Article

Effect of feeding systems on omega-3 fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid and trans fatty acids in Australian beef cuts: Potential impact on human health

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Abstract

The influence of feeding systems on the levels of functional lipids and other fatty acid concentrations in Australian beef was examined. Rump, strip loin and blade cuts obtained from grass feeding, short-term grain feeding (80 days; STGF) and long-term grain feedlot rations (150-200 days; LTFL) were used in the present study. The typical Australian feedlot ration contains more than 50% barley and/or sorghum and balanced with whole cottonseed and protein meals were used as feed for STGF and LTFL regimens. Meat cuts from 18 cattle for each feeding regimen were trimmed of visible fat and connective tissue and then minced (300 g lean beef); replicate samples of 7 g were used for fatty acid (FA) analysis. There was a significantly higher level of total omega-3 (n-3) and long chain n-3 FA in grass-fed beef (P< 0.0001) than the grain-fed groups regardless of cut types. Cuts from STGF beef had significantly reduced levels of n-3 FA and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and similar levels of saturated, monounsaturated and n-6 FA compared with grass feeding (P < 0.001). Cuts from LTFL beef had higher levels of saturated, monounsaturated,n-6 FA and trans 18:1 than similar cuts from the other two groups (P<0.01), indicating that increased length of grain feeding was associated with more fat deposited in the carcass. There was a step-wise increase in trans 18:1 content from grass to STGF to LTGF, suggesting grain feeding elevates trans FA in beef, probably because of increased intake of 18:2n-6. Only grass-fed beef reached the target of more than 30mg of long chain n-3 FA/100 g muscle as recommended by Food Standard Australia and New Zealand for a food to be considered a source of omega-3 fatty acids. The proportions of trans 18:1 and n-6 FA were higher (P<0.001) for both grain-fed beef groups than grass-fed beef. Data from the present study show that grain feeding decreases functional lipid components (long chain n-3 FA and CLA) in Australian beef regardless of meat cuts, while increasing total trans 18:1 and saturated FA levels.

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... It is well established that meat produced from pasture-based feeding systems has a more desirable nutritional profile when compared to grain-fed beef (Nuernberg et al., 2005;Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006;Realini, Duckett, Brito, Dalla Rizza, & De Mattos, 2004). This enhanced profile is directly correlated with the green forage (pasture or fodder) consumed by the animal, which is a good source of α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3c) and vitamin E, but also other compounds with antioxidant properties such as carotenoids and flavonoids (Gatellier, Mercier, Juin, & Renerre, 2005;Iqbal, Ponnampalam, Cottrell, Suleria, & Dunshea, 2022;Iqbal, Ponnampalam, Suleria, Cottrell, & Dunshea, 2021). ...
... Forages are a major source of PUFA in animal diets, with C18:3n-3c representing 50-75% of total PUFA (Elgersma, 2015). Grazing fresh grass results in elevated concentrations of n-3 PUFA and CLA in muscle lipids, an increase in the PUFA:SFA (P:S) ratio and a decrease in the n-6: n-3 PUFA ratio (Nuernberg et al., 2005;Ponnampalam et al., 2006;Shingfield, Bonnet, & Scollan, 2013). Supplementation of pasture diets with oilseeds, such as flaxseed and linseed has also proven effective in decreasing C18:2n-6c and increasing C18:3n-3c concentrations in the intramuscular fat (IMF) of cattle (Nassu et al., 2011) and lambs (Noci, Monahan, & Moloney, 2011), as reviewed by Scollan, Price, Morgan, Huws, and Shingfield (2017). ...
... Humans should aim for a n-6:n-3 ratio of <4 in foods (Howes, Bekhit, Burritt, & Campbell, 2015), but this is often exceeded, particularly in meat products such as beef and lamb. Several authors have reported increased concentrations of desirable n-3 PUFA, including C18:3n-3c, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in grassfed beef compared to its grain-fed counterpart (Nuernberg et al., 2005;Ponnampalam et al., 2006;Realini et al., 2004), with associated improved n-6:n-3 ratios (Daley et al., 2010). However, there is a paucity of information in the literature as to whether BDP can further increase levels of n-3 FAs in muscle compared to feeding single swards, thus improving the n-6:n-3 ratio in beef. ...
Article
A desire for more sustainable pasture-based ruminant feeding systems has led to growing interest in utilising botanically-diverse pastures (BDP) over monoculture pastures. Research suggests that, from a human consumption viewpoint, grass-based ruminant feeding leads to more nutritionally desirable fatty acid (FA) and antioxidant concentrations in meat compared with concentrate feeding, which can affect meat quality. The FA, antioxidant and secondary metabolite content of plants differ, depending on species, maturity and seasonality, offering the potential through targeted feeding of BDP to produce meat with superior nutritional and antioxidant profiles. This review explores the effect, if any, that grazing ruminants on BDP has on the FA profile, fat-soluble vitamin, and antioxidant content of meat. The input-output relationship between forage and red meat constituents is complex and is likely affected by species diversity, forage consumption patterns and modulation of rumen fermentation processes. Further investigation is required to fully understand the effect that BDP may have on the composition and quality of ruminant meat.
... Most Japanese cattle are forced fed a ration to improve their fatty acid composition and flavor (Gotoh et al., 2018). Beef cattle in Australia are primarily grass-fed for most of their life (Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006), so feed requirements focus on the efficient production of pasture, and the conversion of pasture into meat. About one-third of the Australian cattle are eventually 'finished' in feedlots where they are fed a largely grain-based diet from 70 to 360 days until they meet the specifications for a particular market (Deblitz, Dhuyvetter, & Davies, 2012). ...
... methylation) before the GC-MS analysis. A large number of studies have been reported in the literature relating fatty acid profiles, SFA, MUFA and PUFA contents with the quality of beef (Cifuni, Napolitano, Riviezzi, Braghieri, & Girolami, 2004;Elmore, Mottram, Enser, & Wood, 1999;Ponnampalam et al., 2006). To better understand the characteristics of the beef samples collected in this study with findings from literatures, we tried to estimate the hydrolyzed fatty acid profiles from the UPLC-Orbitrap-MS data collected. ...
... It was understood that the feeding regime had a major impact on the individual fatty acids of the intramuscular fat in beef. The major feeding diet of the cattle in the US and Australia are grain-fed and grass-fed, respectively (Drouillard, 2018;Ponnampalam et al., 2006). A study on the fatty acid compositions between grass silage and barley straw showed significant differences in their summation of omega-6 and omega-3 of the contents. ...
Article
Beef is a common staple food in many countries, and there is a growing concern over misinformation of beef products, such as false claims of origin, species and production methods. In this study, we used a mass spectrometry-based metabolomics approach to study the metabolite profiles of beef samples purchased from local retailers in Hong Kong. Using multivariate analysis, beef samples from different a) geographical origins, namely the United States (US), Japan and Australia, and b) feeding regimes could be differentiated. We identified twenty-four metabolites to distinguish beef samples from different countries, ten metabolites to identify Angus beef samples from others and seven metabolites to discriminate Australian beef produced by the organic farming from that produced using other farming modes. Based on results of this study, it is concluded that metabolomics provides an efficient strategy for tracing and authenticating beef products to ensure their quality and to protect consumer rights.
... However, several studies have reported that the PUFA content of ruminants can be modified by feeding management. Pasture-and silage-fed ruminants have meat with higher PUFA, particularly n-3 fatty acids compared with their grain-fed counterparts, which mostly have n-6 fatty acids (Nuernberg et al., 2005;Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006;Realini, Duckett, Brito, Dalla Rizza, & De Mattos, 2004). Higher proportions of n-3 fatty acids in pasture and silage hay contribute to their higher contents in RM (Ponnampalam, Holman, & Scollan, 2015;. ...
... As a result, several literature reviews published in the last two decades have highlighted the importance of increasing n-3 fatty acids in meat, and feeding strategies that can elevate the n-3 fatty acid concentrations in RM and non-ruminant meats Pereira & Vicente, 2013;Scollan et al., 2006;. With this aim, researchers have investigated feeding different lipid sources to sheep (Cooper et al., 2004;Ponnampalam et al., 2006;Ponnampalam et al., 2001;Scollan et al., 2006), cattle (Kronberg, Barcelo-Coblijn, Shin, Lee, & Murphy, 2006), goats (Karami, Ponnampalam, & Hopkins, 2013;Najafi et al., 2012), and found algae, fish oil, flaxseed, canola seed and oilseed meal supplementation can increase n-3 fatty acid concentrations in ruminants. Nevertheless, any strategies applied to increase the n-3 fatty acid concentrations in meat ought to be economically viable and on-farm applicable when compared with the concentrations achievable in meat from commonly fed diets. ...
... In contrast to VA, t10-18:1, the major t-18:1 isomer typically found in meat and milk when feeding grain-based diets, has been consistently associated with adverse effects on cardiovascular health, similar to that of partially hydrogenated vegetable oils (Ponnampalam et al. 2006;Scollan et al. 2017). In animal model studies, feeding butter enriched with t10-18:1compared to VA-enriched butter led to increased plasma LDL-cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels and stimulated the development of atherosclerotic plaques (Anadón et al., 2010;Roy et al., 2007). ...
Article
Ruminant meat (RM) is an excellent source of high-quality protein, B vitamins and trace minerals and plays an important role in global food and nutrition security. However, nutritional guidelines commonly recommend reduced intake of RM mainly because of its high saturated fatty acid (SFA) content, and more recently because of its perceived negative environmental impacts. RM is, however, rich in heart healthy cis-monounsaturated fatty acids and can be an important source of long-chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids in populations with low fish consumption. In addition, RM is a source of bioactive phospholipids, as well as rumen-derived bioactive fatty acids including branched-chain, vaccenic and rumenic acids, which have been associated with several health benefits. However, the role of bioactive RM lipids in maintaining and improving consumers’ health have been generally ignored in nutritional guidelines. The present review examines RM lipids in relation to human health, and evaluates the effectiveness of different feeding strategies and possibilities for future profile and content improvement.
... Given that Ponnampalam, Mann, and Sinclair (2006) have demonstrated that finishing cattle on grain for both long and short periods can cause a reduction in the total omega-3 concentration and an increase in omega-6 fatty acids, it is unsurprising that the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio was found to be significantly different in the subcutaneous fat from cattle finished in grass and grain fed production systems. Activity of rumen microorganisms results in the biohydrogenation of most FAs into oleic and stearic acids (Chesworth, 1998). ...
... Activity of rumen microorganisms results in the biohydrogenation of most FAs into oleic and stearic acids (Chesworth, 1998). However, when high concentrations of PUFAs are present in the diet, as in extensive grass based production systems (Ponnampalam et al., 2006), these fatty acids can escape biohydrogenation (Chesworth, 1998) and pass to the small intestine to be absorbed and stored throughout the body, often as triglycerides in subcutaneous fat. ...
... The lightness (L*) values were found to be higher in the carcases from grain-fed cattle, which is similar to the results of Guerrero et al. (2013) and Daly et al. (1999) who found the subcutaneous fat of cattle raised in intensive feeding systems was lighter and exhibited less carotenoid pigment compared to cattle raised extensively. This may be a consequence of β-carotene in fat being mobilized into the liver and converted to retinol for the production of Vitamin A, as without a dietary source of carotene, as seen in grain fed cattle, there is a decrease in the amount of carotene that is then deposited in the adipose tissue which results in a change in fat colour (Daley et al., 2010;Daly et al., 1999;Ponnampalam et al., 2006). ...
Article
Australian grass and grain-fed beef products attract premium prices at sale and several beef processors market beef underwritten by production system claims. This preliminary investigation assessed the feasibility of using Raman spectroscopy to detect differences in the chemical composition of subcutaneous fat from cattle raised in extensive and intensive production systems. Raman spectra, fatty acid composition, β-carotene composition and objective colour measurements were measured on 150 grass and 150 grain-fed cattle. Spectral differences at peaks including 1069 cm-1, 1127 cm-1, 1301 cm-1 and 1445 cm-1 suggest that Raman spectra is able to detect differences in saturated fatty acids, which were significantly higher in carcases from grain-fed cattle. Differences in spectra at 1658 cm-1 were observed, however further research is required to investigate the cause of this spectral feature. Overall, this study indicated that Raman spectroscopy is a potential tool for the authentication of beef carcases from grass and grain-fed production systems.
... Nuernberg et al. (2005) examined the fatty acid composition of the meat of Simmental and Holstein bulls that were fed on pasture and concentrated rations and found a significantly lower content of palmitic (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0), an increase in the content of n-3 PUFA and CLA, as well as a more favourable n-6/n3 ratio of fatty acids in the intramuscular fat of cattle fed coarse feed. Similar results were obtained by Ponnampalam et al. (2006) who reported a decrease in the proportion of SFA, a higher prevalence of n-3 PUFA and CLA, as well as a lower ratio of n-6/n3 in the intramuscular fat of steaks -m. longissimus lumborum of cattle fed on pasture compared to cattle fed concentrates. ...
... Lipids of pasturefed animals contain a high proportion of α-linolenic acid (Muchenje et al., 2009). Cattle raised on pasture are characterized by a lower content of total fat (Ponnampalam, Mann & Sinclair, 2006), as well as a less pronounced marbling of muscle tissue (Leheska et al., 2008), which is accompanied by a lower cholesterol content (Daley, Abbott, Doyle, Nader & Scollan, 2010). ...
Article
Full-text available
Beef meat has exceptional nutritional value that distinguishes it from other types of meat and makes it a highly valued food. However, the meat of cattle as well as other ruminants, is characterized by a more complex fatty acid profile compared to the meat of monogastric animals. This complexity is a consequence of the activity of the rumen microflora. In recent decades, changes in animal breeding, feeding practices, and modern slaughtering techniques imparted significant progress in improving beef's nutritional, sensory and market value. Different proportions of concentrated feed and roughages, as well as their types, affect the composition of intramuscular fat. Excluding genetic factors and production practices, nutrition emerges as the main factor influencing the fatty acid profile of beef meat. Today, numerous studies support the nutritional approach to modifying the fatty acid composition of beef meat by using selected feeding stuffs. Therefore, this review aims to collect and systematize data as a guide for implementing such a nutritional strategy in practice, with the health benefits of the final consumers in mind.
... The fatty acid profile of ruminant meat is comprised of a mixture of SFA, monounsaturated (MUFA) and n-3PUFA and n-6PUFA, a number of biohydrogenation intermediaries including trans-vaccenic acid (C18:1n-7 t) and c9,t11 CLA as well as several branched-chain fatty acids. While it is unlikely that red meat will provide the total amount of LCn-3PUFA required, several samples of red meat have met the criteria to be considered a 'source' of omega-3 under Australian guidelines (FSANZ, 2012), containing greater than 30 mg of EPA + DHA per 135 g serving (Droulez et al., 2006, Howe et al., 2007, Ponnampalam et al., 2006. To promote these benefits, producers have adopted management and animal-nutritional interventions that modify the fatty acid profile of ruminant meat (Clayton, 2014, Scollan et al., 2001. ...
... To improve analysis efficiency, shorter GC columns have been employed for the fatty acid analysis of various ruminant meat and tissue samples, but not without some limitations. For example, a 60 m BPX70 column was used for the analysis of beef (Ponnampalam et al., 2006) and lamb (Coombs et al., 2018), however, individual C18:1 and CLA isomers were not presented. A 15 m Equity-1 fused silica capillary column was used for the analysis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in lamb muscle, organ, and subcutaneous fat tissue (Le et al., 2019), however, CLA isomers were omitted. ...
Article
Gas chromatography (GC) analysis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) typically uses long capillary columns (≥100 m) which can be expensive and time consuming. The current study determined whether the major FAME of interest for human health in lamb and beef can be quantified using a 30 m compared with 120 m moderately polar capillary (BPX70) column. Lamb and beef samples with a range of intramuscular fat content from either grass- or grain-fed animals were analysed. All major FAME of human health importance, including omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, could be identified on the 30 m BPX70 column. The correlation (r2) for fatty acid percentage between columns was > 0.98 for all major n–3PUFA and > 0.86 for all major CLAs. When animals were fed a grain-based diet, C18:1n–7t (vaccenic acid) could not be resolved from C18:1n-8t when analysed on the 30 m column. The FAME profile of lamb and beef, particularly those important for nutritional composition tables, can be determined using a 30 m BPX70 column, thereby saving time and expense compared with longer columns. Particular care should be employed when analysing samples from grain-fed animals due to co-eluting of C18:1n–8t.
... GFB is an important alternative contributing to food sustainability goals by providing higher amounts of potentially beneficial nutrients [5]. First, GFB contains more omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), more conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), less omega-6 (n-6) PUFAs, and less cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acids (SFAs) than conventional grain-finished beef [6][7][8][9]. Second, other health-enhancing phytochemicals (such as polyphenolic compounds) are also thought to be more abundant in GFB compared to grain-finished beef [10]. ...
... C20:5 n-3 (EPA) 9 7.41 ± 0.38 a 1.80 ± 0.39 b 1.10 ± 0.53 b <0.001 C22:5 n-3 (DPA) 10 13.39 ± 0.96 a 5.67 ± 0.99 b 3.96 ± 1.36 b <0.001 C22:6 n-3 (DHA) 11 0.61 ± 0.08 a 0.32 ± 0.08 b 0.35 ± 0.11 a,b <0.050 ∑ n-6 12 67.07 ± 9.04 b 100.32 ± 9.29 a 86.61 ± 12.73 a,b <0.050 C18:2 n-6 (LA) 13 46 . ...
Article
Full-text available
Citation: Krusinski, L.; Maciel, I.C.F.; van Vliet, S.; Ahsin, M.; Lu, G.; Rowntree, J.E.; Fenton, J.I. Measuring the Phytochemical Richness of Meat: Effects of Grass/Grain Finishing Systems and Grapeseed Extract Supplementation on the Fatty Acid and Phytochemical Content of Beef. Foods 2023, 12, 3547. https:// Abstract: Grass-finished beef (GFB) can provide beneficial bioactive compounds to healthy diets, including omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs), conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and secondary bioactive compounds, such as phytochemicals. The objective of this study was to compare fatty acids (FAs), micronutrients, and phytochemicals of beef fed a biodiverse pasture (GRASS), a total mixed ration (GRAIN), or a total mixed ration with 5% grapeseed extract (GRAPE). This was a two-year study involving fifty-four Red Angus steers (n = 54). GFB contained higher levels of n-3 PUFAs, vitamin E, iron, zinc, stachydrine, hippuric acid, citric acid, and succinic acid than beef from GRAIN and GRAPE (p < 0.001 for all). No differences were observed in quantified phytochemicals between beef from GRAIN and GRAPE (p > 0.05). Random forest analysis indicated that phytochemical and FA composition of meat can predict cattle diets with a degree of certainty, especially for GFB (5.6% class error). In conclusion, these results indicate that GFB contains higher levels of potentially beneficial bioactive compounds, such as n-3 PUFAs, micronutrients, and phytochemicals, compared to grain-finished beef. Additionally, the n-6:n-3 ratio was the most crucial factor capable of separating beef based on finishing diets.
... The fatty acid C18:3n-3 has consistently been observed to be higher in concentration in grass based diets, due mainly to the high concentration of this fatty acid available in the fresh growing grass or forage (French et al., 2000). In contrast, the total concentration of C18:2n-6 decreases on grass and has been seen to be significantly higher in grain fed carcases (Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006). In this research the total omega-6 concentration differed only with northern grass supplemented being significantly lower, the main source of variation came from varying levels of omega-3 fatty acids. ...
... As the fatty acids showed differences between the production systems and the spectral data indicating the cause being fatty acid changes, there became a need to assess the ability for the fatty acid data, analysed by GC-FID, to accurately predict the production system. In the past fatty acid composition has been seen to be a very effective tool for evaluating what an animal has been fed before slaughter (Ponnampalam et al., 2006). Hence PLS-DA models were developed for the fatty acid data, with model FF performing better than model F with a range of accuracy scores between 79% and 95%, with the composition of southern short grain performing the worst, in contrast with model F where the northern long grain performed the worst. ...
Article
A total of 960 beef carcases from northern and southern Australian production regions were assessed by examining the subcutaneous fat. Carcases from four different production systems within each region were assessed, by Raman spectroscopy and the fatty acid composition determined to develop models that best classified the various production systems. As a result, 12 Partial Least Square Discriminant Analysis models were developed. A two-class model based on fatty acid composition was able to correctly classify 99% of grass and grain fed animals. The best Raman spectroscopic model correctly classified 94% of grass vs grain carcases produced in the northern region. For the southern production region, the models had the following classification accuracies; southern long-term grain fed (98%), southern short-term grain fed (95%), southern grass (96%), southern grass supplemented (97%), and the southern model classified grass vs grain (97%). Raman spectroscopy is considered a useful rapid method for classification of beef carcases based upon production system.
... Grassfinishing results in higher amounts of 18:3n-3 but also 20:5n-3, 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 content is increased due to the elongation and desaturation of 18:3n-3 in body tissues. Feeding concentrates in the finishing period of animals reared on pasture causes depletion of 18:3n-3 and higher accretion of 18:2n-6 (Ponnampalam et al., 2006). Forages can be used to lower total and saturated fat content and increase the n-3 PUFA content relative to cerealbased diets (Scollan et al., 2017). ...
... Pasture-based feeding beef and lamb increased the concentrations of 18:3n-3 to $50 mg/100 g, while levels of EPA, DPA and DHA achieved 43, 34 and 19 mg/100 g in lamb (Nuernberg et al., 2005) and 25, 37 and 4.2 mg/100 g in beef (Ponnampalam et al., 2006). This equates to $98 and 154 mg/100 g for total n-3 PUFA and $29 and 62 mg/100 g total EPA + DHA for beef and lamb, respectively. ...
Article
This paper focuses on improving the sensory, health attributes and meat yield of beef and lamb meats. Value for meat is defined as the weight of meat × price/kg received with price linked to eating quality. To maximise value across the supply chain, accurate carcass grading systems for eating quality and yield are paramount. Grading data can then be used to target consumers’ needs at given price points and then to tailor appropriate production and genetic directions. Both the grading methodologies and key phenotypes are complex and still under intensive research with international collaboration to maximise opportunities. In addition, there is value in promoting the health aspects of red meats served as whole trimmed meats. Typically, the total fat content is relatively low (less than 5%) and for forage systems, they deliver a very significant content of long-chain n-3 fatty acids. Further research is needed to clarify the healthiness or otherwise of ground beef served as burgers given the fat content is typically 20% or more. It is important to continue to improve the feedback to producers regarding the quantity and quality of the products they produce to target new value opportunities in a transparent and quantitative manner.
... Lipids have many functions, for example fat is necessary for the utilization of fat-soluble vitamins, regulation of body temperature, and can effect reproductive health (Zinn and Jorquera, 2007). These energy stores also contribute to the taste and tenderness of meat (Furnols and Guerrero, 2014) and may provide health benefits to human consumers (Sinclair et al. 2006). ...
... Much of the benefit to dietary n-3 PUFA can be traced to the central nervous system which utilizes long chain n-3 and n-6 as well as in visual functions (Dyall et al., 2008). In ruminants, there are reproductive and carcass quality benefits when supplemented long chain n-3 FA (Sinclair et al. 2006). As a result, much research has been done to understand how dietary lipid is deposited in the ruminant and what concentration of the lipid is stored as n-3 FA or CLA. ...
Article
Two experiments, a performance study (Exp. 1) and digestion study (Exp. 2) were conducted to evaluate a novel liquid feed, condensed algal residue solubles (CARS), in feedlot diets. In Exp. 1 and Exp. 2, steers were fed three inclusions of CARS at 0%, 2.5%, 5%. There were quadratic responses for greater carcass adjusted final BW, ADG, G:F, HCW, 12th rib fat, and yield grade. There was a linear increase in marbling score and a linear decrease in DMI and LM area as CARS increased. In Exp. 2, CARS did not affect intake or digestibility. Fatty acid flow at the duodenum was unaffected as CARS increased in the diet, though the fatty acid profile changed, with a linear increase of unsaturated and omega-3 fatty acids. Including CARS up to 2.5% of the diet DM improved feed efficiency. The CARS can effectively be included in feedlot finishing diets without affecting digestibility while influencing duodenal fatty acid flow composition. Experiment 3 compared the effects of a single implant strategy utilizing a partially coated, long release heifer implant to a three non-coated implant strategy over an average of 215 d. Treatments included Revalor-XH or Revalor-IH, followed by Revalor-H followed by Revalor-200. There were no significant differences between treatments for live or carcass adjusted final BW, DMI, ADG, or G:F. There were no significant differences between treatments for HCW, 12th rib fat, dressing percent, or calculated yield grade. Heifers that received Revalor-XH, when fed 215 d, perform similarly to heifers on a 3-implant Revalor-IH/H/200 program. Advisor: Andrea K. Watson
... The activity of rumen microorganisms results in the biohydrogenation of most FA into oleic and stearic acids (Chesworth 1998). However, when high concentrations of PUFAs are present in the diet, as in extensive grass-based production systems (Ponnampalam et al. 2006), these FA can escape biohydrogenation (Chesworth 1998) and pass to the small intestine to be absorbed and stored throughout the body, often as triglycerides in subcutaneous fat. Other PUFAs of importance are the omega-6 PUFAs which vary significantly across feeding regimes. ...
... The FA C18:3n-3 and C18:5n-3 differ dependending on feeding regime with grass-fed samples significantly higher than all other categories including grass supplemented. Literature has consistently identified the key difference between grass and grain-fed production systems to be a result of differences in omega-3 FA (Daley et al. 2010;Petri et al. 2014;Scollan et al. 2001) which are commonly found within growing pastures (Daley et al. 2010;Ponnampalam et al. 2006). ...
Article
Full-text available
Enhancing transparency through the beef production supply chain using objective measurements is crucial for maintaining the premium price of Australian beef products. A four-class model has been developed using Raman spectroscopy for beef cattle sourced from four different production systems including long- and short-term grain-fed and grass- and grass-supplemented-fed cattle with an F1 score of 92%, 88%, 98% and 100%, respectively. A two-class model for grain- and grass-fed cattle showed 98.5% and 97.1% correct classification. Both models were developed using a dataset of 404 calibration samples and 101 test samples which resulted in a total of 6 and 2 misclassified samples in the four- and two-class models, respectively. Fatty acids were also utilised to separate samples by principal component analysis (PCA), and loadings revealed samples that could be separated by the concentration of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. A discriminant analysis of fatty acid data yielded a classification accuracy of between 88 and 100% of beef carcases according to production system. Thus, classification utilising Raman spectroscopy provided a reliable method to discriminate between cattle finished by different feeding systems.
... These positive benefits include anticarcinogenic and antithrombotic effects, cardiovascular disease interactions, and their potential support of the immune system and bone health, to name a few [2,4]. Previous work on CLAs in red meat have focused predominantly on the effect of dietary regimes, supplementation, age and sex, with limited work performed on the implications of processing parameters on CLA concentrations and cholesterol oxidation (i.e., interactions of rigor temperature, ageing and displaying times) [5][6][7][8]. ...
... Many factors can contribute to the reported CLA variations. Adding to the natural biological variations among animals, CLA variation can be attributed to different seasonal, climatic and production systems (e.g., different feeding regimes between countries [1,8]). ...
Article
Full-text available
The present study investigated the effect of processing parameters comprising rigor temperature, ageing and display time on conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) concentrations, stability and the development of cholesterol oxidation products in hot boned beef semimembranosus muscles. Meat samples, having attained rigor mortis at 5 °C and 25 °C, were vacuum packed and aged for 7 and 14 days and then displayed under aerobic conditions for 7 days at 4 °C. Lipid was extracted at each time interval then 1H NMR and GC-FID were used for CLA quantification. The cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) were separated from lipids via column chromatography and derivatized for GC-FID. The CLA content was not affected by the rigor temperature, ageing and display time (p > 0.05). The cholesterol oxidative stability was not affected by rigor temperature (p > 0.05) but was affected by ageing and display time (p < 0.05). The COPs, 7α- and 7β-hydroxycholesterol, and 7-ketocholesterol were positively identified and their quantities increased with ageing and display time (p < 0.05). These results demonstrate that the production of COPs in semimembranosus muscle was significantly altered by the ageing and display time parameters but not by the rigor temperature used in this study.
... In general, algae are characterized by a fatty acid composition that is quite advantageous for human and animal health, with amounts of unsaturated fatty acids usually higher than the amounts of saturated fatty acids (Kumari et al., 2010;Pereira et al., 2012). Higher intakes of long fatty acids in the diet of animals have been reported to improve the functions of immune, nervous, and cardiovascular systems, the reproductive performance and carcass quality in animals (Ponnampalam et al., 2006). Similarly, it has been demonstrated that adding algae to feed can boost the development rates and productivity of a variety of animals (Yaakob et al., 2014). ...
Article
Studies on the use of algae in animal diets have explored commercially manufactured algae biomass. However, there is dearth of information on the use of algae population found in the Nigerian waterways. Therefore, this study was carried out to investigate the effect of dietary supplementation of locally sourced and heat-processed freshwater algae (Enteromorpha sp.) on the behaviour of broiler chickens at the starter phase. A total of 150 Arbor Acres strain of broiler chickens were used for this study. Birds were assigned to five dietary treatments in a completely randomized design. The treatments were replicated three times to contain 10 birds each. The treatments were T1- Control without algae biomass, T2 and T3- dehydrated algae biomass at 60°and 80°C, respectively, T4 and T5- oven dried algae biomass at 600 and 800 C, respectively. The algae biomass was incorporated into the diet at 0.5% inclusion rate. Feeding of birds with algae-supplemented diet began during brooding and continued throughout the starter phase. During the 2nd, 3rd and 4th week of age, the behaviour of the chickens was observed and recorded via CCTV cameras, after which the frequency of occurrence of the feeding, drinking, walking, dustbathing and wing flapping behaviour were extracted. Data were subjected to statistical analysis using Tukey’s test. Among the behaviours observed, only the dustbathing behaviour was significantly (p<0.05) affected by algae supplementation. The behaviour was highest in broilers offered dehydrated algae biomass at 60°C. It was concluded from this study that heat-processing and supplementation of algae from Nigeria freshwater in broiler chickens’ diet did not have a negative impact on their behaviours.
... Regular diets with corn silage and concentrates have been developed to meet the energy demand of high-yielding dairy cows and to improve the growth efficiency of beef cattle. However, the diets cannot provide sufficient amounts of essential fatty acids (EFA), in particular n-3 fatty acids (FAs) [1,2], due to the lack of fresh grass, which is the main source of α-linolenic acid (ALA) [3,4]. Furthermore, ensiling reduces the content of FAs [5], and the silage-based diets are rapidly biohydrogenated in the rumen, and thus lower amounts of EFA are available for intestinal absorption. ...
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High-yielding dairy cows need diets that meet their energy demand and contain sufficient essential nutrients such as n-3 fatty acids (FAs). Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is able to relieve the energy metabolism, but common corn silage and concentrate-based diets contain insufficient amounts of essential fatty acids (EFA). Abomasal infusion was used in the current study to supplement cows from 9 weeks antepartum to 9 weeks postpartum with either coconut oil (CTRL, n = 8), EFA (n = 9), or conjugated linoleic acid (CLA, n = 9), or a combination of both (EFA+CLA, n = 10). The study focused on the effects of FAs on peripheral tissues, such as longissimus muscle (MLD) and adipose tissues, which were harvested after slaughter. Fatty acid composition, muscle fiber and fat cell morphology, muscle fiber type transition, and gene expression were analyzed. Supplemented FAs and their metabolites were increased (p < 0.05) in MLD and intermuscular fat (INTF) but not in subcutaneous fat (SCF). The intramuscular fat content and gene expression of ACACA and FASN were increased in CLA-supplemented cows (p < 0.05). Supplementation did not affect the muscle fiber size and fiber type composition. Supplemented CLA had more effects than EFA, improving the energy balance of cows accompanied with increased triglyceride formation and storage.
... Pasture-fed beef cattle had greater contents of linolenic (C18:3), arachidic (C20:0), eicosapentaenoic (C20:5, EPA), and docosapentaenoic (C22:5, DPA) acids than grain-fed cattle. This information has been widely reported in previous studies (Realini et al., 2004;Ponnampalam et al., 2006;Jiang et al., 2010) where greater contents of stearic (C18:0), linolenic (18:3), and arachidonic (C20:4) acids were observed in pasture-fed than grain-fed animals. ...
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The effects of finishing diet (pasture or grain) and meat preservation method on beef’s physicochemical, micro- biological, and sensory attributes were evaluated. The preservation methods assessed were dry aging in bag (DAb) and wet aging (WA) for 40 d, and then frozen storage (Fr) ([DAb + Fr] and [WA + Fr]) for 180 d. Sixty striploins (Longissimus lumborum) from British breed steers (n = 15 from pasture and n = 15 from grain-based diet) were used. Lightness (L*) was only affected by finishing diet where meat from grain-fed steers was lighter than those fed on pasture (P < 0.01). DAb meat had higher pH (P < 0.01) and lower cooking losses (P < 0.01) than WA. DAb + Fr had the highest Psychotrophic bacteria counts compared to WA + Fr, DAb and WA (P < 0.01). DAb and DAb + Fr increased Enterobacteriaceae bacteria counts (P < 0.01) compared to WA and WA + Fr. DAb + Fr samples had the lowest L*, a*, and b* values. No interaction between physicochemical characteristics (color coordinates, pH, cooking losses, and shear force) and surface microbiological load was observed (P > 0.05). Greater polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), PUFA n-3, conjugated linoleic acid (c9, t11 – 18:2) (P < 0.01), and PUFA/saturated fatty acid ratio (P < 0.05) and lower n-6:n-3 ratio (P < 0.01) were observed in pasture- than grain-fed steers. The consumer sensory panel showed acceptable scores for all treatments, although some differences between attributes were detected by cluster analysis. Different aging methods followed by a frozen storage period could be used to produce and export meat with the required quality attributes to meet consumer expectations
... To improve analysis e ciency, shorter GC columns have been employed for the fatty acid analysis of various ruminant meat and tissue samples, but not without some limitations. For example, a 60 m BPX70 column was used for the analysis of beef (Ponnampalam et al., 2006) and lamb (Coombs et al., 2018), however, individual C18:1 and CLA isomers were not presented. A 15 m Equity-1 fused silica capillary column was used for the analysis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) in lamb muscle, organ, and subcutaneous fat tissue (Le et al., 2019), however, CLA isomers were omitted. ...
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Gas chromatography (GC) analysis of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) typically uses long capillary columns (100 m or greater) which can be expensive and time consuming. The current study determined whether the major FAME of interest for human health in lamb and beef can be quantify using a 30 m compared with 120 m moderately polar capillary (BPX70) column. Lamb and beef samples were selected to cover a range of total intramuscular fat content and from either grass- or grain-fed animals. Results from the current study indicated that all major long-chain FAME of human health importance, including omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3PUFA), omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6PUFA) and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers, could be identified on the 30 m BPX70 column. The correlation (r ² ) for fatty acid proportions between columns for both lamb and beef was > 0.98 for all major n-3PUFA and > 0.86 for all major CLAs. When animals were fed a grain-based diet, C18:1n-7t (vaccenic acid) could not be resolved from C18:1n-8t when analysed on the 30 m column. The FAME profile of lamb and beef, particularly those important for nutritional composition tables, can be determined using a 30 m BPX70 column, thereby saving time and expense compared with longer columns. Particular care should be employed when analysing samples from sheep or cattle that are grain-fed due to co-eluting of C18:1n-8t.
... Steers grazing perennial ryegrass for 158 days display higher n-3 PUFA (as a proportion of total FA) and lower n-6:n-3 PUFA ratios, compared to steers grazing perennial ryegrass pasture for 44 days and 99 days (Noci et al, 2005a). Feeding concentrates in the finishing period to animals reared on pasture causes depletion of ALA and higher accretion of LA and a longer finishing period on concentrate, significantly attenuating all beneficial characteristics achieved by grass feeding (Ponnampalam et al, 2006). Roughage conservation methods such as haying or silage production reduce the initial concentrations of antioxidants and PUFA. ...
... The PUFA/SFA ratio is nowadays recommended to be above 0.4 or 0.5 to prevent an excess of SFA, which has a negative effect on the level of plasmatic LDL cholesterol, and an excess of PUFAs, some of which are precursors of clotting agents and are involved in the etiology of some cancers [62]. In addition, the higher contents of total MUFAs found in the meat from the concentrate system is in accordance with other publications [7,46,51,59,63,64] and could be due to the incidence of ingredients in the concentrates, which provide different composition profiles and are of interest for human nutrition. ...
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Simple Summary In Uruguay and some other countries in the region, where pasture grazing has always been predominant in beef production, steers are now increasingly fed grains to shorten the production time. This has implications for meat quality, so meat from both systems (pasture and concentrate) was compared under refrigerated retail conditions in this study. Meat from pasture-fed steers exhibited lower levels of lipid and protein oxidation during the display period, likely due to the higher levels of antioxidants, such as β-carotene and α-tocopherol, found in this investigation. In addition, meat from pasture-raised steers was healthier for consumers in terms of its fatty acid composition and lower intramuscular fat content. In conclusion, meat from pasture-fed steers was more stable during retail refrigeration, possibly allowing for a longer shelf-life, and was healthier for consumers compared to meat from concentrate-fed steers. Abstract Beef production in Uruguay is based on pasture (~85%) or concentrate (~15%), resulting in differences in meat quality. The objective of this study was to compare the oxidative stability and color of beef from these two systems during refrigerated retail display. For these purposes, the Semimembranosus muscle was removed from ten Aberdeen Angus steers raised and fed on pasture (130 days prior to slaughter) and from another ten steers fed concentrate (100 days prior to slaughter), sliced. The muscles were placed in a refrigerated showcase for 3, 6, and 9 days. The contents of β-carotene, α-tocopherol, and fatty acids were determined before the meat was placed on display. Lipid and protein oxidation, color, and heme iron content were determined before and during display. The meat from pasture-fed steers had a lower intramuscular fat content (1.78 ± 0.15 vs. 4.52 ± 0.46), lower levels of monounsaturated fatty acids, a lower n-6/n-3 ratio, less lipid and protein oxidation, lower L* and a* values, and higher levels of α-linolenic acid, DHA, total n-3, β-carotene, and α-tocopherol. In conclusion, the meat from pasture-fed steers was more stable during retail display from an oxidative point of view, which may be due to its higher levels of antioxidant compounds such as β-carotene and α-tocopherol and had a healthier fatty acid profile for consumers.
... The PUFA/SFA ratio is nowadays recommended to be above 0.4-0.5 to prevent an excess of SFA, which have a negative effect on the level of plasmatic LDL cholesterol, and an excess of PUFA, which some of them are precursors of clotting agents and are involved in the etiology of some cancers [61]. Besides, total MUFA content was lower in meat from pasture system (P < 0.05) ( Table 2), which is in accordance with other publications [7,46,51,58,62,63]. Furthermore, n-3 content was higher (P < 0.001) and the n-6/n-3 rate was lower (P < 0.05) in meat from pasture ( Table 2), which is desirable because the balance between n-6 and n-3 PUFA is an important determinant in decreasing the risk for cardiovascular diseases and in the prevention of atherosclerosis [64]. ...
Preprint
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Beef meat production in Uruguay is based on pasture or concentrate feeding systems, leading to differences in meat quality. The objective of this study was to compare the oxidative and color stability during refrigerated retail display of beef meat from these two systems. For this, ten Aberdeen Angus steers were reared and fed on pasture and other ten were finished on a concentrate diet. After slaughter, the Semimembranosus muscle was cut into slices and put in a refrigerated showcase for 3, 6, and 9 days simulating commercial conditions. The β-carotene, α-tocopherol, and fatty acid content were determined before the display, and the lipid and protein oxidation, color parameters, and heme iron content were determined before and during the display. Meat from steers fed pasture had a lower content of intramuscular fat, monounsaturated fatty acids, n-6/n-3 ratio, lipid and protein oxidation, L* and a* values, and a higher content of linolenic acid, DHA, total n-3, β-carotene, and α-tocopherol. In conclusion, meat from pasture-fed steers was more stable during the retail display, which can probably be explained by a higher content of antioxidant compounds, such as β-carotene and α-tocopherol, and presented a healthier fatty acid profile.
... Now they are 20 mg/100 g of meat. 134,136 Animal milk is also less suitable for human consumption. Milking animals only began around 6000 years ago. ...
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Introduction: As of now, no study has combined research from different sciences to determine the most suitable diet for humans. This issue is urgent due to the predicted population growth, the effect of this on the environment, and the deterioration of human health and associated costs. Methods: A literature review determined whether an optimal diet for humans exists and what such a diet is, followed by six meta-analyses. The standard criteria for conducting meta-analyses of observational studies were followed. A review of literature reporting Hazard Ratios with a 95% confidence interval for red meat intake, dairy intake, plant-based diet, fiber intake, and serum IGF-1 levels were extracted to calculate effect sizes. Results: Results calculated using NCSS software show that high meat consumption increases mortality probability by 18% on average and increases diabetes risk by 50%. Plant-based and high-fiber diets decrease mortality by 15% and 20% respectively (p < .001). Plant-based diets decreased diabetes risk by 27%, and dairy consumption (measured by increased IGF-1 levels) increased cancer probability by 48% (p < 0.01). A vegetarian or Mediterranean diet was not found to decrease the probability of heart disease. A vegetarian diet can be healthy or not, depending on the foods consumed. A Mediterranean diet with high quantities of meat and dairy products will not produce the health effects desired. The main limitations of the study were that observational studies were heterogeneous and limited by potential confounders. Discussion: The literature and meta-analyses point to an optimal diet for humans that has followed our species from the beginnings of humankind. The optimal diet is a whole food, high fiber, low-fat, 90+% plant-based diet. This diet allowed humans to become the most developed species on Earth. To ensure people’s nutritional needs are met healthily and sustainably, governmental dietary interventions are necessary.
... Meat from grassfed or forage ruminants has a greater concentration of omega-3 fatty acids than grain-fed counterparts. 43 An accurate nutritional assessment requires consideration of the meat's nutritional value based on the animal's diet. ...
... L'herbe verte est riche en AGPI n-3 et en antioxydants et permet d'obtenir naturellement des produits plus riches en AGPI n-3 et en antioxydants, à la fois pour les ruminants (Berthelot et Gruffat, 2018 ; Martin Davis et al., 2022), le porc (Lebret et Čandek-Potokar, 2022a) et les oeufs (Mugnai et al., 2014). La viande bovine produite à l'herbe présente ainsi des teneurs environ deux fois plus élevés en AGPI n-3, des teneurs réduites (-21 %) en acide palmitique (proathérogène) et des teneurs plus élevées en CLA (Berthelot et Gruffat, 2018 ;Davis et al., 2022) que la viande issue d'animaux nourris avec des régimes riches en concentrés ; la finition en bâtiments diminue ces bénéfices et peut même les éliminer complètement (Ponnampalam et al., 2006). Ces avantages sur les propriétés nutritionnelles s'accompagnent d'avantages quant aux propriétés organoleptiques (flaveur plus intense, produits plus typés) et d'image (accès des animaux au plein air et alimentation à l'herbe). ...
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Cette synthèse dresse un bilan critique de l'état des connaissances sur la qualité des aliments d'origine animale selon les conditions de production de l’animal et de transformation des produits, y compris les attentes et comportements des consommateurs et les effets de la consommation des aliments sur la santé humaine. La qualité a été déclinée selon sept dimensions : sanitaire, commerciale, organoleptique, nutritionnelle, technologique, d’usage et d’image. Cette dernière recouvre les dimensions éthiques, culturelles et environnementales associées à l'origine de l'aliment et à la manière dont il a été élaboré. Ce cadre permet de mettre en évidence les priorités accordées à ces différentes dimensions et d'identifier les antagonismes et synergies potentiels entre elles. Nous faisons un constat de priorité accordée aux dimensions commerciales de la qualité, notamment pour les produits standards. Cette priorité a fortement orienté la sélection génétique des animaux et les pratiques d’élevage dans toutes les filières. Elle a permis des gains quantitatifs considérables, mais souvent au détriment d'autres dimensions de la qualité. Des exemples emblématiques sont le poulet de chair standard, pour lequel la sélection sur la vitesse de croissance et le rendement en filet ont eu des conséquences délétères sur les propriétés organoleptiques, nutritionnelles et d'image, et le devenir des mâles dans la filière poules pondeuses ; et certaines filières laitières, qui ont fortement spécialisé leurs animaux. La qualité peut se construire mais aussi s’altérer tout au long de la chaîne alimentaire. Nous soulignons les facteurs et les périodes critiques, comme les pratiques d’élevage, notamment l'alimentation des animaux, les phases de pré-abattage et d'abattage, les pratiques de transformation et de formulation des aliments. Nous pointons certains facteurs qui créent des antagonismes entre différentes dimensions de la qualité, comme la castration des porcs mâles, la substitution des aliments d'origine marine par des aliments d'origine végétale chez les poissons, et l'utilisation des nitrites dans la transformation de la viande. Les recherches s’orientent vers les possibles compromis entre ces effets positifs et négatifs et/ou vers des solutions pour dépasser ces antagonismes. Il y a aussi des aliments qui valorisent des synergies entre différentes dimensions de la qualité et entre les phases de production et de transformation, notamment les indications géographiques. Les études d’épidémiologie nutritionnelle montrent des associations entre la consommation d'aliments d'origine animale et l'augmentation ou la diminution du risque de maladies chroniques ; elles ont permis de formuler des recommandations en matière de santé publique. Cependant, elles ne prennent pas encore en compte les conditions de production et de transformation, et nous pointons le besoin d’une meilleure connexion entre les communautés scientifiques à l’échelle de l’élevage, de la transformation, de la nutrition humaine et de l'épidémiologie pour combler cette lacune. Les besoins de recherche et les pistes d'action publique sont discutés.
... The decline is largely due to meat being an important source of n-3 long-chain fatty acids for the Australian population, particularly for those consuming little or no fish [51,52]. Kesse-Guyot and colleagues [53] have also identified n-3 long-chain fatty acid requirements as being potentially challenging to meet using plantbased diets, although smaller changes in n-3 long-chain fatty acids would likely occur in countries where meat has a lower n-3 long-chain fatty acid content due to the animals consuming more grains and less grass [54,55]. ...
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Sales of plant-based ‘meat’ and ‘milk’—products that mimic the visual and functional characteristics of animal-source foods—have increased rapidly during the past decade and are predicted to continue to increase. As plant-based ‘meat’ and ‘milk’ are nutritionally dissimilar to the animal-source originals, this study aimed to estimate the nutritional implications for the Australian population of substituting ‘Easily Swappable’ animal-source meat and dairy milk with plant-based imitation products. Computer simulation modelling was undertaken using dietary intake data collected in 2011–12 from a nationally representative survey sample. Conservative and Accelerated dietary transition scenarios were modelled in which various amounts of dairy milk and animal-source meat were replaced with plant-based ‘milk’ and plant-based ‘meat’, for the entire population and for various sub-populations. The scenarios were based on sales reports and economic projections. Modelling revealed that the intake of nutrients already at risk of inadequate intake, such as iodine and vitamin B12 (particularly for females), zinc (particularly for males) and n-3 long-chain fatty acids (for adults), would likely be adversely impacted in an Accelerated scenario. In conclusion, widespread replacement of dairy milk and animal-source meat with plant-based ‘milk’ and ‘meat’ may increase the risk of nutritional inadequacies in the Australian population. Messages and policy actions promoting the transition to more environmentally sustainable diets should be designed to avoid such adverse nutritional impacts.
... Increased nutritional content and health benefits of these high-quality protein sources will expand distribution, consumer options, and accessibility, particularly among food-insecure people. As a result of its possible effects on human health and animal productivity, interest in conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has grown in recent decades [44]. ...
Chapter
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This chapter discusses the recent advance in meat. Meat is usually a rich source of protein and is also composed of fats, vitamins, and minerals. The composition of these nutrients is different depending on the type of meat. Meat is basically divided into two categories: red and white. Due to high protein and fat content, the chances of oxidation are increased. The oxidation process causes meat spoilage. To protect the meat from spoilage, recent technologies and natural antioxidants are being used. Non-thermal processing techniques including gamma irradiation, e-beam irradiation, high-pressure processing, and pulsed electric field produce safe and quality meat because in recent technologies, conditions can be controlled. Conclusively, recent advances in meat and meat products play a role in improving product life and human health.
... Compared to conventional grain-finished beef, GFB contains more omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids (FAs) including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), twice as much conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), and 25% more polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs) [3,[8][9][10][11]. GFB also contains less omega-6 (n-6) PUFAs, less total fat, and less cholesterol-raising saturated FAs (SFAs) [12,13]. GFB has an Samples from grazing areas and supplemental feeds were collected every two weeks. ...
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Grass-finished beef (GFB) has demonstrated wide nutritional variations with some GFB having a considerably higher n-6:n-3 ratio compared to grain-finished beef. To better understand these variations, the current study investigated the effects of commonly used supplemental feeds on the nutritional profile of GFB. This two-year study involved 117 steers randomly allocated to one of four diets: (1) grass+hay (G-HAY), (2) grass+baleage (G-BLG), (3) grass+soybean hulls (G-SH), and (4) baleage+soybean hulls in feedlot (BLG-SH). Feed samples were analyzed for their nutritional value, and beef samples underwent analysis for fatty acids (FAs), vitamin E, minerals, lipid oxidation, and shear force. FAs were measured by GC-MS, vitamin E was analyzed chromatographically, minerals were analyzed by ICP-MS, and lipid oxidation was measured via a thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay. G-SH beef had the highest n-6:n-3 ratio (p < 0.001), while BLG-SH beef contained less vitamin E (p < 0.001) and higher TBARS values (p < 0.001) compared to the other groups. G-HAY beef contained more long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated FAs compared to the other groups (p < 0.001). In conclusion, G-HAY beef had the most beneficial nutritional profile, while soybean hulls increased the n-6:n-3 ratio of beef.
... It is for these same reasons that other researchers may have found differences in the quality of grass and grainfed beef (Hwang & Joo, 2017). Irrespective, these current findings are restricted to the tenderness and juiciness quality parameters and do not account for the flavour and fatty acid (nutritional value) differences that have been reported for grass and grain-fed beef product lines (Evers et al., 2020;Musa, Garmyn, Legako, Woerner, & Miller, 2020;Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006). Additional research of wet ageing period and product line effects on these other quality parameters may, therefore, be warranted. ...
Article
The quality, colour, and shelf-life of wet aged grass and grain-fed beef were compared. Striploins (n = 24) were each divided into 6 portions and were assigned to different ageing periods (0, 3, 5, 8, 11, or 14 weeks). Analysis demonstrated that declines in shear force and particle size occurred within the first 3 weeks of ageing. Extended ageing resulted in increases in beef purge and pH; and decreases in total moisture, drip, and cooking loss. The initial grass-fed beef drip (3.1%) and particle sizes (201.0 μm) were higher than for grain-fed beef (1.8% and 145.2 μm, respectively). Total viable counts were > 7 cfu/g after 5 weeks of ageing. Total volatile basic nitrogen was <15 mg/100 g, even after 14 weeks of ageing. Product line by ageing period interactions affected vitamin E and colour parameters. In conclusion, wet aged beef maintains ‘acceptable’ microbial loads for 5–8 weeks, irrespective of product line and without any deterioration in its quality.
... Grass-fed beef (GFB) meets the demands of consumers who are concerned about nutrition and the environment (Xue et al., 2010). Compared to grain-fed beef, grass-fed and grass-finished beef contains less total fat, less cholesterol, and less myristic and palmitic acids-saturated fatty acids (SFAs) found to be more deleterious for cholesterol levels (Ponnampalam et al., 2006;Alfaia et al., 2009). GFB contains twice as much CLA and up to 25% more PUFAs compared to conventional beef (Van Elswyk and Mcneill, 2014;Berthelot and Gruffat, 2018;Lenighan et al., 2019;Prache et al., 2020;Butler et al., 2021). ...
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As the global population increases, so does meat consumption. This trend is accompanied by concerns regarding the meat industry, and consumers are demanding transparency on the environmental and health effects of the products they are purchasing. Many leading health organizations recommend reducing red meat consumption. Nevertheless, no differentiation is made among red meats and beef. The beef production system is generally ignored despite nutritional differences between grain- and grass-fed beef. Compared to grain-fed beef, grass-fed beef contains a healthier fatty acid profile, including more omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and conjugated linoleic acid, and increased concentrations of phytochemicals desired by health-conscious customers. However, there is a lack of consistency among grass-fed beef in the United States regarding clear product labeling and cattle dietary components. Grass-fed beef labeling confusion has emerged, including misunderstandings between grass-fed and grass-finished beef. Along with this, previous studies observed significant nutritional variation among grass-finished beef from different producers across the country. Cattle diet has the strongest influence on the nutritional composition of beef. Therefore, understanding differences in feeding practices is key to understanding differing nutritional quality of grass-fed beef. Feeding cattle diverse pastures composed of multiple plant species including grasses and legumes managed in a rotational grazing fashion results in higher omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and phytochemical levels in beef compared to feedlots and monocultures. Seasonal differences including changes in temperature, rainfall, grazing practices, and plant growth cycles affect the nutritional composition of feeds and ultimately meat. Additional feeds utilized in grass-fed beef production systems such as conserved forages may reduce or increase health-promoting nutrients in grass-fed beef, while supplements such as grape byproducts and flaxseed may improve its nutritional profile. Further research should measure the effects of individual feedstuff and the finishing period on the nutritional profile on grass-fed beef. A better understanding of these details will be a step toward the standardization of pasture-raised ruminant products, strengthening the relationship between grass-fed beef consumption and human health.
... Compared to concentrate-fed beef, grass-fed beef contains around two-fold higher levels of n-3 PUFA, lower levels (À21%) of the proatherogenic palmitic acid, and higher levels of conjugated linoleic acid (Berthelot and Gruffat, 2018). In-stall finishing decreases these differences and may even eliminate them entirely (Ponnampalam et al., 2006). These nutritional benefits also conjugate with sensory (more intense flavour, more characterful products) and image benefits ('grass-fed') (Delanoue et al., 2018;Peyraud et al., 2019). ...
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This article critically reviews the current state of knowledge on the quality of animal-source foods according to animal production and food processing conditions, including consumer expectations-behaviours and the effects of consumption of animal-source foods on human health. Quality has been defined through seven core attributes: safety, commercial, sensory, nutritional, technological, convenience, and image. Image covers ethical, cultural and environmental dimensions associated with the origin of the food and the way it is produced and processed. This framework enabled to highlight the priorities given to the different quality attributes. It also helped to identify potential antagonisms and synergies among quality attributes, between production and processing stages, and among stakeholders. Primacy is essentially given to commercial quality attributes, especially for standard commodity animal-source foods. This primacy has strongly influenced genetic selection and farming practices in all livestock commodity chains and enabled substantial quantitative gains, although at the expense of other quality traits. Focal issues are the destructuration of chicken muscle that compromises sensory, nutritional and image quality attributes, and the fate of males in the egg and dairy sectors, which have heavily specialised their animals. Quality can be gained but can also be lost throughout the farm-to-fork continuum. Our review highlights critical factors and periods throughout animal production and food processing routes, such as on-farm practices, notably animal feeding, preslaughter and slaughter phases, food processing techniques, and food formulation. It also reveals on-farm and processing factors that create antagonisms among quality attributes, such as the castration of male pigs, the substitution of marine-source feed by plant-based feed in fish, and the use of sodium nitrite in meat processing. These antagonisms require scientific data to identify trade-offs among quality attributes and/or solutions to help overcome these tensions. However, there are also food products that value synergies between quality attributes and between production and processing phases, particularly Geographical Indications, such as for cheese and dry-cured ham. Human epidemiological studies have found associations between consumption of animal-source foods and increased or decreased risk for chronic non-communicable diseases. These associations have informed public health recommendations. However, they have not yet considered animal production and food processing conditions. A concerted and collaborative effort is needed from scientists working in animal science, food process engineering, consumer science, human nutrition and epidemiology in order to address this research gap. Avenues for research and main options for policy action are discussed.
... This is supported by previous work (Logan et al., 2020), however varied sample classes, such as grass supplemented and short grain-fed are not identifiable through the PCA alone. Given that production system of origin elicits a large effect on the nutritional composition of meat and the composition of the fat (Daley et al., 2010), the types of forage fed to cattle affect gains and carcass characteristics and it is well known that crop variety, season, year and geographic location can affect the nutrient content of feedstuffs (Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006;Preston & Rodríguez, 2004). Therefore, grass-fed beef production may result in highly variable fatty acid compositions given the variety of genetics, forages and management practices utilised, which affect the fatty acid composition of beef (Leonhardt, Gebert, & Wenk, 1997). ...
Article
Australian grain-fed and grass-fed beef products garner premium market prices and many beef processors market branded beef supported by production system claims. Given beef cattle nutrition alters the fatty acid composition of subcutaneous fat and grass and grain-fed cattle can be differentiated using Raman spectra of the fat, this study aimed to evaluate if Raman spectroscopy and chemometric modelling can differentiate grass fed cattle from a variety of production systems. To this end, subcutaneous fat from a total of 520 beef carcases with 130 from long term grain-fed, short term grain-fed, grass-fed and supplemented grass-fed beef cattle were measured. Classification of carcases using Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA) demonstrated spectra were able to correctly classify long term grain-fed (96%), short term grain-fed (85%), grass-fed (83%) and supplemented grass-fed (83%) carcases based on the test dataset. Spectral patterns including peaks that characterise fatty acids have been shown to underpin this classification. Overall, this study demonstrates Raman spectroscopy is a useful tool for the authentication and discrimination of beef carcases from different production systems.
... This is supported by previous work (Logan et al., 2020), however varied sample classes, such as grass supplemented and short grain-fed are not identifiable through the PCA alone. Given that production system of origin elicits a large effect on the nutritional composition of meat and the composition of the fat (Daley et al., 2010), the types of forage fed to cattle affect gains and carcass characteristics and it is well known that crop variety, season, year and geographic location can affect the nutrient content of feedstuffs (Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006;Preston & Rodríguez, 2004). Therefore, grass-fed beef production may result in highly variable fatty acid compositions given the variety of genetics, forages and management practices utilised, which affect the fatty acid composition of beef (Leonhardt, Gebert, & Wenk, 1997). ...
Article
The diet of cattle has been shown to alter both subcutaneous fat and muscle fatty acid composition, and these differences cause a change in the Raman spectra of the fat due to the different chemical bonds associated with these biochemical changes. Because biochemical changes only lead to subtle changes in the Raman spectra, statistical methods based upon chemometric modelling are necessary to extract indicative information on the type of feed consumed. This investigation undertook a feasibility study using a limited sample set derived from two producers in one location to ascertain the potential for Raman spectroscopy to accurately discriminate grain‐fed cattle from grass‐fed cattle and investigated the usefulness of principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares discriminate analysis (PLS‐DA) to best discriminate between feeding groups using the information from the Raman spectra. The first two principal components accounted for 83% of the variation in the spectra and demonstrated discrimination of samples by feed type. PLS‐DA resulted in a model that was able to accurately predict grain‐ and grass‐fed carcases with a misclassification rate of 3.5%. Changes in beef cattle diets lead to subtle changes in subcutaneous fat; using Raman spectroscopy with chemometric modelling, these changes can be identified and used to identify the production system of beef products. This study successfully uses Raman spectroscopy as an automated, nondestructive and rapid technique in the range of 600–2000 cm−1 in combination with pattern recognition of unsupervised (PCA) and supervised (PLS‐DA) techniques to classify the production system of cattle between grain and grass fed. Identification of sample groupings using PCA of Raman Spectra (600‐ 2100 cm‐1) from subcutaneous fat on beef carcases.
... The linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) was the most abundant PUFA (Table 4) for all treatments, but it was significantly higher for both groups fed RR than Control (P < 0.05). These values are higher than those found by Ponnampalam, Mann, and Sinclair (2006) beef fed long term grain ration. The C20:4n-6ARA was identical among treatments, however, the C18:3n-3 was increased with RR-based diets (Table 4). ...
... The n6:n3 ratio is a significant indicator of the nutritional value of meat since it affects risk factors linked to the development of cancer and heart disease and the formation of thrombi or clots that can cause heart attacks [33]. The type of feeding regimens used in beef cattle production can impact the level of essential fats in red meat due to the differences in the fatty acid composition of the diet [34]. ...
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Background: The increasing costs of feed has subsequently increased the costs of production of livestock, thereby decreasing the profit margin of this sector. The utilization of agro-industrial by-products has to some extent substitute some of the corn grains and soyabean meal, commonly used in animal feeds. In Malaysia, palm kernel cake (PKC) is a by-product of the oil palm industry and is frequently used to supply both crude protein (14-16% CP) and energy (11 MJ/kg) in ruminants. The energy and protein content are adequate for maintenance in the majority of ruminants. However, highly available energy supplementation is known to improve growth performance and protein deposition. This study was carried out to determine the effect on the quality of meat and fatty acid composition of the semitendinosus (ST), supraspinatus (SS), and longissimus lumborum (LL) muscles of Dorper lambs by including corn as an energy source in a basal diet of PKC urea-treated rice straw. Results: The results show that the LL muscle-drip loss was greater in animals supplemented with 5% corn compared to the other groups. Higher pH values of SS and LL muscles were observed in animals supplemented with 5 and 10% corn. Furthermore, the L* value of ST muscle was increased in lambs fed on 5% corn while, reduced in those fed on 0% corn, but the a* and b* values were not significantly different in the treatment groups. The fatty acid composition of the SS muscles showed that lambs fed on 10% corn had higher levels of sum PUFA n-3 compared to those fed on 0% corn. The concentration of C18:1trans11 and CLA c12 t10 in ST muscle from the lambs fed on supplemented diets were higher than those of the controls. Conclusion: This study has concluded the supplementation of corn as a source of energy into a PKC urea-treated rice straw-based diet increased the PUFA concentrations of muscles as compared to control groups.
... However, these FA were unchanged, in the present study. A possible basis for this outcome could be the low initial content of these FA candidates, which was somewhat unexpected because the samples were sourced from grass-fed cattle (Daley, Abbott, Doyle, Nader, & Larson, 2010;Nuernberg et al., 2005;Ponnampalam, Mann, & Sinclair, 2006;Pouzo et al., 2016). Based on this relatively lower content of vulnerable-to-peroxidation PUFA, it could be proposed that these reserves where therefore allowed greater protection against peroxidation than would be the case if PUFA content was higher, and their distributions exceeded phospholipid deposits. ...
Article
We investigated the fatty acid (FA) composition, oxidative biomarkers and quality traits of chilled beef. Specifically, striploin portions were held in vacuo and chilled (~ 1.5 °C) for up to 12 weeks, and analysed dependent on their assigned chilled storage period (0, 2, 5, 8, 10 and 12 weeks). There were no practical effects observed on beef FA composition as a result of chilled storage – including several polyunsaturated FA (PUFA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Intramuscular fat content was found to have a covariate effect, but only for saturated FA and monounsaturated FA. Vitamin E and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances were unchanged. Furthermore, improvements to shear force and particle size were evident at 2 weeks and thereafter, no further variation was evident. These findings suggest that beef produced to be healthier based on the EPA, DHA and PUFA content will remain so, for up to 12 weeks. Likewise, beef quality will be preserved across this same period.
... contains important macro-and micronutrients, including protein, iron, zinc, 312 selenium, potassium, vitamin D (43), a range of B-vitamins and, for grass-fed beef, 313VLCn3PUFAs(44)(45)(46). Many of these nutrients are important for healthy neurological 314 function, and low levels of vitamin D (2, 39), VLCn3PUFAs (12, 47) and iron(48) have 315 been associated with increased risk and/or progression of MS. ...
Article
Background: The evidence associating diet and risk of multiple sclerosis (MS) is inconclusive. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate associations between a Mediterranean diet and risk of a first clinical diagnosis of central nervous system demyelination (FCD), a common precursor to MS. Methods: We used data from the 2003-2006 Ausimmune Study, an Australian multicenter, case-control study examining environmental risk factors for FCD, with participants matched on age, sex, and study region (282 cases, 558 controls; 18-59 y old; 78% female). The alternate Mediterranean diet score (aMED) was calculated based on data from a food-frequency questionnaire. We created a modified version of the aMED (aMED-Red) where ∼1 daily serving (65 g) of unprocessed red meat received 1 point. All other components remained the same as aMED. Conditional logistic regression (254 cases, 451 controls) was used to test associations between aMED and aMED-Red scores and categories and risk of FCD, adjusting for history of infectious mononucleosis, serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, smoking, education, total energy intake, and dietary underreporting. Results: There was no statistically significant association between aMED and risk of FCD [per 1-SD increase in aMED score: adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 0.89; 95% CI: 0.75, 1.06; P = 0.181]. There was evidence of a nonlinear relation between aMED-Red and risk of FCD when a quadratic term was used (P = 0.016). Compared with the lowest category of aMED-Red, higher categories were significantly associated with reduced risk of FCD, corresponding to a 37% (aOR: 0.63; 95% CI: 0.41, 0.98; P = 0.039), 52% (aOR: 0.48; 95% CI: 0.28, 0.83; P = 0.009), and 42% (aOR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.35, 0.96; P = 0.034) reduced risk of FCD in categories 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Conclusions: A Mediterranean diet, including unprocessed red meat, was associated with reduced risk of FCD in this Australian adult population. The addition of unprocessed red meat to a Mediterranean diet may be beneficial for those at high risk of MS.
... There are a number of factors underlying the popularity of GFB, including perceptions surrounding its healthfulness, environmental impact, and animal welfare. Numerous studies have outlined the differences between GFB and conventionally-finished beef (CFB), indicating that GFB has higher proportions of nutrients beneficial to human health (Chail et al., 2016;Duckett et al., 2013;Duckett et al., 2009;Ponnampalam et al., 2006). However, a majority of GFB nutritional profile analysis have been limited to controlled research trials and while the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) reports a standard nutritional value for GFB, limited studies have been conducted to assess the nutritional qualities of commercially available GFB. ...
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Consumer interest in the source of their food, its environmental footprint, and the impact of diet on health has supported the growth of the grass-finished beef (GFB) industry. Studies have concluded that GFB has distinct nutritional differences from conventionally-finished beef. As the GFB industry continues to expand, it is vital to continue to explore the nutritional complexities and variation in the product. To achieve this, a survey of grass-finishing production systems throughout the USA was conducted, and beef finished on the participating farms was analyzed for its nutritional composition, including fatty acid (FA), mineral and fat-soluble vitamin contents. Samples were analyzed from 12 producers and annual production capacity of farms ranged from 25 to 5,000 cattle, with a mean age of cattle at harvest of 26.8 ± 2.30 mo. An array of finishing diets included grazing exclusively in perennial pasture, incorporating annual forage crops, and feeding a variety of harvested forages with supplementation of non-starch feed byproducts. Beef muscle tissue FA content was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The mean ratio of omega-6 (n-6) to omega-3 (n-3) FA in samples varied significantly by producer, ranging from 1.80 to 28.3 (P < 0.0001), with an overall sample set median of 4.10. A selection of minerals including iron, magnesium, and potassium were analyzed by ICP emission spectroscopy and mineral content significantly differed by producer for all minerals (P < 0.001). Mean α-tocopherol and β-carotene content was 610.6 µg/100 g beef and 32.2 µg/100 g, respectively. The amount of these antioxidants also varied between producers (P < 0.0001), but tended to be greater in beef finished solely on fresh forages. This survey indicates that commercially available GFB can vary in nutritional composition due to the diverse practices used to grass-finish cattle.
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Background Meat quality in yak is influenced by the fluctuation of nutritional composition in different grazing seasons on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. However, the molecular mechanism underlying in yak meat remains unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the seasonal dynamics of meat quality in yak by transcriptomics and metabolomics techniques. Twelve healthy female yaks with a similar weight were divided into two groups, including the warm season group (WS) and cold season group (CS). After slaughter, samples of longissimus lumborum were collected and subjected to transcriptomics and metabolomics to explore the effects of different seasons on meat quality. Results Yak in the WS group had higher contents of n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), n-6 PUFA, threonine, and valine compared to the CS group, but the pH45min and b* values were lower. A total of 75 differentially expressed metabolites in the longissimus lumborum muscle were identified, with 23 metabolites upregulated and 52 metabolites downregulated in the WS group. These metabolites were mainly enriched in the pathway of glycine, serine and threonine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, and carbohydrate digestion and absorption. In comparison, the WS group exhibited 262 upregulated genes in the longissimus lumborum muscle and 81 downregulated genes relatives to the CS group, which were enriched in the fat deposition of TGF-beta, ECM-receptor interaction, MAPK, and PPAR signaling pathway. Conclusions Among these, downregulated genes NPNT, GADL1, SESN3, and CPXM1 were associated with lipid metabolism and fat deposition in grazing yaks. It was found that DDC, DHTKD1, CCBL1, GCDH, and AOC1 involved in the tryptophan metabolism played an important role in the regulation of energy metabolism in yak.
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Provenance is becoming increasingly important in meat supply chains as it lends products higher perceived quality. However, its precise definition and interpretation along with its associated characteristics factors have remained somewhat elusive. This review meticulously defines meat provenance while dissecting the essential factors and associated quality attributes that constitute its essence and are subsequently employed to establish pertinent markers for provenance. Meat provenance emerges as a multi‐dimensional construct stemming from the adept management of a constellation of factors relating to geographical origin, farm production system, traceability, and authenticity. Through intricate interactions, these factors unveil innate originality that not only forges a distinct reputation but also imparts a unique typicity to the meat product. Gaining insights into a meat product's provenance becomes attainable by scrutinizing its pertinent composition and organoleptic quality traits. Trace elements and stable isotopes stand out as provenance markers, forging a direct connection to both geographical origin and dietary sources. While somewhat less direct in linkage, other markers such as plant biomarkers, fatty acid composition, pH levels, flavour and aromatic compounds along with organoleptic characteristics contribute to the overall understanding of provenance. Additionally, the identification of animal species and breeds serves as key markers, particularly in the context of protected geographical indications. The study findings are useful for the various stakeholders of how the information for meat provenance can be linked with intrinsic and extrinsic factors for meat quality and protecting the integrity of the supply chain with special reference to traceability and authenticity. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
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Edible beef tallow (BT) has been widely used in Sichuan hotpot due to its unique flavor and texture. However, BT should not be consumed in excess caused by its trans-fatty acids and cholesterol issues. In this study, a BT substitute was prepared after enzymatic interesterification in a pilot-scale packed-bed reactor using soybean oil and fully hydrogenated palm oil (4:3, w/w) as feedstock. The products were characterized against BT in terms of fatty acid/triacylglycerol compositions, solid fat content, polymorphism, and melting/crystallization behaviors to select the most promising BT substitute. The optimal flow rate was 120 mL/min. Changes in volatile compounds during stir-frying and simmering were also investigated for Sichuan hotpots made with these two oils. The volatile compounds of BT substitute were similar to that of natural BT. The findings will contribute to expanding the base oil categories of Sichuan hotpot oils.
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Backgrounds and Objectives: Multiple sclerosis is a common cause of neurological disabilities worldwide. Diet is a potential risk factor for the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis and dietary intervention can be used as a prevention method for multiple sclerosis. The purpose of this study was the investigation of relationships between the type of meat consumed by the patients and multiple sclerosis. Materials and Methods: In this systematic review and meta-analysis, Persian and English databases were searched, including PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, Springer, Cochrane library, Magiran and Gray Literature (Bibliograph, Congress abstracts), for the publications of 1998–2020, using keywords of meat, fish meat, red meat, multiple sclerosis, processed and non-processed meat. Out of 186 selected articles, 30 full-text articles were entered into the quality assessment process and results of 10 articles were analyzed in this study. Results: The sample size of ten selected studies was 11024. Statistically significant decreasing effects were identified for white meat on multiple sclerosis disease with the odds ratio of 0.81 [95% confidence interval (0.74, 0.88)] and significant correlations were detected between non-processed meat and multiple sclerosis with the odds ratio of 0.85 [95% confidence interval (0.75, 0.95)]. Calculated odds ratio between the processed meat and multiple sclerosis was 1.21 [95% confidence interval (0.93, 1.49)]. Conclusion: Processed red meat consumption increases risks of multiple sclerosis. Diets of non-processed red meats as well as white meats include protective effects on this disease. Keywords: Multiple sclerosis, Processed meat, Non-processed meat, White meat, Risk
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Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for the octadecadienoic acid isomers containing conjugated double bonds. This article reviewed CLA isomers from biological activities, biosynthesis mechanisms and analytical methods. The biological activities of CLA isomers in anti-obesity, cardiovascular protection, diabetes management and anti-cancer in vitro and in vivo were mainly reviewed. More attention has been paid to the production of the specific CLA isomer due to its biological activity. The biosynthesis methods of CLA isomers, such as dietary modification in ruminants and fermentation by microorganisms & enzymes, were systematically introduced. A rapid, accurate and economic analysis method will promote the research in both biological activities and biosynthesis mechanisms of CLA isomers. The merits of UV spectrometry, GC, HPLC, MS and CE used in the analysis of CLA isomers were also compared in detail. This paper aims to put into perspective the current status and future trends on CLA isomers.
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To test the hypothesis that lambs fed freeze-dried Nannochloropsis oceanica (NO) biomass will have a higher deposition of EPA in tissues than those fed other Nannochloropsis EPA-sources, we fed 28 lambs with one of four diets: i) C, control, without EPA; ii) O, with 1.2% Nannochloropsis oil; iii) SD, with 12.3% spray-dried NO biomass; iv) FD, with 9.2% freeze-dried NO biomass. Dry matter intake, growth, tissues fatty acid composition, oxidative stability and sensory traits of the resultant meat were evaluated. The EPA was highest in tissues of lambs fed SD and FD compared with O but was similar between SD and FD. Total trans-18:1 did not differ among treatments, but the t10/t11–18:1 ratio decreased with all EPA containing diets. EPA diets were also supplemented with Vitamin E preventing the lipid oxidation in EPA-enriched meat and the meat sensory traits were not affected although occasionally some off-flavours were detected in FD meat.
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Beef contains functional fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid and long-chain fatty acids. This review summarizes results from studies comparing the fatty acid composition of beef from cattle fed either grass or grain-based feed. Since functional lipid components are contributed through dietary consumption of beef, the fatty acid composition is reported on mg/100 g of meat basis rather than on a percentage of total fat basis. Beef from grass-fed contains lesser total fat than that from grain-fed in all breeds of cattle. Reduced total fat content also influences the fatty acid composition of beef. A 100 g beef meat from grass-fed cattle contained 2,773 mg less total saturated fatty acids (SFA) than that from the same amount of grain-fed. Grass-fed also showed a more favorable SFA lipid profile containing less cholesterol-raising fatty acids (C12:0 to C16:0) but contained a lesser amount of cholesterol-lowering C18:0 than grain-fed beef. In terms of essential fatty acids, grass-fed beef showed greater levels of trans-vaccenic acid and long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA; EPA, DPA, DHA) than grain-fed beef. Grass-fed beef also contains an increased level of total n-3 PUFA which reduced the n-6 to n-3 ratio thus can offer more health benefits than grain-fed. The findings signify that grass-fed beef could exert protective effects against a number of diseases ranging from cancer to cardiovascular disease (CVD) as evidenced by the increased functional omega-3 PUFA and decreased undesirable SFA. Although grain-fed beef showed lesser EPA, DPA, and DHA, consumers should be aware that greater portions of grain-fed beef could also achieve a similar dietary intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids. Noteworthy, grain-fed beef contained higher total monounsaturated fatty acid that have beneficial roles in the amelioration of CVD risks than grass-fed beef. In Hanwoo beef, grain-fed showed higher EPA and DHA than grass-fed beef.
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Introduction: As of now, no study has combined research from different sciences to determine the most suitable diet for humans. This issue is urgent due to the predicted population growth, the effect of this on the environment, and the deterioration of human health and associated costs. Methods: A literature review determined whether an optimal diet for humans exists and what such a diet is, followed by six meta-analyses. The standard criteria for conducting meta-analyses of observational studies were followed. A review of literature reporting Hazard Ratios with a 95% confidence interval for red meat intake, dairy intake, plant-based diet, fiber intake, and serum IGF-1 levels were extracted to calculate effect sizes. Results: Results calculated using NCSS software show that high meat consumption increases mortality probability by 18% on average and increases diabetes risk by 50%. Plant-based and high-fiber diets decrease mortality by 15% and 20% respectively (p < .001). Plant-based diets decreased diabetes risk by 27%, and dairy consumption (measured by increased IGF-1 levels) increased cancer probability by 48% (p < 0.01). A vegetarian or Mediterranean diet was not found to decrease the probability of heart disease. A vegetarian diet can be healthy or not, depending on the foods consumed. A Mediterranean diet with high quantities of meat and dairy products will not produce the health effects desired. The main limitations of the study were that observational studies were heterogeneous and limited by potential confounders. Discussion: The literature and meta-analyses point to an optimal diet for humans that has followed our species from the beginnings of humankind. The optimal diet is a whole food, high fiber, low-fat, 90+% plant-based diet. This diet allowed humans to become the most developed species on Earth. To ensure people’s nutritional needs are met healthily and sustainably, governmental dietary interventions are necessary.
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Recently, Japanese black beef farms have grown to a large scale and have become highly densified. Marbling beef is produced by supplying a large amount of concentrated feed from early in the life of the cattle. As a result, chronic febrile illnesses such as respiratory diseases, arthritis, and otitis media are increasing, and it is speculated that immunity may deteriorate due to the special feeding. In this study, we investigated the dynamics of blood fatty acids, which are attracting attention as an immunomodulatory nutrient, in 120 Japanese black female fattening cattle aged 9 to 30 months. The amount of linoleic acid (LA), an omega-6 fatty acid, increased significantly in the early middle stage of fattening and remained high until the finishing stage, but arachidonic acid (AA) was almost unchanged. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), an omega-3 fatty acid, showed a significant decrease after the early middle stage of fattening, revealing an increase in the omega-6/omega-3 ratio.
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Common silage and concentrate-based diets in dairy and beef production may deliver insufficient amounts of essential fatty acids (EFA), thereby also reducing conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) in body tissues and milk. An impaired maternal EFA and CLA supply can have an important impact on calf postnatal development. The current study investigates how maternal supplementation with EFA and CLA affects muscle and adipose tissue development in neonatal calves. Holstein cows (n = 40) were abomasaly supplemented with coconut oil (control), CLA or EFA, or both combined during the transition period. Calves were fed their dam's colostrum until slaughter at day 5 of life. Fatty acid composition and tissue morphology were analyzed. In muscle and adipose tissues, EFA, CLA, and metabolites were elevated, indicating the effective transfer of maternally-supplemented FA to the offspring. Muscle fiber types, fiber nuclei, myosin heavy chain isoform distribution, capillarization, and fat cell size of intramuscular and other adipose tissues did not differ among groups. The results confirm that maternal nutrition during the transition period can alter the FA composition of the calf tissues. This could influence the offspring's development and health in the long-term, even though only minor effects were observed in the neonatal calves' tissue morphology.
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Conjugated fatty acids (CFAs) have received a deal of attention due to the increasing understanding of their beneficial physiological effects, especially the anti-cancer effects and metabolism-regulation activities. However, the production of CFAs is generally difficult. Several challenges are the low CFAs content in natural sources, the difficulty to chemically synthesize target CFA isomers in high purity, and the sensitive characteristics of CFAs. In this article, the current technologies to produce CFAs, including physical, chemical, and biotechnical approaches were summarized, with a focus on the conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) and conjugated linolenic acids (CLNAs) which are the most common investigated CFAs. CFAs usually demonstrate stronger physiological effects than other non-conjugated fatty acids; however, they are more sensitive to heat and oxidation. Consequently, the quality control throughout the entire production process of CFAs is significant. Special attention was given to the micro- or nano-encapsulation which presented as an emerging technique to improve the bioavailability and storage stability of CFAs. The current applications of CFAs and the potential research directions were also discussed.
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This chapter reviews epidemiological, toxicological and clinical trials literature to inform on the major disease groups that should be systematically researched in terms of eco-agri-food system risk factors. Disease groups covered include both nutrition-related diseases, as well as agriculture-related diseases linked to agricultural chemicals found in food and the environment, including: hunger-related morbidity, obesity and metabolic disorders; cardio-vascular diseases; food-borne-infections and zoonotic diseases; anti-microbial-resistant infections; chronic respiratory diseases; neoplasms; developmental and reproductive deficiencies (endocrine disruption); neuro-degenerative diseases; immune system disorders, food allergy and other food hypersensitivities; gastro-intestinal tract disorders; and poisoning, injury and certain other consequences of external causes. This paper highlights the need to consider the whole eco-agri-food system when considering the impact of the food system on human health, including overlapping pathways, from access to food and nutrition and dietary patterns, through food and environmental quality, to occupational hazards. In particular, it advocates for a system approach to scientific analysis, as a basis for decision-making to prevent chronic and non-communicable diseases related to eco-agri-food systems.
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The effect of feeding protected canola seed (PCS) and protected sunflower seed meal (PSM) supplements on the fatty acid profile and carcass characteristics of feedlot steers was examined. Fifty Hereford cross steers, average weight of 290 kg, were assigned to five groups of 10 and fed the following barley based concentrate rations for 133 days: I, control (containing 15% untreated sunflower seed meal (SSM)); 11, PSM 15%; 111, PCS 10%; IV, PSM 15% plus PCS 10%; V, PSM 15% plus PCS 15%. The inclusion of PCS, with and without PSM, increased the proportion of Cis unsaturated fatty acids in the subcutaneous, perirenal and omental fats; there were threefold increases in the proportion of linoleic (18: 2) acid, fivefold increases in linolenic (18 : 3) acid and smaller increases in the proportion of oleic acid (18 : 1). There was a 20-25% reduction in the proportion of palmitic acid, and the largest decrease was observed in the adipose tissue of steers receiving 15% PCS in the diet. Joint feeding of PCS and PSM significantly increased the dressing percentage of carcasses in Groups IV and V and fat depth in Group IV.
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Linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)] is the most abundant polyunsaturated fatty acid in the Western diet and is considered to be the primary source of tissue arachidonic acid [20:4(n-6)]. Dietary 20:4(n-6) may also contribute to tissue 20:4(n-6) levels in humans, but the extent of this contribution is unclear. We believe that literature estimates of 20:4(n-6) intake of 200-1000 mg/d are too high, possibly because of incorrect values in food composition tables where high amounts of 20:4(n-6) are recorded in margarines, some vegetable products and animal fat. We assessed the 20:4(n-6) content of common Australian foods and found that the 20:4(n-6) levels (on a 100-g edible basis), were 891 mg and 390 mg, respectively, for duck and chicken egg yolks, 294 mg for liver, 153 mg for kidney, 75 mg for skinless turkey, 56 mg for lean pork, 49 mg for lean lamb, 31 mg for chicken breast, 56 mg for chicken legs and 35 mg for lean beef. Eicosapentaenoic acid [20:5(n-3)] levels were < 10 mg/100 g in chicken meat, turkey meat, emu meat and chicken eggs, whereas the values for 20:5(n-3) for beef, lamb, liver, kidney and duck egg yolk ranged from 11 to 138 mg/100 g food. Applying our current 20:4(n-6) measurements to previously determined food intakes of Australian adults determined in an Australiawide survey in 1983, we estimated the mean 20:4(n-6) intake for Australian adult males to be 130 mg/d and females 96 mg/d. Whether such intakes of dietary 20:4(n-6) make an important contribution to tissue 20:4(n-6) levels is uncertain.
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Meat quality describes the attractiveness of meat to consumers. The present paper focuses on two major aspects of meat quality, tenderness and flavour. Both aspects of quality can be influenced by nutrition, principally through its effects on the amount and type of fat in meat. In several countries, high levels of intramuscular fat (marbling fat), i.e. above 30 g/kg muscle weight in longissimus, are deemed necessary for optimum tenderness, although poor relationships between fat content and tenderness have generally been found in European studies, where fat levels are often very low, e.g. below 10 g/kg in UK pigs. Muscle lipid may be a marker for red oxidative (type 1) muscle fibres which are found at higher concentrations in tender muscles and carcasses. Nutritional treatment can be used to manipulate the fatty acid content of muscle to improve nutritional balance, i.e. increase the polyunsaturated (PUFA): saturated fatty acid value and reduce the n-6:n-3 PUFA value. Increasing PUFA levels may also change flavour because of their greater susceptibility to oxidative breakdown and the generation of abnormal volatile compounds during cooking. This situation particularly applies to the n-3 PUFA which are the most unsaturated meat lipids. In pigs, a concentration of 3 mg alpha-linolenic acid (18:3)/100 mg in muscle and fat tissue fatty acids can easily be achieved by including whole linseed in the diet. This level has led to abnormal odours and flavours in some studies, but not in others. In cattle and sheep, feeding whole linseed raised 18:3 concentrations in muscle fatty acids from about 0.7 mg/100 mg to > 1 mg/100 mg. As with pigs, this diet also increased levels of long-chain n-3 PUFA formed from 18:3, including eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5). Although this increase led to greater oxidative breakdown of lipids during storage and the generation of large quantities of lipid-derived volatile compounds during cooking, there were no deleterious effects on odour or flavour. When 18:3 levels are raised in lamb and beef because of grass feeding, the intensity of the flavours increases in comparison with grain-fed animals which consume and deposit relatively more linoleic acid (18:2). In ruminants, very high levels of 18:2 produced by feeding protected oil supplements cause the cooked beef to be described as oily, bland or pork-like.
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The effects of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) on platelet aggregation and arachidonic acid metabolism were studied in comparison to those of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Collagen- or arachidonic acid-stimulated platelet aggregation was inhibited dose-dependently by n-3 fatty acids, among which DPA was the most potent inhibitor. These fatty acids inhibited U46619-induced aggregation but to almost the same extent. No effect of the acids on thrombin-induced aggregation was observed. Furthermore, these fatty acids suppressed thromboxane A2 formation by platelets which were exposed to collagen or thrombin, or by platelets to which arachidonic acid was added. In these experiments also, DPA was the most potent inhibitor, whereas DHA was the most effective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-1 activity. DPA enhanced formation of 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid in response to collagen or from arachidonic acid by intact platelets, while the other two acids had less of an effect. These results suggest that DPA possesses potent activity for interfering with the cyclooxygenase pathway and accelerating the lipoxygenase pathway, thus inhibiting platelet aggregation most effectively.
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Enhancing the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content of beef is important in view of the generally saturated nature of fatty acids in ruminant meats and the negative effect this can have on human health. This study examined the effects of different sources of dietary n-3 PUFA on the performance of steers and the fatty acid composition of m. longissimus thoracis muscle and associated subcutaneous adipose tissue. Animals were fed ad libitum on grass silage plus one of four concentrates (60:40 forage:concentrate on a DM basis) containing differing sources of lipid: Megalac (16:0), lightly bruised whole linseed (18:3n-3), fish oil (20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3) and a mixture of linseed and fish oil (1:1, on an oil basis). Diets were formulated so that total dietary oil intake was 6 %, approximately half of which was from the experimental test oil. Linseed feeding not only increased the levels of 18:3n-3 in muscle phospholipid from 9.5 to 19 mg/100 g muscle but also enhanced the synthesis of 20:5n-3, the level of which increased from 10 to 15 mg/100 g muscle. Linseed also increased the proportion of 18:3n-3 in muscle neutral lipid and in adipose tissue lipids by a factor of 1.64 and 1.75 respectively. Fish oil feeding doubled the proportion of 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 in muscle phospholipids. The proportion of 18:1 trans in muscle neutral lipid was higher on the n-3 PUFA diets than the control diet, 0.04 and 0.02 respectively. Despite the implied modification to rumen metabolism, lipid source did not affect feed intake, growth rate, cold carcass weight or carcass fatness, but carcass conformation score was higher on fish oil treatments (P < 0.05). However, total muscle fatty acid content was not different between treatments and ranged from 3.5-4.3 % of tissue weight. The increase in n-3 PUFA in the meat produced by feeding linseed or fish oil lowered the n-6:n-3 ratio but had little effect on the P:S ratio.
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Holstein (n = 19) and Jersey (n = 18) cows were used to study effects of two feeding systems on fatty acid composition of milk. Confinement cows were fed a total mixed ration with corn silage and alfalfa silage and pastured cows grazed a crabgrass (90%) and clover (10%) pasture and were allowed 5.5 kg of grain per head daily. Two milk samples were collected from each cow at morning and afternoon milkings 1 d each week for four consecutive weeks in June and July 1998. One set of milk samples was analyzed to determine fatty acid composition, and the second set was used for crude protein and total fat analyses. Data were analyzed by the general linear models procedure of SAS, using a split-plot model with breed, treatment, and breed x treatment as main effects and time of sampling and week as subplot effects along with appropriate interactions. Milk from pastured cows was higher than milk from confinement cows for the cis-9, trans-11 octadecadienoic acid isomer of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Also, milk from Holsteins was higher than milk from Jerseys for C16:1, C18:1, and CLA and lower than Jerseys for C6:0, C8:0, C10:0, C12:0, and C14:0. Several treatment x week interactions existed, but main effects were still important; for example, proportions of CLA in milk of grazed cows were relatively constant across weeks (0.66, 0.64, 0.64, and 0.69% +/- 0.02%, respectively), but the CLA in milk of confinement cows increased in wk 4 (0.35, 0.31, 0.31, and 0.48% +/- 0.02% for wk 1 to 4, respectively). There are potentially important differences in fatty acid composition of milk from cows consuming a warm season pasture species compared with milk from cows consuming a total mixed ration, as well as differences between Holstein and Jersey breeds.
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Four multiparous Holstein cows were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square experiment to study the effects of fat sources rich in omega-3 fatty acids on milk production and composition, follicular development, and prostaglandin secretion. All cows were fed a total mixed diet containing 60% grass silage and 40% concentrate. The four treatments were concentrates based either on Megalac, formaldehyde-treated whole linseed, a mixture (50:50, oil basis) of fish oil and formaldehyde-treated whole linseed, or no fat source in the concentrate but with 500 g per day of linseed oil being infused into the duodenum. Feed intakes and milk yield were similar among treatments. In general, the lowest digestibility was observed for the formaldehyde-treated whole linseed treatment. Feeding fish oil decreased milk fat and protein percentages. Alpha-linolenic acid increased from 1.0 to 13.9% of milk fatty acids with linseed oil infusion. This confirms the high potential to incorporate alpha-linolenic acid into milk, and suggests that the formaldehyde treatment had little effect to limit biohydrogenation in the rumen. Increasing the supply of alpha-linolenic acid to these cows did not result in an increase in the concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid in milk. Levels of 13,14-dihydro-15-keto-PGF2alpha in plasma were higher for cows receiving formaldehyde-treated linseed and fish oil. Increases in this metabolite in response to oxytocin challenge, tended to be lower for cows given linseed either as sole oil supplement in the diet or as a duodenal infusion of linseed oil. Follicle dynamics were similar among treatments. Larger corpora lutea (CL) were found with cows that received high levels of omega-3 fatty acids through the diet as formaldehyde-treated linseed or as a mixture of formaldehyde-treated linseed and fish oil, although CL were smaller when cows were infused with linseed oil into the duodenum. These results suggest that the improvement in gestation rate that was observed when feeding increased levels of alpha-linolenic acid in earlier work may partly result from lower levels of production of the dienoic prostaglandin PGF2alpha.
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Vaccenic acid (11-trans octadecenoic acid; VA), a major trans fatty acid in the fat of ruminants, is produced in the rumen and converted in tissues to rumenic acid (9-cis, 11-trans octadecenoic acid; RA), an isomer of conjugated linoleic acid, by Delta(9)-desaturase. There are indications that this conversion also occurs in humans. The aim of this controlled intervention was to study the conversion of VA to RA in humans after consumption of diets with increasing amounts of VA. Thirty healthy subjects consumed a baseline diet rich in oleic acid for 2 wk. The subjects were then divided into 3 groups (n = 10 per group) and provided a diet containing 1.5, 3.0, or 4.5 g VA/d for 9 d. All diets contained equal amounts of macronutrients and differed only in their fatty acid compositions. The fats were mixed into conventional foods, and nearly all food was provided during the study. The proportion of VA in serum total fatty acids increased 94%, 307%, and 620% above baseline with the 1.5-, 3.0-, and 4.5-g diets, respectively. This was associated with a linear increase in the proportion of RA. The conversion rate was 19% on average, with significant interindividual differences with all 3 intakes of VA. The urinary excretion of 8-iso-prostaglandin F(2alpha) increased in all groups (P < 0.001). The results quantify the desaturation of VA to RA in humans. Conversion is likely to contribute significantly to the amount of RA available to the body, and dietary intakes of VA should thus be taken into account when predicting RA status.
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Four fistulated primiparous cows (two Holstein and two Brown Swiss) averaging 102 DIM were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square with 3-wk periods to determine the effect of feeding fish oil, extruded soybeans, or their combination on fatty acid profiles of milk and rumen digesta. Experimental diets consisted of: 1) control diet; 2) a diet with 2% (DM basis) added fat from menhaden fish oil; 3) a diet with 2% added fat from extruded soybeans; and 4) a diet with 1% added fat from fish oil and 1% fat from extruded soybeans. All diets consisted of 25% corn silage, 25% alfalfa hay, and 50% concentrate. Milk yields (28.6, 29.7, 29.2, and 28.1 kg/d for control, fish oil, extruded soybeans, and combination diets, respectively) were similar for all fat supplements and control. Milk fat and protein percentages (3.49, 3.08; 3.25, 2.96; 3.47, 3.01; 3.48, 2.99 for diets 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively) were not affected by fat supplements compared with control. Dry matter intake (23.0, 21.6, 22.7, and 21.6 kg/d) was reduced when diets containing fish oil were fed. Concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid [CLA; cis-9, trans-11 CLA, 0.40, 0.88, 0.87, and 0.80 g/100 g fatty acids (FA)] and transvaccenic acid (TVA, 1.02, 2.34, 2.41, and 2.06 g/100 g of FA) were increased in milk fat by all fat supplements, with no differences in milk CLA and TVA observed among fat supplements. As with milk fat, proportions of ruminal CLA (0.09, 0.26, 0.18, and 0.21 g/100 g of FA) and TVA (2.61, 4.56, 4.61, and 4.39 g/100 g of FA) increased with fat supplements. The effects of fat supplements on ruminal TVA and CLA concentrations were also reflected in rumen FA-salts, free fatty acids, and neutral lipids. The higher TVA to CLA ratio in the rumen compared with milk indicated that fat supplements increased milk CLA concentration mainly by increasing ruminal production of TVA, which also implied the significant role that mammary delta-9 desaturase plays in milk CLA concentrations.
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Seventy-two 8-week-old ram lambs from three breeds, Suffolk, Soay and Friesland, were offered one of four diets based on dried grass and formulated to have a similar fatty acid content (60 g/kg DM) and containing: Megalac (high in 16 : 0, control; Volac Ltd, Royston, Herts., UK), whole linseed (18 : 3n-3), fish oil (20 : 5n-3 and 22 : 6n-3) or whole linseed plus fish oil. The lambs were slaughtered at approximately half of their mature live weight (43, 21 and 43 kg for Suffolk, Soay and Friesland lambs, respectively). Fish oil reduced DM intake and lamb live-weight gain (P<0.001), while DM intake, live-weight gain and subcutaneous fat content were highest in Suffolk and lowest in Soay lambs. Linseed feeding doubled the proportion (x100) of 18 : 3n-3 in the longissimus dorsi from 1.4 to 3.1 and in the subcutaneous adipose tissue from 1.2 to 2.6 (P<0.001). Suffolk and particularly Soay lambs contained higher proportions of 18 : 3n-3 than Friesland lambs in the longissimus dorsi, while in the adipose tissue, Suffolk lambs had the highest level. Feeding fish oil increased the muscle proportion (x100) of 20 : 5n-3 from 0.7 to 2.3 and 22 : 6n-3 from 0.3 to 0.8 (P<0.001). By contrast, the proportions of the longer-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were similar across all three breeds. All three lipid supplements containing n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids increased the content of muscle trans-18 : 1 relative to the control values, but conjugated linoleic acid (cis-9,trans-11-18 : 2) only increased in the muscle of lambs fed linseed. Feeding linseed or fish oil lowered the n-6 : n-3 ratio in sheep meat, but neither diet nor breed had much effect on the polyunsaturated fatty acid: saturated fatty acid ratio.
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Scientific interest in conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) started in 1987 when Michael Pariza's team of Wisconsin University observed its inhibitory effects on chemically induced skin tumors in mice. Numerous studies have since examined CLA's role in cancer, immune function, oxidative stress, atherosclerosis, lipid and fatty acids metabolism, bone formation and composition, obesity, and diabetes. Still it's not clear yet either through which mechanisms CLA produces its numerous metabolic effects. We now know that CLA contents in cow milk fat can be enriched through dry fractionation, but this knowledge doesn't allow sufficient certainty to qualify this nutrient, as a functional food, capable of increasing well being and reducing the risk of disease.
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Fats in the diet can influence reproduction positively by altering both ovarian follicle and corpus luteum function via improved energy status and by increasing precursors for the synthesis of reproductive hormones such as steroids and prostaglandins. Dietary fatty acids of the n-3 family reduce ovarian and endometrial synthesis of prostaglandin F2alpha, decrease ovulation rate in rats and delay parturition in sheep and humans. Polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic, linolenic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids may inhibit prostaglandin F2alpha synthesis through mechanisms such as decreased availability of its precursor arachidonic acid, an increased competition by these fatty acids with arachidonic acid for binding to prostaglandin H synthase, and inhibition of prostaglandin H synthase synthesis and activity. It is not known whether polyunsaturated fatty acids regulate expression of candidate genes such as phospholipase A2 and prostaglandin H synthase via activation of nuclear transcription factors such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Manipulation of the fatty acid profile of the diet can be used potentially to amplify suppression of uterine synthesis of prostaglandin F2alpha during early pregnancy in cattle, which may contribute to a reduction in embryonic mortality. Feeding fats and targeting of fatty acids to reproductive tissues may be a potential strategy to integrate nutrition and reproductive management to improve animal productivity.
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Food products from ruminants are the major dietary source of conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) for humans. The uniqueness of CLA in ruminant fat relates to the biohydrogenation of dietary unsaturated fatty acids by rumen bacteria. The CLA are inter- mediates in the biohydrogenation, and a portion escape the rumen and are incorporated into milk fat and body fat. In addition, the animal itself synthesizes cis-9, trans-11 CLA from trans-11 octadecenoic acid, another intermediate in ruminal biohydroge- nation that is absorbed. This involves ∆9-desaturase, which is present in mammary tissue (lactation) and adipose tissue (growth). Investigations to alter the content of CLA have typically involved lactating cows (milk fat); fewer data from growing cattle (body fat) are available. Dietary factors that alter the content of CLA because of effects on the rumen biohydrogenation processes in- clude unsaturated fatty acid substrates and altered rumen environment. The cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer is the major isomer found in ruminant fat; this isomer typically represents 80 to 90% of the total CLA in milk fat, but its proportion in beef fat is less. Under certain dietary conditions the proportion of the trans-10, cis-12 CLA isomer increases. Thus, dietary factors also alter the direction of the biohydrogenation pathways in the rumen. The CLA possess anticarcinogenic effects, which relates to the cis-9, trans-11 CLA isomer, as evident from results with mammary tumors in a rat model. Lipid accretion and nutrient partitioning are also altered by CLA in several species. Recent work demonstrates that this relates primarily to the trans-10, cis-12 CLA isomer, as evident by effects on milk fat synthesis in lactating cows and body fat accretion in growing mice. Overall, consideration of functional foods containing CLA represents an exciting area of potential importance in producing food products derived from ruminants.
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This review deals with the quantitative and qualitative changes in fatty acids (FA) throughout the total digestive tract of ruminants. Special attention is paid to the causes of variation in the extent to which different mechanisms contribute to the ruminal metabolism and intestinal digestion of FA. Most results obtained with diets not supplemented with lipids show that the FA flow leaving the rumen is higher than FA intake. This is due to bacterial synthesis of FA in the rumen. With diets supplemented with lipids, the FA balance at the end of the rumen is often negative. The cause of this apparent disappearance of FA is not known. In the rumen, lipids are first hydrolysed to a very large extent; then unsaturated FA are hydrogenated. Hydrogenation is almost complete for linolenic acid, and amounts to between 60 and 95% for linoleic acid. This proportion decreases when the level of concentrates increases in the diet. Digestibility of FA in the small intestine ranges from 70 to 90% and is not related to the level of FA intake. Contrary to the situation in monogastric animals, there are only moderate differences in the digestibility of individual FA. It appears to be higher for palmitic and stearic acids than for other saturated FA, and for oleic and linoleic acids than for stearic and linolenic acids. In the large intestine, there is synthesis of FA which are probably not absorbed.
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In a previous study we showed that feeding fish meal significantly increased muscle long chain n−3 fatty acids (FA) and hot carcass weight. In this study we compared the effect of fish meal and fish oil on increasing muscle long-chain FA. We also investi- gated whether the increase in carcass weight was due to the effect of dietary enrichment of muscle long-chain n−3 FA on muscle membrane phospholipids and(or) to rumen by-pass protein provided by fish meal. Forty crossbred ((Merino × Border Leicester) × Poll Dorset) wether lambs between 26 and 33 kg BW were randomly assigned to one of five treatments: 1) basal diet of oaten:lucerne chaff (Basal); 2) Basal + fish meal (9% DM) = FM; 3) Basal + fish oil (1.5% DM) with protected sunflower meal (9% DM ) = FOSMP; 4) Basal + fish oil (1.5% DM) = FO; or 5) Basal + protected sunflower meal (10.5% DM) = SMP. Daily intake of ME (9.60 − 10.5 MJ ME/d) and CP (150 to 168 g/d) in all treatments was kept similar by varying the ratio of oaten:lucerne chaff and by feeding the animals at 90% ad libitum intake. Blood samples were collected at the start of the experi- ment and on the day (d 42) prior to slaughter. Lambs were then slaughtered at a commercial abattoir. At 24 h postmortem carcass traits were measured and longis- 2 The authors are grateful to A. Thalan for technical assistance in simus thoracis muscle taken for analysis of FA of phos- pholipid and triglyceride fractions. Lambs fed FO and FOSMP showed a marked increase in muscle long- chain n− 3F A (P < 0.001) and a reduction in magnitude of the rise in insulin concentration (P < 0.001) after feeding compared with lambs fed Basal and SMP diets. Lambs in FM had a moderate increase (P < 0.001) in muscle long-chain n−3 FA content. Compared with Basal diet, both plasma total cholesterol (P < 0.02) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (P < 0.001) levels were greater in SMP and less in FO and FOSMP treat- ments. The i.m. fat content was reduced (P < 0.05) in FM and FO treatments, but carcass weight was in- creased only with fish meal (P < 0.03). Adding SMP to FO produced muscle with an intermediate level of i.m. fat, whereas muscle long-chain n−3 FA, i.m. fat, and insulin concentration were unchanged with SMP treat- ment. These results indicate that an increase in carcass weight in FM may be due to the supply of ruminally undegraded protein. They also suggest that fish oil along with fish meal can increase long-chain n− 3F A content in phospholipid of muscle membrane. This may be associated with reduced i.m. fat content and altered insulin action and lipoprotein metabolism.
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The effects of dietary manipulation of muscle long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (FA) on sensory properties of cooked meat in second cross ([Merino×Border Leicester]×Poll Dorset) wether lambs were evaluated. Lambs fed dietary supplements of fish meal (FM, Exp. 1) and fish oil (FO, Exp. 2) showed moderately (P<0.01) and markedly (P<0.001) increased muscle long-chain omega-3 FA content compared with those fed the basal diet of lucerne chaff and oat chaff. Protected canola seed (PCS, Exp. 1) significantly (P<0.001) increased omega-6 FA content of the longissimus muscle. In each of the 2 experiments (1 and 2), after being fed experimental diets for 6 weeks lambs were slaughtered at a commercial abattoir. At 24 h post-mortem (PM) the semitendinosus and biceps femoris muscles were removed from animals and stored at -20°C until evaluation of sensory properties using experienced panel members. The muscle samples were stored for 3 (Exp. 1) and 12 (Exp. 2) months then removed, thawed and cooked for sensory evaluation. The meat samples were cooked under standardized conditions in a convection microwave at 180°C (20-25 min) to an internal temperature of 75°C. Cooked samples were tested for flavour, aroma, juiciness and overall palatability. The significant increase in muscle long-chain omega-3 with FM (Exp. 1 and 2) and FO (Exp. 2) or omega-6 FA with PCS (Exp. 1) were not detrimental to sensory panel evaluations of flavour or aroma of cooked meat when compared with the basal diet. However, meat from FM (Exp. 1) had lower juiciness and FO (Exp. 2) had lower overall palatability. Protected sunflower meal protein with FO (Exp. 2) significantly lowered ratings for flavour, juiciness and overall palatability. Lamb meat with increased levels of long-chain omega-3 FA can be produced without altering the sensory quality (flavour or aroma) of the cooked meat.
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Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of grass cultivar and regrowth stage on the fatty acid (FA) profile in fresh and ensiled perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). The Experiment 1 compared the composition of fresh grass with that of pre-wilted ensiled material of six cultivars, harvested after 25 days of regrowth at a dry matter (DM) yield of approximately 2000kg DMha−1. The Experiment 2 compared fresh and ensiled grass of two cultivars, harvested after 23 and 33 days of regrowth. There were genetic differences in fatty acid profiles in fresh grass, but the physiological basis of these differences was not clear as management, growth conditions and leaf blade proportion were similar among cultivars. The concentrations of most FA declined with increasing regrowth stage. In fresh grass, 98% of the fat was present as esterified fatty acids (EFAs) but in silages, 27–73% of the total FA consisted of free fatty acids (FFAs). The largest changes in FA contents took place in the EFA. In pre-wilted ensiled grass, the contents of most FA were lower than in fresh grass, especially of C18:1 and C18:3.
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The hypothesis that a high-fat diet promotes the development of postmenopausal breast cancer is supported by international data showing a strong correlation between fat intake and breast cancer rates and a modest positive association with high-fat diet in case-control studies. Dietary fat intake was found to be unrelated to the risk of breast cancer in cohort studies. In view of these conflicting findings it has been difficult to make nutritional recommendations for the prevention of breast cancer. Studies in animal models and recent observations in humans, however, have provided evidence that a high intake of ω-polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), stimulates several stages in the development of mammary and colon cancer, from an increase in oxidative DNA damage to effects on cell proliferation, free estrogen levels to hormonal catabolism. In contrast, fish oil-derived ω-3 fatty acids seem to prevent cancer by influencing the activity of enzymes and proteins related to intracellular signalling and, ultimately, cell proliferation. In this commentary, current evidence from experimental and human studies is summarized that implicates a high intake of ω-6 PUFAs in cancer of the breast, colon and, possibly, prostate and which indicates that ω-3 PUFAs and monounsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid (ω-9) are protective. Plausible mechanisms for modulation of steps in the multistage carcinogenesis process by fats are discussed. Properly designed epidemiological studies are now needed, that integrate relevant biomarkers to unravel the contributions of different types of fat, their interactions with hormonal catabolism, protective nutritional factors and human cancer risk.
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Study Objective: to determine the efficacy of fish-oil dietary supplements in active rheumatoid arthritis and their effect on neutrophil leukotriene levels. Design: nonrandomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover trial with 14-week treatment periods and 4-week washout periods. Setting: academic medical center, referral-based rheumatology clinic. Patients: forty volunteers with active, definite, or classical rheumatoid arthritis. Five patients dropped out, and two were removed for noncompliance. Interventions: treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, slow-acting antirheumatic drugs, and prednisone was continued. Twenty-one patients began with a daily dosage of 2.7 g of eicosapaentanic acid and 1.8 g of docosahexenoic acid given in 15 MAX-EPA capsules (R.P. Scherer, Clearwater, Florida), and 19 began with identical-appearing placebos. The background diet was unchanged. Measurements and Main Results: the following results favored fish oil placebo after 14 weeks: mean time to onset of fatigue improved by 156 minutes (95% confidence interval, 1.2 to 311.0 minutes), and number of tender joints decreased by 3.5 (95% Cl, -6.0 to -1.0). Other clinical measures favored fish oil as well but did reach statistical significance. Neutrophil leukotriene B4 production was correlated with the decrease in number of tender joints (Spearman rank correlation r=0.53; p less than 0.05). There were no statistically significant differences in hemoglobin level, sedimentation rate, or presence of rheumatoid factor or in patient-reported adverse effects. An effect from the fish oil persisted beyond the 4-week washout period. Conclusions: fish-oil ingestion results in subjective alleviation of active rheumatoid arthritis and reduction in neutrophil leukotriene B4 production. Further studies are needed to elucidate mechanisms of action and optimal dose and duration of fish-oil supplementation.
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Incubation of Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens with linoleic acid produced a conjugated dienoic acid which was identified as cis-9,trans-11-octadecadienoic acid. When linolenic acid (Δ9,12,15) was used as substrate, it also was isomerized to a conjugated acid which was tentatively identified as cis-9,trans-11,cis-15-octadecatrienoic acid. Subsequent hydrogenation of this conjugated trienoic acid produced a nonconjugated cis,trans-dienoic acid but no monoenoic acid. Incubation of whole bacteria with linoleic acid in D2O produced cis-9,trans-11-octadecadienoic acid which contained a single deuterium atom at C-13. A spectrophotometric assay was developed for the presence of linoleate Δ12-cis,Δ11-trans-isomerase, an enzyme localized in the cell envelope. The enzyme did not require the addition of nucleotide cofactors or the presence of a hydrogen atmosphere. The Km for linoleic acid was 1.2 x 10-5 m, and for linolenic acid it was 2.3 x 10-5 m. The average equilibrium constant for the isomerization of linoleic acid was 61 when measured from the forward and reverse directions.
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Diets rich in meat are claimed to contribute to the high tissue arachidonic acid (20:4 omega 6) content in people in Westernized societies, but there are very few direct data to substantiate this assertion. Because meat contains a variety of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) that are susceptible to oxidation, we initially examined the effect of cooking on the long-chain PUFA content of beef, and then determined the effect of ingestion of lean beef on the concentration of long-chain PUFA in plasma phospholipids (PL). First, we examined the effect of grilling (5-15 min) and frying (10 min) different cuts of fat-trimmed lean beef on the long-chain PUFA content. Second, we investigated the effect of including 500 g lean beef daily (raw weight) for 4 wk on the fatty acid content and composition of plasma PL in 33 healthy volunteers. This study was part of a larger trial investigating the effect of lean beef on plasma cholesterol levels. In the first two weeks, the subjects ate a very low-fat diet (10% energy) followed by an increase in the dietary fat by 10% each week for the next 2 wk. The added fat consisted of beef fat, or olive oil (as the oil or a margarine) or safflower oil (as the oil or a margarine). This quantity of beef provided 60, 230, 125, 140 and 20 mg/d, respectively, of eicosatrienoic acid (20:3 omega 6), 20:4 omega 6, eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5 omega 3), docosapentaenoic acid (22:5 omega 3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 omega 3).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a very-low-fat diet with a low-fat diet supplemented with monounsaturated oil on plasma lipid levels in subjects with hypercholesterolemia. The 8-week study was divided into one 2-week baseline diet and two 3-week intervention periods in a randomized crossover design. The study was conducted in an outpatient setting at the Deakin Institute of Human Nutrition, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia. Twenty-four free-living subjects with hypercholesterolemia participated in and completed the study. After a 2-week baseline period of a self-selected diet, subjects were assigned to one of two dietary interventions: a very-low-fat (10% of energy from fat), high-carbohydrate diet or a low-fat (26% of energy from fat) diet supplemented with olive oil and an olive oil-based margarine. Lipid measurements included total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglyceride concentrations. Plasma cholesteryl esters were measured to monitor compliance. A paired t test was used to assess differences between treatment periods for each subject. The dependence of the difference between treatment periods on the covariates of age, sex, initial cholesterol concentration, and energy intake was analyzed using repeated measures and analysis of covariance. The low-fat diet supplemented with monounsaturated fat resulted in significantly less high-density lipoprotein cholesterol lowering than the very-low-fat diet (P=.005). Both interventions resulted in significant reductions in both low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and total cholesterol compared with the baseline diet. This study suggests that a low-fat diet enriched with olive oil provides advantages over a very-low-fat diet in the control of serum lipoproteins among persons with hypercholesterolemia.
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Dietary fat is an essential macronutrient in the diet of all animals. It provides a source of energy and hydrophobic components for biomolecule synthesis. Fatty acids also are used for the synthesis of signaling molecules like steroids and prostanoids as well as being covalently linked to specific proteins.1,2 In addition to these well established roles, recent studies indicate that fatty acids have pronounced effects on gene expression leading to changes in metabolism, cell growth and differentiation.3–22 While many of these effects are beneficial to human health, dietary fat appears to become a problem when humans or animals ingest high fat diets and/or diets that are disproportionately enriched in saturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids. Numerous epidemiologic, clinical and animal studies have studied the link of dietary fat to the onset and progression of chronic diseases like breast, colon and prostate cancer, coronary heart disease, insulin resistance, hypertension and obesity.23–40 How these diets contribute to disease is unclear. In our view, the recent advances defining the cellular and molecular basis of dietary fat action are likely to provide important clues to explain how fats alter cell function and lead to chronic disease. In this presentation, we will first briefly discuss the diverse effects of fatty acids on cell function and then focus on dietary fat regulation of gene transcription.