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Doing Better but Feeling Worse: Looking for the "Best" Job Undermines Satisfaction
Abstract
Expanding upon Simon's (1955) seminal theory, this investigation compared the choice-making strategies of maximizers and satisficers, finding that maximizing tendencies, although positively correlated with objectively better decision outcomes, are also associated with more negative subjective evaluations of these decision outcomes. Specifically, in the fall of their final year in school, students were administered a scale that measured maximizing tendencies and were then followed over the course of the year as they searched for jobs. Students with high maximizing tendencies secured jobs with 20% higher starting salaries than did students with low maximizing tendencies. However, maximizers were less satisfied than satisficers with the jobs they obtained, and experienced more negative affect throughout the job-search process. These effects were mediated by maximizers' greater reliance on external sources of information and their fixation on realized and unrealized options during the search and selection process.
... This tireless process sometimes pays off when they find better outcomes. For example, maximizers who search for more job opportunities after graduation land positions with 20% higher starting salaries than those who satisfice (Iyengar et al., 2006). The authors attribute this to their greater efforts to seek out additional opportunities, even one's that were outside their major area of study. ...
... One of the more profound discoveries related to the way we approach decisions is in how these styles may affect people differently based on cultural contexts. Despite sometimes doing better due to their extensive search strategy, maximizers often feel worse about their decisions, reporting greater instances of regret and depression, as well as being less happy, optimistic, and satisfied in their lives (Schwartz et al., 2002;Iyengar et al., 2006;Parker et al., 2007;Chang et al., 2011;Purvis et al., 2011). Interestingly, the very process that encourages maximizers to explore additional options to find the best becomes a source of unhappiness as they ruminate over past decisions by thinking about what they could have done better and consider their outcomes in relative terms to others, especially with those who are doing better than them (Schwartz et al., 2002;Chan, 2021). ...
... For example, through extensive search, maximizers have been reported to land better jobs after graduation than those who satisfice, yet they feel worse about those better positions because their extensive search process allowed them to see all the opportunities they missed along the way. Additionally, they viewed their results comparatively to others who had been more successful in their job search (Iyengar et al., 2006). This paradoxical finding, that maximizers feel worse despite doing better, appears to depend on cultural factors, as cross-cultural comparisons have found that maximizing has a more negative impact on well-being in societies where choice is abundant, highly valued, and viewed as the primary means for achieving success and happiness, such as in the U.S. (Roets et al., 2012). ...
This paper investigates how maximizing or satisficing decision styles and cultural orientation influence individuals’ entrepreneurial intentions. With a growing interest in social entrepreneurship, it also measures if these factors encourage individuals to start ventures with a social mission. Two studies are conducted to compare students’ entrepreneurial intentions in the U.S. and in Slovenia. By identifying that maximizing decision styles are associated with an individualistic cultural orientation in both the U.S. and Slovenia, the current study indicates that the maximizing – individualism connection spans national and cultural boundaries. In the U.S. sample, individualism mediated the relationship between decision styles and entrepreneurial intentions, suggesting that in individualistic cultures, such as the U.S., those who maximize their decision efforts and apply a more individualistic cultural perspective are especially inclined to pursue entrepreneurial opportunities. Similarly, individualism mediated the relationship between maximizing and social entrepreneurial intentions in the U.S. sample; suggesting that maximizers who are less individualistic may be more likely to start social enterprises over traditional ventures. Among the Slovenian sample, there was a marginally significant relationship between maximizing and entrepreneurial intentions and no relationship with social entrepreneurial intentions. These cross-cultural differences are discussed in relation to the economic and social conditions in each country.
... They regarded the former as more central and the latter as the way to achieve the best goal. These characteristics can lead to positive outcomes, as they have been found to have a positive relationship with in-role performance (Giacopelli et al., 2013) and more job offers, better jobs, and higher salaries after graduation (Iyengar et al., 2006). However, it can sometimes lead to negative emotional experiences such as regret and decision dissatisfaction (Chowdhury et al., 2009;Iyengar et al., 2006;Leach & Patall, 2013;Sparks et al., 2012;Schwartz et al., 2002;Shiner, 2015). ...
... These characteristics can lead to positive outcomes, as they have been found to have a positive relationship with in-role performance (Giacopelli et al., 2013) and more job offers, better jobs, and higher salaries after graduation (Iyengar et al., 2006). However, it can sometimes lead to negative emotional experiences such as regret and decision dissatisfaction (Chowdhury et al., 2009;Iyengar et al., 2006;Leach & Patall, 2013;Sparks et al., 2012;Schwartz et al., 2002;Shiner, 2015). ...
... With increased attention to the role of context, researchers have started to explore maximizing decision-making styles in specific domains. The concept of maximizing is no longer limited to the consumption domain alone, but gradually extends to romantic relationships (Mikkelson & Pauley, 2013;Mikkelson & Ray, 2020), friendship choices (Newman et al., 2018), career choices (Iyengar et al., 2006;Voss et al., 2019), academic achievement (Dahling & Thompson, 2013), military decisions (Shortland et al., 2020), moral issues (Goldsmith et al., 2018;Soltwisch, Brannon & Iyer, 2020), and other domains. To date, most studies still use general maximizing scales, with only a few having developed scales in specific domains (e.g., relational maximizing scale, RMS, Mikkelson & Pauley, 2013;Mikkelson & Ray, 2020;career maximizing scale, CMS, Voss et al., 2019). ...
The maximizing decision-making style describes the style of one who pursues maximum utility in decision-making, in contrast to the satisficing style, which describes the style of one who is satisfied with good enough options. The current research concentrates on the within-person variation in the maximizing decision-making style and provides an explanation through three studies. Study 1 (N = 530) developed a domain-specific maximizing scale and found that individuals had different maximizing tendencies across different domains. Studies 2 (N = 162) and 3 (N = 106) further explored this mechanism from the perspective of subjective task value through questionnaires and experiments. It was found that the within-person variation of maximization in different domains is driven by the difference in the individuals’ subjective task value in the corresponding domains. People tend to maximize more in the domains they value more. Our research contributes to a comprehensive understanding of maximization and provides a new perspective for the study of the maximizing decision-making style.
... As such, they are willing to invest more time and resources in their choices (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009) and seek and compare a wide range of options to attain their goal(s) (Cheek & Schwartz, 2016;Schwartz, 2004). While maximizers typically achieve better decision outcomes than satisficers (Iyengar et al., 2006), they are less satisfied with these outcomes (Schwartz et al., 2002). Indeed, maximizers often engage in counterfactual thinking (Leach & Patall, 2013;Schwartz et al., 2002); are more likely to ruminate over forgone options (Bruine de Bruin et al., 2016); experience a higher level of regret in relation to the decision made (Huang & Zeelenberg, 2012); and are more neurotic and less optimistic (Bruine de Bruin et al., 2016;Purvis et al., 2011;Schwartz et al., 2002). ...
... alternatives as possible to seek out the best one can lead to objectively better outcomes (Iyengar et al., 2006), and we show that this decision-making style can foster financial self-control, which, in turn, leads consumers to believe that achieving future goals will be more manageable (Rafieian & Sharif, 2023), thereby increasing one's perception of financial stability as well as the ability to maintain one's desired standards of living. ...
A maximizing decision‐making style is generally associated with lower individual well‐being. That is, even though maximizers invest more time and resources in finding the best option and achieve better outcomes than satisficers, they are still more dissatisfied with those outcomes. Contrary to this general consensus that maximizing is negatively associated with overall well‐being, across two studies we show that this decision‐making style is actually positively associated with individuals' financial well‐being. We find that measured dispositional maximizing is positively associated with financial well‐being, regardless of whether maximizing is operationalized as having high standards or the tendency to engage in alternative search (Study 1) and replicate this relationship with experimentally induced situational maximizing (Study 2). We identify financial self‐control (both measured as a trait and as the behavioral outcome of an experimental choice task) as a mediator of the aforementioned relationship. Our findings offer guidance to financial service providers and policymakers on how to improve consumers' financial well‐being, such as encouraging consumers to engage in a more meticulous search while evaluating financial products and services (e.g., home loans, retirement plans, investments) to identify the best possible option.
... Our first hypothesis is partially supported: participants with higher maximization scores showed longer action times than those with lower scores, but no differences were found in either perceived difficulty or confidence. The result regarding waiting time is consistent with the evidence that maximizers spend more time making the decision (Iyengar et al., 2006) and tend to postpone it in order to seek more information (Parker et al., 2007). However, it is noteworthy that in our study waiting constitutes a conscious decision rather than indecision because participants must select the option to wait (rather than just take a longer time to act as in prior research; . ...
... The fact that participants high in maximization did not show less confidence represents a difference with the literature, and evidence suggests that maximizers are more likely to be dissatisfied with their choices (Iyengar et al., 2006). It may be the case that, at least in certain decision scenarios, maximizers take longer in reaching the necessary threshold to decidebut the decision is eventually taken with the same confidence level. ...
This study tests the hypothesis that individual differences in trait maximization as well as in core personal values impact decision-making in dynamic and high-risk situations. 420 student-candidates at a Spanish police College (64.8 % male; 18 to 25 years) completed an online questionnaire that included maximization measures and core personal values. They then responded to three written vignettes that required dichotomous decisions (act vs. wait) under conditions of uncertainty. Multilevel modelling revealed that higher scores in maximization predicted a greater tendency to choose the action option later, but no differences were found in difficulty or perceived confidence. The tendency to wait was significantly higher among those who had wait-favouring core values; likewise, it was lower among those who had action-favouring core values. This study confirms the role of the trait maximization in the timeliness of decision-making, and illustrates the relationship between certain identified values, and decision making.
... Research has suggested that individuals who engage in maximizing choice-making strategies may make better decisions. For example, in one study, patall maximizers performed better in the job search process than satisfi cers, earning higher salaries in their resulting job (Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006). However, despite being more likely to make successful decisions and obtain desirable outcomes in the long run, maximizers may also be less satisfi ed with the choice process and the outcomes of choosing. ...
... However, despite being more likely to make successful decisions and obtain desirable outcomes in the long run, maximizers may also be less satisfi ed with the choice process and the outcomes of choosing. In this same study, maximizers reported feeling more ''pessimistic,'' ''stressed,'' ''tired,'' ''anxious,'' ''worried,'' ''overwhelmed,'' and ''depressed'' throughout the entire choice process and with their resulting jobs (Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006). Given this relation, it seems likely that one's preferred choicemaking strategy will impact the motivational benefi ts or detriments of choosing to the extent that the experience of choice will be less enjoyable, satisfying, or rewarding for maximizers compared to satisfi cers, particularly when an extensive set of options are provided. ...
Motivation is that which moves us to action. Human motivation is thus a complex issue, as people are moved to action by both their evolved natures and by myriad familial, social, and cultural influences. The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation aims to capture the current state-of-the-art in this fast developing field. The book includes theoretical overviews from some of the best-known thinkers in this area, including articles on Social Learning Theory, Control Theory, Self-determination Theory, Terror Management Theory, and the Promotion and Prevention perspective. Topical articles appear on phenomena such as ego-depletion, flow, curiosity, implicit motives, and personal interests. A section specifically highlights goal research, including chapters on goal regulation, achievement goals, the dynamics of choice, unconscious goals and process versus outcome focus. Still other articles focus on evolutionary and biological underpinnings of motivation, including articles on cardiovascular dynamics, mood, and neuropsychology. Finally, articles bring motivation down to earth in reviewing its impact within relationships, and in applied areas such as psychotherapy, work, education, sport, and physical activity.
... Por el contrario, maximizar -especialmente en sociedades de mercado, donde las posibilidades de elección son numerosas-podría terminar socavando la propia idea de realización a la base del comportamiento maximizador, produciendo un estado de insatisfacción sostenido (Schwartz et al., 2002). Ha sido reportado que los maximizadores tienden a experimentar bajos índices de felicidad, optimismo, autoestima y satisfacción vital, y altos niveles de depresión, perfeccionismo y pesar (Dar-Nimrod, Rawn, Lehman, & Schwartz, 2009;Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006;Moyano-Díaz, Cornejo, Carreño, & Muñoz, 2013;Schwartz, 2000;Schwartz et al., 2002). También, que quienes maximizan tienden a exhibir bajo afrontamiento conductual, alta dependencia de otros, y evitación al tomar decisiones (Bruine de Bruin, Parker, & Fischhoff, 2007). ...
... Otra hipótesis verificada corresponde a la relación positiva entre estilo maximizador y tendencia a experimentar pesar, resultado convergente con la evidencia reportada en la literatura nacional e internacional revisada (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Iyengar et al., 2006;Moyano-Díaz et al., 2013;Moyano-Díaz & Mendoza-Llanos, 2020;Schwartz, 2000;Schwartz et al., 2002). Así, aunque la relación entre maximización y pesar no es una característica propiamente identitaria de la población migrante, el nivel o la intensidad de la maximización en la población estudiada es, sin embargo, destacable. ...
La decisión de emigrar es compleja y tiene importantes consecuencias. Quienes emigran suelen ser los más educados y menos satisfechos con su situación en su país de origen, pero se desconocen sus estilos decisionales, si experimentan pesar al decidir y cómo eso se asocia con su bienestar y salud. Esto es analizado en 261 migrantes sudamericanos adultos, de ambos sexos, residentes en Talca (Chile), elegidos por disponibilidad, quienes respondieron instrumentos para medir estilos decisionales, pesar, bienestar y salud. Se observa una fuerte tendencia a la maximización, alto pesar, alto bienestar, y una autoevaluación de salud muy favorable. Se registran asociaciones positivas significativas de maximización con pesar (.374, p = .01), con bienestar (.161, p = .009) y con tres dominios de la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud (.174, p = .005; .169, p = .006; .212, p = .001). Se discuten los resultados y se sugieren nuevos estudios.
... They are also concerned about social comparisons (Schwartz et al., 2002;Weaver, Daniloski, Schwartz & Cottone, 2015). In addition, compared to satisficers, maximizers experience more negative emotions even though they have achieved better results (Iyengar, Wells & Schwartz, 2006). ...
... Another direction for further studies is to relate our findings to the maximization paradox that maximizers achieve better outcomes but feel worse than satisficers (Iyengar et al., 2006). In our research, maximizing is correlated with preferences for riskier (vs. ...
Maximizing is characterized by aspirations for the highest standards. The current study explored the relationship between maximizing and risk-taking tendencies in decisions subject to risk. We propose that people first refer to expectation (i.e., the overall utility expected from an alternative) when taking risky decisions. If expectation clearly identifies the best option, maximizing will not be correlated with risk-taking tendencies. If not, people refer to maximizing to reach a decision. Maximizing will be positively associated with risk-taking tendencies because the “upper bound” of risky options helps achieve the goal of seeking the best. Four studies showed that risk-taking tendencies increased with maximizing when the options had similar expectations (Studies 1 to 3). When expectations between options were clearly different (vs. similar), the positive relationship between maximizing and risk-taking tendencies was reduced (Study 4). These findings provide an insight into how maximizing is related to risk seeking.
... Individuals with activated maximizing mindsets have high standards for their decisions; therefore, they tend to consider as many options as possible and strive to make the best choice (Schwartz et al., 2002). Research also points out that maximizers generally attain a superior objective outcome of the decision task versus others because they are willing to invest more time and mental resources into a search task to search longer, deeper, and for more options (Iyengar et al., 2006). A maximizing mindset also drives individuals to work harder, encourages them to search more deeply, and ultimately enhances their task performance (Ma & Roese, 2014). ...
... The research reported here supports this notion by finding that a maximizer mindset is conducive to large assortments which provide an opportunity to touch. Such individuals generally work harder, search more deeply, explore more features, and compare more options to attain better choice outcomes (Iyengar & Lepper, 2000;Iyengar et al., 2006;Ma & Roese, 2014). As a result, retailers should consider consumer mindset in store design by offering larger assortments in select product categories in combination with instore interactive kiosks to cater to those customers who may not desire the opportunity to touch. ...
Touch is a powerful means to explore one's environment and a critical sensory modality for information gathering. Previous research has shown the positive effects of product touch on key outcomes such as perceived product ownership and choice confidence, yet only in the context of consumers examining a solitary product or a small choice set. The current research draws on the choice overload hypothesis to examine whether a large choice set size attenuates the positive effects of touch. Our findings suggest that product touch results in more positive outcomes when choice sets are small (vs. large), with perceived choice difficulty mediating this effect (Experiment 1). The interactive effect of choice set size and touch is diminished in situations where touch conveys limited additional product information (Experiment 2). Further, we find that touching a large choice set can be advantageous among certain consumers, as those with a maximizing mindset respond more favorably to a large choice set when they can touch the items versus not (Experiment 3). We discuss research implications for the literatures on product touch, choice overload, and consumer mindsets, and practical implications for marketers as pertaining to assortment management, message framing, and online retail shopping environments.
... Por el contrario, maximizar -especialmente en sociedades de mercado, donde las posibilidades de elección son numerosas-podría terminar socavando la propia idea de realización a la base del comportamiento maximizador, produciendo un estado de insatisfacción sostenido (Schwartz et al., 2002). Ha sido reportado que los maximizadores tienden a experimentar bajos índices de felicidad, optimismo, autoestima y satisfacción vital, y altos niveles de depresión, perfeccionismo y pesar (Dar-Nimrod, Rawn, Lehman, & Schwartz, 2009;Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006;Moyano-Díaz, Cornejo, Carreño, & Muñoz, 2013;Schwartz, 2000;Schwartz et al., 2002). También, que quienes maximizan tienden a exhibir bajo afrontamiento conductual, alta dependencia de otros, y evitación al tomar decisiones (Bruine de Bruin, Parker, & Fischhoff, 2007). ...
... Otra hipótesis verificada corresponde a la relación positiva entre estilo maximizador y tendencia a experimentar pesar, resultado convergente con la evidencia reportada en la literatura nacional e internacional revisada (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Iyengar et al., 2006;Moyano-Díaz et al., 2013;Moyano-Díaz & Mendoza-Llanos, 2020;Schwartz, 2000;Schwartz et al., 2002). Así, aunque la relación entre maximización y pesar no es una característica propiamente identitaria de la población migrante, el nivel o la intensidad de la maximización en la población estudiada es, sin embargo, destacable. ...
La decisión de emigrar es compleja y tiene importantes consecuencias. Quienes emigran suelen ser los más educados y menos satisfechos con su situación en su país de origen, pero se desconocen sus estilos decisionales, si experimentan pesar al decidir y cómo eso se asocia con su bienestar y salud. Esto es analizado en 261 migrantes sudamericanos adultos, de ambos sexos, residentes en Talca (Chile), elegidos por disponibilidad, quienes respondieron instrumentos para medir estilos decisionales, pesar, bienestar y salud. Se observa una fuerte tendencia a la maximización, alto pesar, alto bienestar, y una autoevaluación de salud muy favorable. Se registran asociaciones positivas significativas de maximización con pesar (.374, p = .01), con bienestar (.161, p = .009) y con tres dominios de la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud (.174, p = .005; .169, p = .006; .212, p = .001). Se discuten los resultados y se sugieren nuevos estudios. [The decision to emigrate is complex and has important consequences. Those who emigrate are usually the most educated and least satisfied with their situation in their country of origin. However, their decision-making styles, whether they experience regret when deciding, and how is this associated with their well-being and health, are unknown. This is analyzed in 261 adult South American migrants, mostly Venezuelans, of both sexes, residing in Talca(Chile), chosen by availability, who answered instruments to measure decisional styles, regret, well-being, and health. A strong tendency to maximization, high regret, high well-being and a very favorable health self-evaluation are observed. There are also significant, positive associations of maximization with regret (.374, p = .01), with well-being (.161, p = .009)and with three domains of health-related quality of life(.174, p = .005; .169, p = .006; .212, p = .001). The results are discussed, and new studies are suggested].
... Maximizing refers to a behavioral tendency of striving for the most optimal choice, whereas satisficing (i.e., satisfy and suffice) refers to a behavioral tendency of choosing and being satisfied with a "good enough" option [18,19]. A typical maximizer invests additional time and explores a broader array of options in order to arrive at the best decision [20][21][22], generally leading to objectively better decision outcomes compared to satisficers [23]. ...
The previous literature has provided mixed findings regarding whether consumers appreciate or are opposed to algorithms. The primary goal of this paper is to address these inconsistencies by identifying the maximizing tendency as a critical moderating variable. In Study 1, it was found that maximizers, individuals who strive for the best possible outcomes, exhibit greater reactance toward algorithm-recommended choices than satisficers, those who are satisfied with a good-enough option. This increased reactance also resulted in decreased algorithm adoption intention. Study 2 replicated and extended the findings from Study 1 by identifying the moderating role of choice goals. Maximizers are more likely to experience reactance to algorithm-recommended options when the act of choosing itself is intrinsically motivating and meaningful (i.e., autotelic choices) compared to when the decision is merely a means to an end (i.e., instrumental choices). The results of this research contribute to a nuanced understanding of how consumers with different decision-making styles navigate the landscape of choice in the digital age. Furthermore, it offers practical insights for firms that utilize algorithmic recommendations in their businesses.
... The ever-expanding consumer society has made optimal choices imperative, since choosing less than the best out of an increasing number of options is not justifiable (Schwartz, 2000). Studies from different domains, such as purchasing behavior and job searches, show that when people think they have not made the best choice, they feel dissatisfaction, regret, and a sense of having missed out on a good opportunity (Iyengar and Lepper, 2000;Iyengar et al., 2006), and therefore find maximizing not only desirable but also necessary. One under-investigated question, however, is whether maximizing is associated with persistent cultural and market conditions. ...
The present study aims to understand rural-urban differences in India as determined by market regimes, as well as by cultural and prosperity factors. The study focuses on people's maximizing as opposed to satisficing decision preferences. Maximizing stands for people's preference to continuously strive for better options, whereas satisficing means choosing a ‘good enough’ option. It was predicted that corporate employees in an urban metropolitan region would maximize more than the rural farmers due to socio-cultural and economic factors being more market-conducive in the urban region. Individualism-collectivism, achievement motivation, neoliberalism, as well as various classical socioeconomic indicators were taken into account as cultural and economic factors. The study was conducted utilizing field surveys in two Hindi-speaking rural and urban regions in Northern India by using established scales translated to Hindi. Middle-income farmers were recruited in the rural region, while corporate employees were recruited in the urban region. Overall, data were collected for 417 participants in both regions (rural, n = 195/urban, n = 222). Results show that urban participants maximize significantly more than the rural participants. This difference was fully mediated by stronger neoliberal beliefs in the urban region. Higher maximizing tendencies in the metropolitan region can be attributed to more competitive neoliberal–capitalist–market orientation rooted in urban rather than rural India. The findings contribute to the understanding of ecological differences in terms of culture and economy and their effects on people's decision making, especially in low and middle-income countries.
... Generally, individuals tend to have a higher level of commitment when they receive positive feedback [46]. Moreover, individuals who use a maximizing strategy rely more on information from external sources that are trustworthy, such as experts or family members [47]. As mentioned earlier, material purchases often lead to a higher level of concern about making the right choice [8]. ...
In the literature on material and experiential purchases, it has consistently been demonstrated that the relationship between the consumer’s purchase type and purchase-related happiness favors experiential purchases. This research aims to extend the literature by examining how experiential purchases lead to greater purchase-related happiness due to the individual’s processing of external information, especially in the online review context. An experiment was conducted to show that experiential purchases lead to greater commitment to decisions and a higher relative reliance on positive reviews (as opposed to negative reviews) than material purchases. The results of a serial mediation test indicate that such differences lead to greater purchase-related happiness. Based on these findings, we can deepen our understanding of the relationship between purchase type and purchase-related happiness from the perspective of information processing.
... At the individual level, extremism(characterized by a narrow focus on one need at the expenseof others) could promote ill-being, maladaptation, depression, faster burnout, etc. (Iyengar et al., 2006;Schwartz et al., 2002;Vallerand & Paquette, 2021).On the other hand, it may result in intense statesof elation and happinessin relation to outstanding achievements,extraordinary performance, andexceptionality (see Iyengar etal., 2006). Although many extremebehaviors are studied for their positive or negative outcomes,our theoretical approachandpreliminary findings suggestthatit may bemorebeneficial if future researchcontinues toexploretheseideas,emphasizes the commonalities across behaviors associatedwith both positive and negative outcomes,andunderstandsthefunction ofextremismfor theindividual andthe society. ...
In 2002, a group of investigators joined forces to propose a new conceptual paradigm based on a cognitive approach to motivation. This approach, referred to as goal systems theory, offered a broad perspective on behavioral phenomena and inspired research programs in diverse domains of psychological science. The present volume collects the rich body of insights and findings that the goal systemic approach has yielded over the last two decades. These are contained in a set of chapters by leading researchers from some of the world’s most renowned universities who pushed the envelopes of their respective fields and discovered new psychological phenomena and relationships through applications of the goal systemic framework.
... From the perspective of working memory, choosing from a choice set is a process of working memory resource consumption (Holland et al., 1986;Payne et al., 1993). A central argument in the psychology literature regarding the number of items in the choice set suggests that, in a larger choice set, individuals have to process more information and feel exhausted due to more choice options; thus, making a choice from a larger choice set consumes more mental resources (Chernev, 2003;Fasolo et al., 2009;Iyengar et al., 2006). Physiological evidence, including eye movement saccades and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signal amplitudes in visual and sensorimotor areas, indicates higher processing costs for choosing from a larger choice set (Reutskaja et al., 2018). ...
Previous research has concluded that music tempo either increases the total amount of momentary mental resources to benefit decision-making or compulsively employs working memory and impairs decision-making. Two experiments, including a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment and a laboratory experiment, converged on the conclusion that the role of music tempo when making a decision varies with the size of choice set. At the neural level, under a larger choice set, slower music resulted in stronger activation in the superior frontal gyrus (SFG), which has stronger neural coactivation with the hippocampus. In contrast, under the smaller choice set, faster music resulted in stronger activation in the middle frontal gyrus (MFG), which has stronger neural coactivation with the SFG, paracingulate gyrus (PCG), and lateral occipital cortex (LOC). Behaviorally, participants had more positive internal states under slower music than under faster music in a larger choice set. In comparison, faster music resulted in more positive internal states in a smaller choice set. This study is among the first to examine the joint effect of music tempo and choice set size by offering neural imaging evidence with fMRI techniques.
... It distinguishes between two types of individuals: maximisers and satisficers. Decision-making styles have different effects on the individual's decision processes and outcomes (Iyengar et al., 2006). Compared to satisficers, maximisers invest more time and effort in gathering information before making a decision (Mao, 2016), conduct more active information searches, and use information to reach an optimum outcome (Kim, 2022). ...
... Although the authors did not find any strict causality for a maximizing strategy producing significantly lower satisfaction with life than satisficing, they argue that a maximizing decision strategy might constantly look for better objective outcomes. In modern recommender systems, for example, prior work [30] showed that a satisficing strategy leads to quicker selections and increased content viewing time. In contrast, subjects using a maximizing strategy spent significantly more time on selection activities. ...
Human-in-the-loop optimization utilizes human expertise to guide machine optimizers iteratively and search for an optimal solution in a solution space. While prior empirical studies mainly investigated novices, we analyzed the impact of the levels of expertise on the outcome quality and corresponding subjective satisfaction. We conducted a study (N=60) in text, photo, and 3D mesh optimization contexts. We found that novices can achieve an expert level of quality performance, but participants with higher expertise led to more optimization iteration with more explicit preference while keeping satisfaction low. In contrast, novices were more easily satisfied and terminated faster. Therefore, we identified that experts seek more diverse outcomes while the machine reaches optimal results, and the observed behavior can be used as a performance indicator for human-in-the-loop system designers to improve underlying models. We inform future research to be cautious about the impact of user expertise when designing human-in-the-loop systems.
... Em alguns casos, por exemplo, indivíduos estão vinculados a ocupações firmemente integradas a sua vida, o que torna difícil ou impossível uma transição, enquanto outros não possuem habilidades ou oportunidades necessárias para ter sucesso em seus chamados (Twenge, 2006). Ainda, outros indivíduos podem desistir do seu chamado em troca de empregos menos satisfatórios, porém financeiramente recompensadores (Iyengar, R. E. Wells, & Schwartz, 2006). ...
Resumo Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo analisar a existência de relações positivas, negativas, diretas e indiretas (via satisfação no trabalho e autoeficácia) entre perceber um chamado e a intenção de deixar um emprego, assim como o papel moderador da percepção de mobilidade de emprego. Utilizou-se uma abordagem quantitativa, descritiva, com corte transversal e coleta de dados primários junto a 230 funcionários. Para analisar os dados, adotou-se a modelagem de equações estruturais. Os resultados apontam que há um efeito direto e negativo entre perceber um chamado e intenção de deixar o emprego, bem como entre satisfação no trabalho e a intenção de deixar o emprego. Identificou-se o efeito direto e positivo entre perceber um chamado e satisfação no trabalho e entre perceber um chamado e a autoeficácia. A satisfação no trabalho medeia parcialmente a relação entre perceber um chamado e a intenção de deixar o emprego. Não há efeito significativo entre autoeficácia e a intenção de deixar o emprego na amostra analisada. O efeito moderador da mobilidade de emprego nas relações entre satisfação do trabalho e autoeficácia com intenção de deixar o emprego não foram significativas.
... It distinguishes between two types of individuals: maximisers and satisficers. Decision-making styles have different effects on the individual's decision processes and outcomes (Iyengar et al., 2006). Compared to satisficers, maximisers invest more time and effort in gathering information before making a decision (Mao, 2016), conduct more active information searches, and use information to reach an optimum outcome (Kim, 2022). ...
... It distinguishes between two types of individuals: maximisers and satisficers. Decision-making styles have different effects on the individual's decision processes and outcomes (Iyengar et al., 2006). Compared to satisficers, maximisers invest more time and effort in gathering information before making a decision (Mao, 2016), conduct more active information searches, and use information to reach an optimum outcome (Kim, 2022). ...
... better decision outcomes (e.g., Cheek & Ward, 2019;Dar-Nimrod, Rawn, Lehman & Schwartz, 2009;Iyengar, Wells & Schwartz, 2006;Misuraca & Teuscher, 2013;Polman, 2010;Schwartz et al., 2002). Many researchers have also suggested that maximizing is related to a broad range of potentially maladaptive traits and tendencies, such as perfectionism, neuroticism, unhappiness, depression, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and suicidality (e.g., Bruine de Bruin, Dombrovski, Parker & Szanto, 2016;Chang et al., 2011;Schepman, Weyandt, Schlect & Swentosky, 2012;Schwartz et al., 2002). ...
For two decades, researchers have investigated the correlates and consequences of individual differences in maximizing , the tendency to pursue the goal of making the best possible choice by extensively seeking out and comparing alternatives. In this time, many different conceptualizations of maximizing have been proposed, including several that incorporate a construct called “decision difficulty.” We propose that including decision difficulty in measures of maximizing is problematic because the tendency to experience difficulty when making decisions is a separate individual difference construct already studied independently of maximizing — namely, indecisiveness . Across two studies (total N = 639), we find that scales measuring decision difficulty and indecisiveness are strongly correlated ( r ’s ≥ .85), load on the same component in a principal component analysis, and show a very similar pattern of correlations with related variables. Moreover, decision difficulty and indecisiveness scales both show a divergent pattern of correlations when compared to measures of maximizing. We argue that decision difficulty scales are best interpreted as tapping the same underlying tendency as indecisiveness scales, and conclude that the tendency to experience difficulty in decision making is best conceptualized not as a component of maximizing, but rather a cause or consequence of it.
... It is also a viewpoint that is important to take into account in the next part as it considers the associations of the decision-making styles with another subjectively assessed decision outcome -mental health. Indeed, when turning to maximization as another decision-making style, people with a higher score have better objective outcomes (higher starting salary after university), but are less satisfied with them [47]. This also highlights the subjectivity of our evaluations of decision outcomes. ...
... It will be necessary to shift from technology to operations, and people and businesses will probably have to use both traditional and cloud platforms for a considerable time. However, one thing is sure: the cloud is where the future will be [67][68][69][70][71]. ...
The business has a unique function in sustainable economic growth since it not only helps realize creative potential but also generates dispersed employment opportunities and additional funding for budgets at various levels. The use of various digital technologies within a business model that enables a company to have a variety of value-producing opportunities within the company is referred to as digitalization. Additionally, the field of management accounting has seen a significant degree of change with the aid of digitalization, which has improved it significantly. Furthermore, digitalization can have an impact on an organization's business models, and it enhances management accounting in a company setting. According to Business Trends in the Digital Era, trends drive transformations. Cities with greater competitiveness will transition from industrial centers to industry and innovation hubs, and businesses with greater competitiveness will transition from production to product and innovation centers. The secret to success is innovation! The current trend in development is innovation-driven. This article summarizes all the new trends of business in this digital era.
... Hence, avoiding choice overload is very difficult and consumers will inevitably evaluate multiple alternatives along the way. Iyengar et al. (2006) stressed that extra effort is required to sift through all options and it is impossible to make a thorough comparison. This inevitably leads to an overload of the consumer's cognitive resources. ...
The antecedents and consequences of choice overload, or overchoice, have been largely investigated. However, the aspect of comprehensively evaluating a large assortment of options and mitigating subsequent choice overload is absent. By adopting a growth mindset and comprehensively evaluating alternatives , it is possible to combat the menace known as overchoice. This chapter conceptualises a unique model that examines choice overload mitigation from a deeper psychological lens. Moreover, it also adds a new dimension to the concept by integrating the aspect of rigorous choice evaluation. Overall, future research propositions have been made that will enable researchers to validate the novel model. Implications of validating said model include strengthening the field of choice overload by offering comprehensive mitigation strategies.
... Chowdhury et al. [12] found that maximizers tend to change their original choices when possible. Maximizers also tend to be dissatisfied with their choices, as other studies have found [13]. Compared with satisficers, maximizers intend to pursue optimal results, leading to more negative emotions and worse experiences [14]. ...
We could view the phenomenon of fear of missing out (FoMO) as a dilemma of too many choices about social media. Although there are already various studies on FoMO, there is still a lack of studies on what personality traits concerning media use decisions will contribute to FoMO or how FoMO mediates these personality traits and people’s social media use behavior, and, thus, corresponding negative emotions. This study explored the causes of FoMO in a FoMO moderated mediation model using maximizing tendency before the choice was made, social comparison orientation when making choices, and regrets tendency after the choice was made. The results showed that (1) there is a non-significant influence between maximizing tendency and FoMO, (2) regret tendency is a positive influence on FoMO, (3) social comparison orientation is a positive influence on FoMO, (4) FoMO is a positive influence on the compulsive use of social media and surveillance use of social media, (5) FoMO exhibited a full mediating effect on the relationship between regret tendency and social media surveillance use, (6) FoMO exhibited a full mediating effect on the relationship between social comparison orientation and social media compulsive use.
... Research has shown that being a maximizer correlates with higher levels of regret and dissatisfaction compared to being a 'satisficer,' and that maximizers are less happy, less optimistic, and more depressed than satisficers. 32,33 The maximization scale ranges from 7 to 42, with items anchored by 1 (completely disagree) to 7 (completely agree), and 42 being the highest maximization score. ...
Introduction: Despite its prominence in psychology, little is known about how personality traits play a role in the stress experiences of surrogate decision-makers. We tested the hypothesis that intrinsic traits (personality and decision-making styles) would be related to surrogates’ stress in order to learn whether screening or tailoring interventions based on personality traits could help support surrogate decision-makers. Methods: This pre-specified secondary analysis evaluated data from an interventional study with dyads of patients with advanced chronic illness and their spokespersons. Measures included stress after decision-making or patient death (Impact of Events-Revised), personality (Big Five Index; BFI) and decision-making style (maximization and regret scales). Multivariate linear regressions explored the impact of personality on the stress experience; linear regressions independently modeled the impact of maximization and regret on the stress experience. Results: Of 38 spokespersons, 89.5% were women, 97.4% non-Hispanic, and 29.0% had a college degree or higher. In univariate analyses, total stress was correlated with neuroticism (r = .56, P < .01), higher scores on the regret (r = .55, P < .01) and maximization (r = .48, P < .05). In adjusted models, BFI was significantly associated with total stress (R ² = 27.08, P = .02). However, only neuroticism was independently associated with total stress. Conclusions: Personality traits, particularly neuroticism, and decision-making styles predicted heightened stress in spokespersons of patients with advanced chronic illness. If ACP interventions are intended to reduce spokesperson stress, personality and decision-making style scales may help identify spokespersons most likely to benefit from ACP interventions.
... They show that search for information is in fact influenced by the number of available options, but the relationship is moderated by the maximizing tendency (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2009;Schwartz, 2004). The reason is that more choice increases the likelihood of finding the best available option (Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006). In this sense, maximizing is the tendency to search for the best available option. ...
... Similarly, the default option exerts a powerful effect on high-stakes decisions such as organ donation ( Johnson & Goldstein, 2003) and saving for retirement (Madrian & Shea, 2001). More generally, a bias toward the status quo reflects satisficing, an adaptive decision-making strategy that accounts for the constraints of cognitive limitations (Iyengar et al., 2006;Simon, 1956). ...
New technology invariably provokes concerns over potential societal impacts. Even as risks often fail to materialize, the fear continues. The current research explored the psychological underpinnings of this pattern. Across four studies ( N = 2,454 adults recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk), we found evidence for the role of status quo thinking in evaluating technology. In Study 1, we experimentally manipulated the reported age of unfamiliar technology and found that people evaluate it more favorably when it is described as originating before (vs. after) their birth. In Studies 2 through 4, participants’ age at the time of invention strongly predicts attitudes toward a wide range of real-world technologies. Finally, we found that individual differences in status-quo-based decision-making moderated evaluations of technology. These studies provide insight into how people respond to the rapidly changing technological landscape.
Scant research has addressed how maximizing, or the tendency to seek the ‘best’ alternative and not settle (Schwartz et al., 2002; Simon, 1955), relates to adolescents’ vocational behavior. In this exploratory study, high school seniors completed measures of maximizing, choice/commitment anxiety, career decidedness, and career exploration time. Seniors also expressed why they considered themselves maximizers or not and described reasons behind feelings of anxiety about career selection. Results showed that adolescents high in maximizing tendency also had heightened choice/commitment anxiety, higher decidedness, and had spent less time exploring careers. Adolescents explained reasons behind maximizing tendencies, such as finding stable careers and challenging themselves. They also provided reasons behind their career choice anxiety, including fear of failure or regret, inadequate work environments, and lack of opportunities. Overall, these findings clarify cognitive and emotional aspects influencing career decision-making in adolescents. Career counseling services can use this information to anticipate concerns and develop prevention programs.
Consumers of electricity increasingly participate in demand-side management programs aimed at shifting the demand for electricity from peak hours to non-peak hours. At present, energy corporations primarily nudge such participants toward energy reduction by providing them with monetary incentives. Drawing on the psychological literature on social values for cooperation, we will argue that it is important to also consider the use of incentives tapping prosociality. Research shows that people with a prosocial value orientation tend to exhibit an intrinsic motivation to positively contribute to the maintenance of collective goods and resources. Their behavioral response is often characterized by an alleviated willingness to make common cause. Presenting electricity as a common-pool resource—shared by all but to be used with moderation by the individual—may suffice to establish sustained peak-shaving behavior among the more prosocial consumers of electricity. In this book chapter, first, the research on social value orientation and its measurement will be presented. Second, an overview will be provided of the most relevant situational factors that influence social value orientation. Finally, recommendations will be formulated on how to include social values for cooperation in the Power Trading Agent Competition.
Online alışveriş sepetini terk etme davranışı, sanal alışveriş aktiviteleri esnasında tüketicinin ürün veya ürünleri alışveriş sepetine eklemesi, fakat sonunda ödeme gerçekleştirmeden ve satın alma yapmadan sepeti terk etmesi olgusudur. Bu olgunun anlaşılması noktasında literatürde halen sınırlılık bulunması çeşitli araştırma sorularına ilham vermektedir. Bu çalışmada online alışveriş sepetini terk etme davranışı S-O-R paradigmasında ele alınarak tüketicinin zihinsel süreci içerisinde oluşumu çerçevelendirilmiştir. Bu kapsamda tüketicinin online alışverişler esnasında karşı karşıya olabileceği seçim fazlalığı (seçim paradoksu) ve bu bağlamda yaşayabileceği duygusal kararsızlıkla beraber ödeme aşamasında tereddüt ortaya çıkabileceği, online alışveriş sepetini terk etme davranışının meydana gelmesinde etkili olabileceği varsayımından yola çıkılmıştır. Bu çerçevede seçim paradoksu, duygusal kararsızlık, ödeme anında tereddüt ve sanal alışveriş sepetini terk etme davranışı arasındaki ilişkilerin istatistiksel olarak belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaca yönelik olarak bir nicel araştırma kapsamında yürütülen anket uygulaması ile kolayda örnekleme yönteminde 400 tüketiciden veri elde edilmiştir. Veriler SPSS ve AMOS yazılımlarında analiz edilmiştir. Yapısal eşitlik modellemesi sonucunda ortaya çıkan bulgular, seçim paradoksu, duygusal kararsızlık, ödeme anında tereddüt ve sanal alışveriş sepetini terk etme davranışı arasında önemli ölçüde pozitif doğrusal ilişkiler olduğunu göstermiştir.
The phenomenon of abandoning the online shopping cart
refers to the behavior of consumers adding products to
their virtual shopping carts during the online shopping
activities but ultimately leaving the cart without
completing the purchase and payment. However, the
limited research in the literature regarding this
phenomenon inspires various research questions. In this
study, the abandonment of the online shopping cart
behavior is framed within the S-O-R paradigm, focusing
on the consumer's mental process. Within this context,
it is assumed that the choice overload consumers may face
during online shopping, coupled with emotional
ambivalence, and hesitation at the checkout stage, could
lead to uncertainty during the payment process, which in
turn might contribute to the online shopping cart
abandonment. To address this, the relationships among
choice overload, emotional ambivalence, hesitation at
check-out, and online shopping cart abandonment are
statistically examined. A quantitative research approach
was adopted, and data were obtained through a survey
administered to 400 consumers using convenience
sampling. The data were analyzed using SPSS and
AMOS software. The findings from the structural
equation modeling revealed significant positive linear
relationships between choice overload, emotional
ambivalence, hesitation at check-out, and online
shopping cart abandonment
Abstract
We draw on bounded rationality theory to examine the drivers of omnichannel journey satisfaction. By examining the omnichannel journey as a holistic experience (as opposed to a sequence of individual channel decisions), our research demonstrates that maximisation as a goal can increase shoppers' satisfaction with the omnichannel journey. Findings of three studies lend support to the notion that shopping mindsets should not be taken exclusively as an individual trait, but also as a mindset state which can be situationally activated within the omnichannel setup. We show that omnichannel shoppers should be encouraged to maximise their decision outcomes and to embrace the superior enjoyment and achievements that the omnichannel experience has to offer. In contrast to past research, we recommend that looking back into individuals' specific channel choices, channel use and shopping journey's configuration should be discouraged. We discuss theoretical and practical implications for researchers and retailers alike.
While much of the previous research has examined the influence of consumers' social and economic states on conspicuous consumption, little attention has been paid to the potential role that consumers' decision‐making tendency plays. This study investigates whether, how, and when maximizing, as a type of decision‐making tendency (both dispositional and situationally primed), influences subsequent decisions regarding conspicuous consumption. Four studies were conducted, revealing that maximizing consumers are more likely to engage in conspicuous consumption than non‐maximizing consumers (Studies 1 and 2). The need for status serves as the underlying mechanism behind this behavior (Study 3). In addition, the observed effect holds only when the situation is public but disappears when it is private (Study 4). As one of the first investigations into the effect that maximizing has on a type of consumption, these findings offer valuable contributions to both theory and practice.
Personality traits are closely correlated with maximization tendency. However, few studies have characterized the link between the subdimensions of perfectionism and maximization tendency. Accordingly, no empirical literature has examined the mechanisms between them. This study examines the relationship between perfectionism and maximization tendency and how they are linked. Participants ( N = 450) were invited to describe their maximization tendency, achievement motivation, perfectionism, and demographic variables. The results showed that the two dimensions of perfectionism are positively correlated with the three dimensions of maximization tendency. The motive to achieve success (MAS) and the motive to avoid failure (MAF) could mediate the link between the dimensions of perfectionism and the dimensions of maximization tendency. Further analyses showed that MAS mediates the relationships between perfectionism and a high standard of maximization tendency, while MAF mediates the relationship between perfectionism and the decision difficulty of maximization tendency. MAS and MAF simultaneously mediate the relationship between perfectionism and alternative search. These findings suggest that decision difficulty and the other two dimensions of maximization differ in terms of their relationship with achievement motivation.
Purpose
This study shows the influence of consumers' goal and strategy of maximization on the process behind their behavioral response to price.
Design/methodology/approach
Data was collected through a 2×2 experimental design involving 314 respondents and analyzed using PLS-SEM.
Findings
The results show that when buyers maximize, their transaction value and acquisition value perceptions predict their behavioral response to deals and discounts. Further, these buyers do not consider sales price information to form their internal reference price. On the other hand, when buyers satisfice, their transaction value perceptions predict the behavioral responses to price deals, and the relationship between transaction value and the behavioral response is not mediated by acquisition value. Further, such buyers consider sales price to form their internal reference price.
Originality/value
The theory of purchase value assumes that consumers seek to maximize their value. Our work relaxes this assumption to show how value maximizers (and satisficers) differ in the process of value formation and their responses to price promotions.
Although impulse buying could temporarily increase sales, it is essential to explore how to curb impulse buying because impulse buying leads to negative consequences for both consumers and enterprises in the long run. Previous research investigated the negative correlation between impulse buying and situational factors or personal traits. However, these factors were complicated for marketers or consumers to manipulate, so the research gap was that a lack of research focused on how to curb impulse buying through external intervention. This study aimed to find an effective external intervention to curb impulse buying and thus fill the blanket. This study introduced maximising mindset, a mindset that could be manipulated externally and used effectively by consumers and marketers to curb impulse buying. Data were collected online from 1106 participants in China through the research platform Sojump. The results demonstrated that maximising mindset negatively correlated with impulse buying, and future‐oriented thinking played a role as a mediator. This study contained theoretical for future research on impulse buying and practical value in helping consumers achieve better decisions and helping companies achieve long‐term growth.
Purpose-Adolescence is the life phase between childhood and adulthood (aging from 10 to 19, as defined by the World Health Organisation). It is a stage of Identity Crisis; pushed back by undefined status, increased pressures, irrational decisions, and the search for self. 'Making a choice' is what exhibits one's freedom and autonomy. It is axiomatic that a choice is good, but too many choices may confuse at times. Such a paralytic situation drowns the adolescents' thoughts to indecisiveness and experience a misery-induced-tyranny. Hence, this paper discusses on how adolescents take decisions out of informed choices from various life aspects; reasons for their decision paralysis and defence mechanisms they adopt to rationalise their decisions. The study highlights decision-making styles among adolescents as 'Maximisers' and 'Satisficers' (Simon, 1956). Maximisers tend to be perfectionists, describing moreover an uncompromised and distressed approach to life. Satisficers opt for best possible choice, imparting happiness within themselves with what they opt. Design/ Methodology-Primary data was collected based on the standardised 'Maximisation Scale', with thirteen items propounded by Barry Schwartz in 2002 along with borrowed concepts from the 'Desirability of Control Scale' derived from the studies of Burger, J. M., & Cooper, H. M. (1979). The new scale was developed and validated based on thirty-nine statements under three factors, namely High Standards, Alternative Search and Decision Difficulty measured on the five-point rating Likert scale. The sample size estimated for the study was 232 respondents amongst adolescents from the state of Kerala, India. Lottery method of sampling was adopted to collect samples from the total universe of adolescents in Kerala. Data was grouped classifying them based on gender-Male, Female and Transgenders. Findings-As per most of the adolescence respondents tends to be 'maximisers' as the decision scores in these cases ranged from 71 to 117. Based on the objectives we found that adolescents take decisions out of informed choices from various life aspects. The analysis of data has been hypothesised and proved that their decision style is influenced by their demographical characteristics. It was also discovered that there is direct correlation between high design factors, alternative searches, and decision difficulty factors of adolescents. Practical Implications: This paper provides practical insights on how adolescents take up decisions as 'maximisers' or 'satisficers' and how this stand leads them facing decision paralysis due to overchoice problem. Originality/ Value-The paper is the first of its kind not ever published elsewhere and is original in nature.
This research aimed to analyze the existence of positive, negative, direct, and indirect relationships (via job satisfaction and self-efficacy) between perceiving a calling and turnover intention, as well as the moderating role of perceived mobility. We used a quantitative approach and data collection from 230 employees. The analysis was conducted using structural equation modeling. The results show a direct and negative effect between perceiving a calling and turnover intention, and between job satisfaction and turnover intention. We identified a direct and positive effect between perceiving a calling and job satisfaction and between perceiving a calling and self-efficacy. Job satisfaction partially mediates the relationship between perceiving a calling and turnover intention. There is no significant effect between self-efficacy and turnover intention in the analyzed sample. The moderating effect of perceived mobility on the relationship between job satisfaction and self-efficacy with turnover intention was not significant.
The majority of donations are dedicated to helping human recipients. Building on prior literature that demonstrates the role of downward social comparisons between donors and donation recipients in elevating willingness to help those in need, we propose that a maximizing mindset increases such downward social comparisons, which in turn promote donations to human recipients. A set of seven studies, including online and field experiments and a secondary dataset, provides convergent support for the effect of the maximizing mindset (whether measured as an inherent individual difference or activated as a temporary mindset) on donations and the mediating role of downward social comparisons. This research enriches the understanding of donations to human recipients by showing that donations can be enhanced by a maximizing mindset. Our findings offer important insights to donation-raising agencies. Specifically, activating the maximizing mindset among prospective donors—by embedding certain words in donation appeals or encouraging donors to think about their best choices in everyday life—could benefit charities and social-cause platforms in their efforts to raise donations to support the needy.
Purpose
Previous studies showed that the unconscious-intuitive strategy resulted in a better choice for it is more predictive of actual interest. This benefit may be influenced by occupational engagement, for the dual process of career decisions takes it as a tool for multidevelopment and optimal adjustment. Thus, we replicated (and extended) the study of Motl et al. (2018) through two experiments to identify the role of three pre-decisional strategies and then explore the combined effects of occupational engagement and these strategies. The purpose of this paper is to address these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors replicated (and extended) the study of Motl et al. (2018) through two experiments. First, both studies adopted generalized linear mixed-effects models for statistical analyses to distinguish random and fixed effects. Second, Study 2 used a computer-based process-tracing program called “Mouselab” to explore the effect of the pre-decisional strategy self-generated on participants' interest appraisals over time.
Findings
Study 1 found that engagement helped promote participants' interest experience when decisions as usual and the intuitive strategy did not produce optimal choices. Further, people with more prior knowledge about situations no longer achieved as many benefits from their allocated strategy (i.e. rational strategy) as those with less. Study 2 failed to find adequate advantages of the intuitive strategy. Specifically, people with less search depth (the heuristic-intuitive strategy) were more interested in their choices. Nevertheless, when the strategy was manipulated as variability of search (VS), it only found the promotion of engagement, but it neither found the interaction between engagement and strategy nor did strategy itself.
Originality/value
The present paper provides mixed support for adaptive career decision-making. Career counselors can use occupational engagement levels as a reference for pre-decisional strategy selection and coach clients to adopt a proper decision-making process/method to make interest forecasts.
This paper investigates whether an individual’s tendency to maximize when making decisions influences their entrepreneurial intentions, innovation behavior, entrepreneurial alertness, and opportunity evaluation. It is predicted that maximizers will have greater entrepreneurial intentions. Underlying this process, it is predicted that maximizers will report greater innovation behavior and entrepreneurial alertness. Using data from a survey of 253 working professionals in the U.S., hypotheses are tested using multiple regression and mediation analysis. The results suggest that maximizers have higher entrepreneurial intentions, and that this relationship is mediated by their innovation behavior and entrepreneurial alertness. A second study is conducted with a survey of 192 students to explore how maximizers evaluate a specific entrepreneurial opportunity, and how their evaluation influences their entrepreneurial intentions. Using mediation analysis, findings of study 2 suggest that maximizers are more likely to see business opportunities as attractive, which increases their entrepreneurial intentions. The second study also replicates the main results of study 1 in a unique sample.
Tiered discounts offer larger discounts as consumers meet higher spending thresholds (e.g., spend $100+, receive 10% off; spend $200+, receive 20% off). This research investigates how consumers treat these multiple dollar thresholds as reference points for spending. We find that tiered discounts with smaller increments between thresholds encourage higher spending compared to those with larger increments. This effect occurs because consumers treat thresholds as motivational spending goals when the distance to higher thresholds is smaller (vs. larger). Consistent with this reasoning, signaling goal progress (i.e., displaying cart amount while shopping) attenuates the spending difference smaller versus larger increment sizes yield. Additionally, the effect of tier increment size on spending is more prominent for maximizers. From a theoretical perspective, this work contributes to our understanding of how individuals process multiple reference points within a single promotion and identifies that spending thresholds in price promotions may be treated as spending goals. From a managerial perspective, this work investigates the relationship between tiered discount design and consumer spending.
Choosing a candidate can be difficult in open‐list proportional representation systems, with many candidates on display. Under such circumstances, candidates' personal vote‐earning attributes (PVEAs) become useful for voters since PVEAs function as information shortcuts (heuristics) that reduce the cognitive costs of casting a ballot. However, recent research has demonstrated that more cognitively demanding information, namely candidates' ideological positions, also matters for candidates' electoral success. Yet, much is unknown about the circumstances under which ideology comes into play. In this study, we demonstrate that the availability of easily applied heuristics (operationalized via the level of recognizable candidates on party‐lists) conditions the effect of candidates' ideological positioning on intra‐party success. Our analyses show that ideology matters most when the share of recognizable candidates with typical personal vote‐earning attributes on the list is limited. The effect of ideological distance from the party gradually disappears as the share of recognizable candidates on the list increases. The results suggest that when the supply of candidates with personal vote‐earning attributes is limited, voters use ideological cues as the base for their voting decisions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Purpose-Adolescence is the life phase between childhood and adulthood (aging from 10 to 19, as defined by the World Health Organisation). It is a stage of Identity Crisis; pushed back by undefined status, increased pressures, irrational decisions, and the search for self. 'Making a choice' is what exhibits one's freedom and autonomy. It is axiomatic that a choice is good, but too many choices may confuse at times. Such a paralytic situation drowns the adolescents' thoughts to indecisiveness and experience a misery-induced-tyranny. Hence, this paper discusses on how adolescents take decisions out of informed choices from various life aspects; reasons for their decision paralysis and defence mechanisms they adopt to rationalise their decisions. The study highlights decision-making styles among adolescents as 'Maximisers' and 'Satisficers' (Simon, 1956). Maximisers tend to be perfectionists, describing moreover an
Economically, maximizing, the tendency to seek the best, is good because it entails possibilities to optimize decision outcomes. However, research has shown that maximizing is costly in that maximizers are more regretful and less satisfied with their decisions. Beyond these intrapersonal downsides, this research investigates another important but largely ignored downside—the interpersonal costs of being a maximizer—and documents a maximizing penalty in social cognition wherein maximizers (vs. satisficers) are viewed as less warm and consequently receive less social support. Four studies provide evidence for the maximizing penalty. This research contributes to the literature on maximizing by revealing the social cost of being a maximizer and the literature on choice perception by showing that decision makers are perceived by their aspiration.
Individuals seek and value choice freedom, firms provide consumers ever‐increasing opportunities to exercise it, citizens worry about protecting their right to choose freely, and scholars across different disciplines study the topic around the globe. We adopt a consumer psychology perspective to systematize the vast literature on choice freedom, and we present a framework to examine the relationship between choice freedom and personal and societal well‐being. We begin by proposing choice freedom as an antecedent of autonomy and personal control and by clarifying the meaning of these interrelated constructs. We then use autonomy and personal control as separate processes to explain benefits and limits of choice freedom for well‐being, and we review interventions that mitigate the limits. Finally, we discuss future research questions related to autonomy and personal control. Whereas extant literature focuses on the presence of freedom and on the relationship between choice freedom and the individual, we reflect on the extent to which consumers actually have freedom of choice and on the role of others in the provision and exercise of choice freedom.
Clinical labs belong to a mature industry and fulfill a critical function in the health‐care value chain. We examine factors that influence the opportunity, motivation, and ability to learn in clinical labs. We hypothesize that with respect to learning about cost: (i) organizational design, such as the extent of outsourcing can impede the opportunity to learn, (ii) quality focus (measured by mortality rates and length of stay) can reduce the motivation to learn, and (iii) related task variety (measured by product‐mix breadth) and information technology investments can enhance the ability to learn. Our empirical tests calibrate learning effects on disaggregate (technical and supervisory hours and cost) and aggregate (salary and total direct cost) cost and time pools. Using longitudinal data from clinical labs in California for the period 1997–2015, we find that clinical labs with greater cumulative output have lower average costs, consistent with learning effects in clinical labs. We also find results consistent with our hypotheses about the contextual factors that influence learning rates in clinical labs. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of learning rates with implications for budgeting, forecasting, and performance measurement. The results highlight that learning can be a crucial source of cost reduction in health‐care settings. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
(This partially reprinted article originally appeared in Psychological Review, 1956, Vol 63, 81–97. The following abstract of the original article appeared in PA, Vol 31:2914.) A variety of researches are examined from the standpoint of information theory. It is shown that the unaided observer is severely limited in terms of the amount of information he can receive, process, and remember. However, it is shown that by the use of various techniques, e.g., use of several stimulus dimensions, recoding, and various mnemonic devices, this informational bottleneck can be broken. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies tested the hypothesis that self-rated unhappy individuals would be more sensitive to social comparison information than would happy ones. Study 1 showed that whereas unhappy students' affect and self-assessments were heavily affected by a peer who solved anagrams either faster or slower, happy students' responses were affected by the presence of a slower peer only. These between-group differences proved to be largely independent of 2 factors associated with happiness, i.e., self-esteem and optimism. Study 2 showed that whereas the unhappy group's responses to feedback about their own teaching performance were heavily influenced by a peer who performed even better or even worse, happy students' responses again were moderated only by information about inferior peer performance. Implications for our appreciation of the link between cognitive processes and "hedonic" consequences are discussed.
Conventional wisdom and decades of psychological research have linked the provision of choice to increased levels of intrinsic motivation, greater persistence, better performance, and higher satisfaction. This investigation examined the relevance and limitations of these findings for cultures in which individuals possess more interdependent models of the self. In 2 studies, personal choice generally enhanced motivation more for American independent selves than for Asian interdependent selves. In addition, Anglo American children showed less intrinsic motivation when choices were made for them by others than when they made their own choices, whether the others were authority figures or peers. In contrast, Asian American children proved most intrinsically motivated when choices were made for them by trusted authority figures or peers. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
Current psychological theory and research affirm the positive affective and motivational consequences of having personal choice. These findings have led to the popular notion that the more choice, the better-that the human ability to manage, and the human desire for, choice is unlimited. Findings from 3 experimental studies starkly challenge this implicit assumption that having more choices is necessarily more intrinsically motivating than having fewer. These experiments, which were conducted in both field and laboratory settings, show that people are more likely to purchase gourmet jams or chocolates or to undertake optional class essay assignments when offered a limited array of 6 choices rather than a more extensive array of 24 or 30 choices. Moreover, participants actually reported greater subsequent satisfaction with their selections and wrote better essays when their original set of options had been limited. Implications for future research are discussed.
Can people feel worse off as the options they face increase? The present studies suggest that some people--maximizers--can. Study 1 reported a Maximization Scale, which measures individual differences in desire to maximize. Seven samples revealed negative correlations between maximization and happiness, optimism, self-esteem, and life satisfaction, and positive correlations between maximization and depression, perfectionism, and regret. Study 2 found maximizers less satisfied than nonmaximizers (satisficers) with consumer decisions, and more likely to engage in social comparison. Study 3 found maximizers more adversely affected by upward social comparison. Study 4 found maximizers more sensitive to regret and less satisfied in an ultimatum bargaining game. The interaction between maximizing and choice is discussed in terms of regret, adaptation, and self-blame.
A variety of researches are examined from the standpoint of information theory. It is shown that the unaided observer is severely limited in terms of the amount of information he can receive, process, and remember. However, it is shown that by the use of various techniques, e.g., use of several stimulus dimensions, recoding, and various mnemonic devices, this informational bottleneck can be broken. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
This empirical investigation tested the hypothesis that the benefits of personal choosing are restricted to choices made from among attractive alternatives. Findings from vignette and laboratory studies show that contrary to people's self-predictions prior to actually choosing, choosers only proved more satisfied than nonchoosers when selecting from among more preferred alternatives. When selecting from among less preferred alternatives, nonchoosers proved more satisfied with the decision outcome than choosers. Subsequent analyses revealed that differences in outcome satisfaction between choosers and nonchoosers emerge even before the decision outcome is experienced and that interventions during the decision-making process can serve to attenuate these differences. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The statistic p(rep) estimates the probability of replicating an effect. It captures traditional publication criteria for signal-to-noise ratio, while avoiding parametric inference and the resulting Bayesian dilemma. In concert with effect size and replication intervals, p(rep) provides all of the information now used in evaluating research, while avoiding many of the pitfalls of traditional statistical inference.
Pleasures of the mind are different from pleasures of the body. There are two types of pleasures of the body: tonic pleasures and relief pleasures. Pleasures of the body are given by the contact senses and by the distance senses (seeing and hearing). The distance senses provide a special category of pleasure. Pleasures of the mind are not emotions; they are collections of emotions distributed over time. Some distributions of emotions over time are particularly pleasurable, such as episodes in which the peak emotion is strong and the final emotion is positive. The idea that all pleasurable stimuli share some general characteristic should be supplanted by the idea that humans have evolved domain-specific responses of attraction to stimuli. The emotions that characterize pleasures of the mind arise when expectations are violated, causing autonomic nervous system arousal and thereby triggering a search for an interpretation. Thus pleasures of the mind occur when an individual has a definite set of expectations (usually tacit) and the wherewithal to interpret the violation (usually by placing it in a narrative framework). Pleasures of the mind differ in the objects of the emotions they comprise. There is probably a
Introduction, 99. — I. Some general features of rational choice, 100.— II. The essential simplifications, 103. — III. Existence
and uniqueness of solutions, 111. — IV. Further comments on dynamics, 113. — V. Conclusion, 114. — Appendix, 115.
Hedonic adaptation refers to a reduction in the affective intensity of favorable and unfavorable circumstances. This chapter discusses the purposes, underlying mechanisms, and most common functional representations of hedonic adaptation. The authors then examine some of the methodological problems that hamper research in this area and review the literature on adaptation in 4 negative domains (noise, imprisonment, bereavement, and disability), and 4 positive domains (foods, erotic images, increases in wealth, and improvements in appearance produced by cosmetic surgery). Following this review, the authors discuss several circumstances that promote or impede hedonic adaptation. They conclude by discussing the dark side of hedonic adaptation—the negative consequences for individuals and society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this paper I have attempted to identify some of the structural characteristics that are typical of the "psychological' environments of organisms. We have seen that an organism in an environment with these characteristics requires only very simple perceptual and choice mechanisms to satisfy its several needs and to assure a high probability of its survival over extended periods of time. In particular, no "utility function' needs to be postulated for the organism, nor does it require any elaborate procedure for calculating marginal rates of substitution among different wants.
The negative aspects of the option of a wide variety of products for the customers is discussed. A wide variety of choice created negative emotions because of related high opportunity costs. The rise in opportunity costs arises due to the need for assessment of the quality of all the alternatives before deciding on the best option. People also feel depressed because of the opportunities they have foregone by using a product.
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