating research, while avoiding many of the pitfalls of traditional statistical inference.
Pleasures of the mind are different from pleasures of the body. There are two types of pleasures of the body: tonic pleasures and relief pleasures. Pleasures of the body are given by the contact senses and by the distance senses (seeing and hearing). The distance senses provide a special category of pleasure. Pleasures of the mind are not emotions; they are collections of emotions distributed over time. Some distributions of emotions over time are particularly pleasurable, such as episodes in which the peak emotion is strong and the final emotion is positive. The idea that all pleasurable stimuli share some general characteristic should be supplanted by the idea that humans have evolved domain-specific responses of attraction to stimuli. The emotions that characterize pleasures of the mind arise when expectations are violated, causing autonomic nervous system arousal and thereby triggering a search for an interpretation. Thus pleasures of the mind occur when an individual has a definite set of expectations (usually tacit) and the wherewithal to interpret the violation (usually by placing it in a narrative framework). Pleasures of the mind differ in the objects of the emotions they comprise. There is probably a
Introduction, 99. — I. Some general features of rational choice, 100.— II. The essential simplifications, 103. — III. Existence
and uniqueness of solutions, 111. — IV. Further comments on dynamics, 113. — V. Conclusion, 114. — Appendix, 115.
Hedonic adaptation refers to a reduction in the affective intensity of favorable and unfavorable circumstances. This chapter discusses the purposes, underlying mechanisms, and most common functional representations of hedonic adaptation. The authors then examine some of the methodological problems that hamper research in this area and review the literature on adaptation in 4 negative domains (noise, imprisonment, bereavement, and disability), and 4 positive domains (foods, erotic images, increases in wealth, and improvements in appearance produced by cosmetic surgery). Following this review, the authors discuss several circumstances that promote or impede hedonic adaptation. They conclude by discussing the dark side of hedonic adaptation—the negative consequences for individuals and society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this paper I have attempted to identify some of the structural characteristics that are typical of the "psychological' environments of organisms. We have seen that an organism in an environment with these characteristics requires only very simple perceptual and choice mechanisms to satisfy its several needs and to assure a high probability of its survival over extended periods of time. In particular, no "utility function' needs to be postulated for the organism, nor does it require any elaborate procedure for calculating marginal rates of substitution among different wants.
The negative aspects of the option of a wide variety of products for the customers is discussed. A wide variety of choice created negative emotions because of related high opportunity costs. The rise in opportunity costs arises due to the need for assessment of the quality of all the alternatives before deciding on the best option. People also feel depressed because of the opportunities they have foregone by using a product.
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[Maximizing tendencies: Evidence from a national sample
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